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Yuan-Dynastian Kiina Lähetyskenttänä 1271–1370

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Yuan-Dynastian Kiina Lähetyskenttänä 1271–1370 Läntisen kirkon kaukainen mahdollisuus ja haaste - Yuan-dynastian Kiina lähetyskenttänä 1271–1370 Henrik Lampikoski Yleisen kirkkohistorian pro gradu -tutkielma Elokuu 2012 Sisällys Kronologia ........................................................................................................... 1 1.Johdanto ........................................................................................................... 2 1.1. Tutkimustehtävä ........................................................................................ 2 1.2. Lähteet ...................................................................................................... 7 1.3. Aiempi tutkimus ...................................................................................... 14 1.4. Läntisen kirkon keskiajan Kiinan-lähetystyön tausta ................................ 16 2. Läntisen kirkon vastaus Khubilai-kaanin kutsuun (1271–1294) ...................... 25 2.1. Suurkaani ottaa yhteyttä paaviin .............................................................. 25 2.2. Itäisten kristittyjen Euroopan-vierailut herättävät kirkon kiinnostuksen ... 34 2.3. Johannes Montecorvinolainen matkustaa Kiinan keisarin hoviin .............. 42 3. Johannes Montecorvinolainen itäisten kristittyjen keskuudessa (1294–1306) .. 47 3.1. Öngüt-ruhtinas Körgüz omaksuu läntisen kristinuskon ............................ 47 3.2. Epämiellyttävä yllätys – Nestoriolaiset kääntyvät lähetystyötä vastaan .... 54 3.3. Kiinan ortodoksit etsivät turvaa läntisestä kirkosta................................... 62 4. Kohti täysvaltaista Kiinan kristillistämistä (1307–1370) ................................. 65 4.1. Kirjeet Kiinasta saapuvat paavin luo ........................................................ 65 4.2. Kiinan kirkkoprovinssi aloittaa työnsä ..................................................... 72 4.3. Alaanien kirje ja Johannes Marignollilaisen matka enteilevät lähetystyön laantumista ..................................................................................................... 81 5. Johtopäätökset ................................................................................................ 89 5.1. Keskustelu aiemman tutkimuksen kanssa ................................................ 89 5.2. Johtopäätökset ......................................................................................... 93 5.3. Uusia tutkimuksen aiheita ........................................................................ 99 Liitteet ............................................................................................................. 101 Lähteet ja kirjallisuus ....................................................................................... 104 Lähteet ......................................................................................................... 104 Kirjallisuus ................................................................................................... 110 Henkilöhakemisto ............................................................................................ 117 Kronologia 1269 Niccolò ja Matteo Polo palaavat ensimmäiseltä Itä-Aasian mat- kaltaan. He kertovat Khubilai-kaanin pyytäneen paavilta sataa lähetystyöntekijää Mongoliaan ja Kiinaan. 1271 Polot lähtevät paluumatkalle Kiinaan Marco Polo ja kaksi paavi Gregorius X:n lähettämää dominikaaniveljeä mukanaan. Dominikaanit keskeyttävät matkan, mutta Polot pääsevät perille. 1271 Khubilai perustaa mongolien kiinalaistyyppisen Yuan-dynastian. 1278 Paavi Nicolaus III lähettää viisi fransiskaania Kiinaan, mutta ryhmä ei pääse perille. 1285 Khubilain lähetti, nestoriolainen Isa Kelemechi, käy Euroopassa. 1287–1288 Kiinasta tullut nestoriolaismunkki Rabban Sauma käy tapaamassa läntisen kirkon johtoa sekä Ranskan ja Englannin kuninkaita. 1289 Paavi Nicolaus IV lähettää fransiskaani Johannes Montecorvinolaisen kohti Kiinaa. 1294 Khubilai kuolee, hänen pojanpoikansa Temür (keisari Chengzong) nousee valtaistuimelle. 1294 Johannes Montecorvinolainen saapuu Daduun (Pekingiin). 1294–1298 Öngüt-heimon ruhtinas Körgüz tukee läntistä lähetystyötä. 1307 Paavi Clemens V lähettää seitsemän fransiskaanipiispaa apulaisineen Kiinaan tukemaan Johannes Montecorvinolaista. 1313 Kolme paavin lähettämistä piispoista saapuu Kiinaan ja vihkii Johanneksen arkkipiispaksi. 1328 Johannes Montecorvinolainen kuolee. 1332 Andreas Perugialainen, viimeinen elossa oleva fransiskaanipiispa Kiinassa, kuolee. 1336 Kiinan kristityt alaaniruhtinaat ja keisari Huizong lähettävät lähetystön Roomaan pyytääkseen uusia lähetyssaarnaajia. 1338–1353 Paavin lähettiläs Johannes Marignollilainen matkustaa Aasiassa. 1368 Viimeinen Yuan-keisari pakenee Kiinasta. Kiinalainen Ming- dynastia perustetaan. 1370 Keskiajan viimeinen läntinen Kiinan-lähetystö lähtee matkaan. 1 1.Johdanto 1.1. Tutkimustehtävä Eurooppalaisten löydettyä meritien Aasiaan 1400-luvun lopulla lähetyssaarnaajien kulku Kiinan lähetyskentälle helpottui huomattavasti. Matteo Riccin (1552–1610) jesuiitat eivät kuitenkaan olleet ensimmäiset eurooppalaiset lähetyssaarnaajat Kii- nassa, sillä jo vuonna 1294 fransiskaani Johannes Montecorvinolainen (k. 1328) oli tuonut läntisen kirkon sinne. Tämä tutkielma käsittelee keskiajan Kiinan- lähetystyötä, joka Yuan-dynastian1 aikana johti jopa kymmeniä tuhansia kristittyjä käsittävän kirkkoprovinssin 2 muodostumiseen sekä ensimmäisiin virallisiin Eu- roopan ja Kiinan välisiin diplomaattisiin suhteisiin. Keskiajan lähetystyön saavutuksista huolimatta Matteo Ricci ei tiennyt 1300-luvun fransiskaanilähetyksestä, vaan ainoastaan Kiinan keskiaikaisesta nes- toriolaisuudesta, jonka Marco Polo oli maininnut tunnetussa, mutta fransiskaanien lähetystyötä edeltävästä ajasta kertovassa Maailmankuvauksessaan. 3 Nestorio- laisten lisäksi Kiinassa oli itse asiassa ollut sekä läntisen kirkon alueelta tulleita kauppiaita että Itä-Euroopasta ja Lähi-idästä tulleita ortodokseja, jotka olivat Yuan-kaudella ollet fransiskaanien seuraajia. Ensinäkymältä voi vaikuttaa yllättä- vältä, että uuden ajan alun jesuiitat olivat epätietoisia läntisen kirkon aikaisem- masta yrityksestä tehdä lähetystyötä Kiinassa. Tämä on kuitenkin ymmärrettävää, sillä lähes kaikki lähetystyön tuottamat lähteet olivat kadonneet unohduksiin Eu- roopassa. Irlantilainen fransiskaani ja historioitsija Luke Wadding (1588–1657) löysi keskiajan lähetyssaarnaajien kirjoittamien kirjeiden ja paavien bullien koko- elman tutkiessaan fransiskaanien historiaa. Tämä käsikirjoituskokonaisuus, Parii- sin Bibliothèque nationale’in kokoelmien ”MS latin 5006”, oli koottu 1300-luvun alussa. 4 Lähetystyön jälkipuoliskon päälähde, paavillisen Kiinan-lähettilään Jo- hannes Marignollilaisen5 kertomus vuosina 1338–1353 tehdystä Aasian-matkasta, nousi historioitsijoiden tietoisuuteen vasta vuonna 1768.6 Ennen näitä arkistolöy- 1 Pohjois-Kiinaa hallitseva Tšingis-kaanin pojanpoika Khubilai perusti kiinalaisten neuvonantajiensa neuvoa noudattaen vuonna 1271 kiinalaistyyppisen dynastian nimeltä Yuan ܗ, joka kiinaksi tarkoittaa ”alkua” tai ”alkuperää”. (Mote 1994, 616.) 2 Kirkkoprovinssilla tarkoitetaan useamman hiippakunnan kokonaisuutta, jolla on laaja hallinnolli- nen autonomia, mutta pysyy muun kirkon yhteydessä. 3 Standaert 2001, 62. 4 Moule 1930, 166. 5 Monien tutkielmassa esiintyvien henkilöiden, kuten Vilhelm Rubrukin ja Johannes Marignollilai- sen, syntymä- ja kuolinvuodet ovat tuntemattomia, mistä syystä en aina mainitse niitä. 6 de Rachewiltz 1971, 201. 2 töjä keskiajan Kiinan-lähetystyön saattoi siis tuntea vain Odoric Pordenonelaisen (1286–1331) huomattavasti enemmän levinneen matkakertomuksen pohjalta. Lähteiden vähyys ja ennen muuta niiden pieni levikki on tehnyt keskiajan Kiinan-lähetyksen erittäin vähän huomioiduksi, mutta siten myös kirkkohistorian tutkimukselle erittäin mielenkiintoiseksi aiheeksi. Keskiajan fransiskaanilähetys Kiinaan edelsi 1400- ja 1500-luvun tutkimusmatkoja ja on kuvaava esimerkki pit- kästä retkestä kaukaisille maille, joissa Aasiasta erittäin vähän tienneet eurooppa- laiset kohtasivat tuntemattomia, mutta mahtavia hallitsijoita, nestoriolaisia heimo- ja, kiinalaista väenpaljoutta ja eksoottisia uskontoja. Tämänkaltainen lähetystyö oli läntisen kirkon historiassa ennennäkemätöntä, sillä aikaisemmin kirkko oli le- vittänyt uskoaan vain Euroopan sisällä ja sen lähialueilla. Tähän asti välimatkat olivat olleet lyhyet ja poliittiset yhteydet vilkkaita, mutta nyt lähetyssaarnaajien oli lähdettävä täysin tuntemattomiin maihin. Keskiajan Kiinan-lähetystyön histo- ria voi auttaa ymmärtämään Euroopan ja mongolien hallitseman Itä-Aasian kans- sakäymistä, joka muodostaa lähetystyön laajemman kontekstin ja samalla näiden kontaktien innoittamien eurooppalaisten tutkimusmatkojen taustan.7 On tosiasia, että kristinusko, läntistä uskoa levinneempi nestoriolaisuus mu- kaan lukien, katosi Kiinasta 1300-luvulla. Koska lähteitä katoamisesta ei ole säily- nyt, tutkimuksessa on ollut taipumus selittää tämä kehitys ulkoisilla tekijöillä. Kristinuskon (ja tämän myötä Kiinan-lähetystyön) katoaminen 1300-luvun Aasiasta on selitetty Yuan-dynastian kukistumista seuranneilla ulkomaisten kristittyjen karkotuksilla, 8 Aasian kauppareittien uudelleen sulkeutumisella 9 tai mendikanttien määrää vähentäneellä mustalla surmalla sekä kirkkoa samaan aikaan jakaneella suurella skismalla, 10 mutta näistä selityksistä jokaisessa on puutteita. Yuan-dynastian kaaduttua uudet Ming-hallitsijat assimiloivat ulkomaalaiset pakottamalla heidät avioliittoihin kiinalaisten kanssa, ja loppujen lopuksi kristinusko katosi ilman varsinaista
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