URBAN DESIGN FOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

CASE STUDY: DIEPSLOOT, JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA. PUBLIC SPACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Mark Lindsay Tyrrell

URBAN DESIGN FOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

CASE STUDY: DIEPSLOOT, JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA. PUBLIC SPACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE

c 2008 Mark Lindsay Tyrrell iii

‘Consider the informal city: one billion people live in slums; the modern city is in crisis; the population will double by 2020; only the present matters.’ (Brillembourg et al. 2005) iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The overall proposition of this project will be the ultimate aim of the whole of community consultation but without is that urban design can set up the process. ongoing input in the process. This vision is parameters for successful capacity not however regarded as the fi nal design Smaller projects will then form the basis of development in developing countries solution. further community, NGO and governmental through the process and product of a development partnerships, be phased over The appendix component of this document, locally and government owned urban time and acted upon. Community capacity outside its basis as a design exploration design vision or physical development and community cohesion will be built is a proposed outline of where the project framework. This vision is seen as an through the local management of the urban will lead when returned to Johannesburg. agreed direction for improvement that is design process and vision, programme The idea of producing a design framework born from specifi c realities of the site rather formulation, development planning in isolation is that it becomes a cohesive than a top down solution or element of and implementation, and evaluation and strong direction that can instigate external aid for a specifi c problem. This and maintenance of the progressive discussion and activity at community and theoretical exploration and method is to development operations. governmental level. The vision will be be put into practice through a pilot project. presented to government and community This project will develop an urban design This document is to be understood as and if government support is obtained framework for the township of Diepsloot, having two major components and an will be followed by design workshops Johannesburg. appendix. The fi rst component seeks a that try to reconfi gure the vision into working method suited to this project. The basis for the pilot project has been realisable, locally owned smaller projects. It outlines the contexts within which the founded from site based research and The appendix also sets out the steps that pilot project is taking place. These are the community consultation undertaken in will be taken to move the design vision theoretical and historical dimensions of 2007. This information has then been back into community and government capacity development and of city design taken off site and explored through this ownership. The appendix also proposes as a development tool. These explorations document. An urban design vision is evaluation methods for this project based of theoretical context will result in some proposed here that has evolved through on those used by the United Nations, of their elements being combined into a a process of examining the ‘informal’ World Bank and NGOs for capacity working method for the pilot design project layers of the township and how they work development projects. and for its restructuring once returned to with or against its ‘formal’ layers. The South Africa. This is an experimental document. It design exploration makes proposals for attempts to develop the possibilities of interventions that can become part of The second part is the urban design the practice of urban design for capacity an open discussion and design process exploration itself. This component relies development in the developing world. involving community, government on community consultation undertaken in and internal and external experts in 2007 and on the analytical tools of urban Johannesburg in mid 2008. design. It is also a visionary exercise, imagining the possibilities of what could In this phase, the urban design vision be. The pilot project is an opportunity will be challenged and reworked by to draw together ideas into a physical government and community. The design proposal and revised development reconfi guration of these proposals into a vision for the township of Diepsloot. It is new physical design vision agreed upon to be understood that this is a designer and owned by community and government led component, completed on the basis v

Tyrrell 2007 vi

CONTENTS

PART ONE. THEORETICAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS OF THE PILOT PROJECT 1 01. The United Nations Millennium Development Goals and defi ning an informal settlement 2 02. Combining two emerging practices: Re-thinking urban design as a capacity building tool for developing countries 4

PART TWO. THE URBAN DESIGN PILOT PROJECT 12 03. Introducing Johannesburg 13 04. Introducing Diepsloot 18 05. Xenephobic violence of 2008 19 06. Pilot project urban design methodology 20 07. The current housing situation and the ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ responses to Diepsloot’s housing crisis. 22 08. How the formal housing typology, the RDP house is overlaid by the ‘informal’ urbanism and what this may suggest 26 09. Building community capacity through public open space rather than individual capacity through housing delivery 28 10. Reversing negative sense of place in Diepsloot 32 11. Connectivity: Connections between sides, connections between ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ layers 35 12. Water management and environmental identity 40 13. Urban agriculture 50 14. Sites for civic buildings, retail and new residential models 56 15. ‘The Urban Design Vision’ 58 16. Why should the government support ‘The Urban Design Vision’ 60 17. Development phasing 61

APPENDIX. A PROPOSAL FOR MOVING THE VISION FORWARD 63 18. Capacity development 64 19. Moving forward with the proposal. Some steps to shift from design vision to a development tool 66 20. Framework for ongoing evaluation 68 21 References 70 vii

Tyrrell 2007 1

PART ONE

THEORETICAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS OF THE PILOT PROJECT 2 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

1.THE UNITED NATIONS MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND DEFINING AN INFORMAL SETTLEMENT

In 1999, the World Bank and United Informal settlements have been recognised Nations Habitat embarked on a joint as components of the urban landscape initiative ‘Cities Without Slums’. This in most developing countries for the last emerged from their jointly funded ‘Cities fi fty years. ‘Where development has been Alliance.’ The Cities Alliance defi ned uneven often because of large scale slums as follows: ‘Neglected parts of cities displacement or war, informal settlements where housing and living conditions are have overtaken formal. This has resulted appallingly poor. Slums range from high in a majority of sub-Saharan African urban density, squalid central-city tenements to population living in informal settlements’ spontaneous squatter settlements without (UN-Habitat 2005). In many cases so legal recognition or rights, sprawling at called ‘informal’ settlements lie alongside the edge of cities’ (UN-Habitat 2005). and often within ‘formal’ settlement One year later, the United Nations patterns. In the case of South Africa, referenced its defi nition in the Millennium division and breakdown of formal urbanism Development Goals (MDGs), one goal is very clear due to the reconfi guration of stating that it aimed : ‘By 2020, to have its cities after apartheid. It is not only these achieved a signifi cant improvement in the re-colonisations that are bringing opposing lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers urban conditions side by side. In South as proposed in the cities without slums Africa, the overlay of inappropriate urban initiative’ (United Nations 2000). Later, this typologies that cannot deal with the scale goal became Target 11 and was grouped of the housing problem has resulted in a under MDG 7 ‘To Ensure Environmental constant weaving of formal and informal as Sustainability’. people try to survive in the divided cities. WHAT IS A SLUM/ INFORMAL SETTLEMENT? Slum was defi ned as any area that met the following six criteria: 1. Lack of basic services 2. Inadequate building structures 3. Overcrowding 4. Unhealthy and hazardous conditions 5. Insecure tenure 6. Poverty and exclusion (UN-Habitat 2005)

Diepsloot informal settlement is a neglected part of Johannesburg where housing and living conditions are appallingly poor. (Images: Tyrrell 2007) 3

Slums can be within the centre of cities. In down town Johannesburg, thousands of immigrants have colonised city buildings which were vacated after apartheid ended. The business district was moved to the heavily fortifi ed developments of Sandton. 4 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

2.COMBINING TWO EMERGING PRACTICES: RE-THINKING URBAN DESIGN AS A CAPACITY BUILDING TOOL FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

The following section introduces the There has been much learnt about the individual level, a similar externally driven, practice of ‘capacity development’ as a outsider’s role in advancing the processes ‘top down’ bias extended to the design broad development framework within of sustainable development in developing disciplines at this time. Fiori and Brandao which pilot projects take place. It traces countries and there is now some (2007, p.3) argue that attempts of spatial the historical shifts in the practice of agreement on practice. The way in which designers in this period such as mass capacity development in order to present the design disciplines can contribute to housing, slum eradication and modernist an understanding of current thinking. this development practice has been tested urban planning were driven by the belief This section also explores major shifts but is still to be fully understood. Likewise, that architecture and urbanism could in design theory and practice in terms of developing current understandings of what ‘promote development and shape social their contribution to development relating is now termed ‘capacity development’ relations’. They argue that the failures to the urban poor. The aim is to uncover or ‘capacity building’ continues to be of this period led to ‘justifi ed criticisms some areas where the two fi elds have a trial and error process. Boesen and (that) increasingly gave way to a powerful overlapped and diverged over the last fi fty Thirkildsen (1991, p.10) contend that the anti-design discourse.’ (Fiori & Brandao years. This section puts the pilot project very term ‘capacity building’ has become 2007, p.3) The modernists viewed the into context and also seeks out a working synonymous with the general notion of informal city as a set of disordered urban method for urban design as a capacity sustainable development. elements whose problems could be solved building tool. through application of modernist order. Since the 1960s, there has been ongoing These schemes saw the process as black In the early post war period, development debate regarding the role that the design and white, problem and solution. They itself was defi ned almost exclusively in disciplines may play in addressing the relied on bringing change through formal economic terms, measured by per capita development issues facing informal overlay of a set of spatial rules rather than GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is settlements of the developing world. These any attempt to understand the existing no longer believed that it is possible to historical dimensions build up a picture condition. defi ne development, nor even explain of the major contexts within which this economic development such as capital design proposal for Diepsloot exists. This Failures of the modernist discourse led accumulation, human capital, resource analysis recognises that the methods to a new preoccupation with the organic endowments, international trade, or being employed currently and in recent and chaotic elements of city form. Studies geographic development in terms of one years have come about by reconsidering of Christopher Alexander and Team X factor (North et al. 2006, p.6). Viewing and re-evaluating the assumptions of gave value to the systems that appeared development and capacity in exclusively previous years. It is envisioned that this unplanned, yet had their own order. As economic terms is very limiting. It is now document becomes part of that trial and a reaction to the modernists they wrote understood that sustainable development error process. in favor of the unplanned order beneath encompasses equity, political development, the modernists’ perceived disorder. This In the 1960s and 1970s capacity democratisation in processes, gender and process began to see the ‘informal’ as development practices by foreign entities environmental issues (Kingsbury 2004, having its own values and rules. At the focused on empowerment from the outside, p.2). A broadened view of development same time, such explorations moved away a top down approach usually focused also recognises the roles of rich culture from implementing development projects on the individual. It was believed that by and social structures. and had greater infl uence on design theory. administering fi nancial aid to individuals Interestingly within the capacity building in need, development problems would arena, this was a period of de-spatialisation resolve themselves. Although not on an of aid. Rather than looking to the designers 5

or urbanists for answers, physical engineering solution, can be seen to this upgrading projects generally consisted day as the dominant approach towards the solely of works of urban engineering. future development of Diepsloot. Generally, people in key positions were identifi ed to undertake these isolated projects and then given training, skills, equipment and extra manpower to perform to a standard deemed ‘better’ by the ‘capacity developer.’ This had little impact on building the capacity of organisations or broader state institutions and, despite localised infrastructural improvements, had little benefi t for the spatial dimensions of the city. In the 1980s focus of capacity building work changed from the individual to the actual structure of the organisations that these individuals worked within. It was agreed that ‘It is organisations that have capacity. Individuals have skills and competencies.’(Teskey 2005, p.4) Systems were changed and outside advisors often had short term relocations into developing countries rather than training local individuals. In the same period, with the strong neo-liberal (market oriented) policy backdrop, the ‘upgrading’ of institutions saw a move away from physical projects. As Fiori and Brandao (2007, p.6) state ‘In terms of urban planning, there was a growing fascination in the emerging discourse of ‘strategic planning’ which, superseding physical master planning methods (of the modernists), aimed at setting up institutional structures for the formulation of strategic visions of competitive cities in a ‘globalised’ market.’ This strategic planning approach, almost totally divorced from spatial concerns and with an underlying reliance on the purely Above: The city vision for Diepsloot: Strategic planning solution not a spatial design solution. 6 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

By the 1990s, it was becoming clearer that incorporates individuals, organisations, p.13) notes that in rare instances when only when the individuals, organisations institutions and whole systems’ what is ‘technically appropriate aligns with and institutions were aligned, would there what is politically expedient’ real capacity The practice of capacity development now be the possibility of truly sustainable is built. This may well prove to be the key targets three vast tiers of development, capacity development (Teskey 2005, p.8). consideration when this ‘Urban Design the individual, the organisation and In the contemporary era, the focus on good Vision’ is redeveloped in Johannesburg in the institution. Because of the scale governance to underpin efforts made on 2008. and complexity of these tiers and their individual, organisational and institutional interrelations, the notion of ‘strategic Most importantly for a design based levels has become paramount. incramentalism’ has emerged. This is a exploration such as this, it has become ‘Capacity building’ and ‘capacity World Bank term that defi nes attempts of evident over the last fi fty years that development’ are broad and ambiguous projects to act as catalysts on a non- capacity building activities that are not terms. Boesen and Thirkildsen (2004, responsive or ineffective state, by building participatory and don’t view ownership on p.1) claim that when the term itself is specifi c capabilities that have an effect the demand side as a condition for lasting ambiguous, meaningful operational on what Teskey (2005, p.10) refers to as success, are less likely to be sustainable. specifi cation of capacity is diffi cult to ‘the rules of the game’. This incremental De Waal contends that it has been a slow ascertain or achieve. However, it has involvement is proposed on ‘best fi t’ and incomplete process from ‘patronage been broadly agreed that whatever rather than necessarily ‘best practice’. to participation’, which is still very much capacity building is not, to gain sustainable Incrementalism by default involves process in progress (De Waal cited in Kingsbury results it must be interdependent. It and time rather than direct and immediate 2004, p.8). This has meant a redefi nition of must also be approached with ‘broad results. This context specifi c approach donor role from implementer to ‘engaged based enhancements of the capacity of appears to be key to the successes of partner’, endeavouring to stimulate the public sector, the private sector and capacity building projects, as most of the rather than commandeer and implement civil society alike’ (Boesen & Thirlikdsen time incremental capacity development changes.(Boesen & Therkildsen 2004, p.2) 2004, p.1). Boesen and Thirlikdsen is more effective than attempting In response to this learning, Kingsbury note that this understanding has been comprehensive reform (Teskey 2005, p.7). (2004, p.10) refl ects that the emphasis in refl ected in a shift from merely ‘piecemeal development has moved away from donor It is equally important to match the scale interventions’ that only work at building imposed notions towards what the people of the capacity builder’s activity with the capacity in specifi c organisations to much seeking development are identifying their scale of the problem. According to Teskey deeper consideration of broader systemic needs to be. (2005, p.15), most of the time a larger capacity development. They suggest that impact can be made in organisations rather This mode of participation opens up for the capacity of individuals, organisations, than institutions. This is especially true for much greater specifi city, enabling capacity institutions and societies are nested within the work of foreign donors, who, Teskey building programs to be designed around each other and co-infl uenced by each contends, have limited ability to bring a particular context. The following refers to other. Dureau (2005, p.3) concurs with this, about change at the institutional level. In this understanding: ‘Broad and sustained and contends that at a minimum, capacity the last decade Teskey states that donors change is the result of complex processes concerns people and relationships. It is have realised that organisations sit within that cannot be explained with reference about ‘creating both skills development, a much broader framework of informal and to a few determining factors, nor created an enabling environment and agreed formal institutions and have begun to try by means of a standard recipe across work practice. It is multi directional and to develop this framework. Teskey (2005, time, sectors and countries.’ (Boesen & addresses interacting layers for entry. It 7

Therkildsen 2004, p.6) Kingsbury (2004, contexts.’ (CIDA cited in Dureau 2005) re-emphasis on ‘project level’ work, yet p.6) concurs with this stating that: ‘All attention was given to nesting this work In line with this participatory context, countries respond to and are infl uenced with benefi ts at broader organisational Harrison (2006, p.21) comments that in by a range of criteria that include and institutional levels. This led to a planning terms, ‘communicative action’ history, material resources, economic global resurgence of the debate about has overtaken the practice of a ‘technicist’ infrastructure, trading links, political the place physical design may fi t in the approach to planning. Harrison recalls systems, confl ict and the environment... capacity development realm. As Fiori and the defi nitions of Patsy Healey that ‘plan if it (capacity development) is to be Brandao (2007, p.8) remark, both the making is a process of dialogue between meaningful, it must grapple with specifi c 2003 UN-Habitat report on ‘The challenge different systems of meaning in the search outcomes in particular contexts, and not of slums’ and the task force of the UN for areas of consensus, and should not just broad theories’. Millenium Project on Improving The Lives be regarded as a technical procedure.’ of Slum Dwellers, alluded to the potential In this design proposal for Diepsloot, Instead, plan making itself can become a contribution of the design disciplines. The understanding local context has been process of ‘concensus building through form of such contributions is still unknown the key to underpinning a development communication.’ and in need of development. As Rubbo strategy. Specifi cally, a process has This proposal views visual communication et al. comment: ‘There is a challenge to been developed that attempts to map and community participation as essential if develop new paradigms and processes the informal layers of the township and urban designers are to be engaged in the suited to improving the lives of people, and their intersections with its formal layers. capacity development process. Looking especially slum dwellers, in a dynamic, By targeting interventions at these points for overlaps between formal and informal interactive and evolving way. Indeed, of intersection it is proposed that most patterns of urbanism, it is conceived some commentators have argued that positive change can be made. This method that the designer’s work can become a formal planning may actually exacerbate relies on case specifi c understanding and visual agreement to promote discussion the problems of informal developments by seeks to apply ‘best practice’ on a ‘best fi t’ and collaboration between community, imposing requirements that cannot be met.’ basis. NGOs and government through process (Rubbo, Gurran, Taussig-Rubbo, Hall, p.3) Globally, traditional ‘modernist’ models oriented design workshops. Flexibility In 1994, the Favela Bairro programme are being challenged by capacity building and a participatory approach to design emerged in Brazil. It is one of the most models that are more refl ective, more is important. ‘At all times care must be interesting recent examples of the critical and more participatory. This taken to avoid the mistake of ‘not asking designer’s possible role in the capacity has given way to a greater focus on questions before plunging into the design development process. To date it is the accountability, transparency and ongoing process, failing entirely to take into account largest and most comprehensive squatter evaluation. This is refl ected in CIDA’s the particularities of location, culture and settlement upgrading programme in Latin (Canada) defi nition of capacity building need.’ (Brillembourg et al. 2005, p.108) America. It included the following stages: based on: ‘Broad-based participation and Resulting from new understanding about a locally driven agenda; built upon local 1. Architecture competition instigated by how different levels of society should be capacities; focused ongoing learning and the Institute of Brazilian architects, followed integrated in capacity building processes adaptation; or learning by doing… long by selection of sixteen entrants for design and the importance of demand side to medium term involvement by donors; projects in the favelas. ownership, new designer led models integration of activities at various levels of ‘slum upgrading’ began to develop to address/or work in, complex situations/ throughout the 1990s. There was a 8 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

2. Projects beyond sanitation and essential Capacity development is as much a ‘design driver’ in the process of capacity engineering infrastructure supply. Looking process as it is the delivery of a product. development. Urban design may be at ways to address social needs through When applied to one individual, one capable of providing physical visions born design and construction of community organisation or one whole nation state, it from the overlaps between formal and facilities and spaces. Also looking at is clearly an organic and changing process informal components of the city. These can improving connectivity with the city both that must grow and evolve its methods as be realised in varied ways by the countries physically and with its organisations and time passes. Urban design can also be individuals, organisations and institutions institutions. understood as a process, and is described or governing bodies. Urban design, like as such by Barnett in the following. ‘Urban capacity development also seeks to work 3. Favela Bairro was instigated to meet design is the generally accepted name at different physical project scales and the development requirements of the for the process of giving physical design societal levels at one time and through favela as a whole rather than focus on the direction to urban growth, conservation one process. Without a macro, mesa and individual’s housing needs. This model has and change. It is understood to include micro understanding there will be limits to similarities to that proposed here for the landscape as well as buildings, both any truly sustainable lift in capacity, or any development of Diepsloot. preservation and new construction, and successful urban design scheme. 4. The basic informal structure of the rural areas as well as cities’ (Barnett 1992 A purely economic approach to capacity housing layout remained intact, while cited in Schurch 1999, p.15). building and development has broadened the focus was on collective space Value in process and synthesis perhaps as to embrace demand side participation and infrastructure. Once again such much as product, is common to both urban and a complex interdependence between an approach has been taken in this design and capacity development. Multi individual, organisation and institutional exploration. level participation of different stakeholders development. In light of this evolution, Teams of architects and social scientists is also an important characteristic of both collaborative and fl exible processes led the sixteen projects however there fi elds. Schurch comments that ‘citizen of urban design are well placed to was constant involvement of government participation of one sort or another test the benefi ts of physical design in organisations, NGOs and resident has long been a part of process to the contemporary process of capacity participation. Maintenance work was also ‘democratise’ and encourage a sense of development. deferred to community members (Fiori & vested interest on the parts of inhabitants Positive development requires a Brandao 2007, p.15); a move central to this and users of built environments.’ He goes transformation in society that can only paper’s proposals for Diepsloot. As with on to comment that ‘This aspect of urban begin from a point of understanding. many capacity building projects, evaluation design emphasises the ‘anonymous’ nature This Diepsloot design project is therefore of its social effects and sustained of the fi eld and refl ects the strong linkage undertaken with the assumption that continuation will be of utmost importance. of urban design to urban planning as urban design can be a key tool in The Favela Bairro project has been touted compared with architecture or landscape developing this understanding. The as a success, however it is acknowledged architecture in which professional design process is viewed as a tool to that benefi ts or disadvantages will be authorship looms in importance.’ (Schurch reach that point of agreement of the unclear for many years in this type of work 1999, p.16-17) multiple stakeholders. It is hoped the and ongoing evaluation will be crucial. It is this more complex and collaborative plan can become visual evidence of that nature of urban design that perhaps places combined process. Mapping parts of the the practice in the strongest position as city that usually remain unmapped will 9

enable new understanding of current and future relationship between parts of the Real Estate segregated city and become a tool enabling Economics Development inclusion of the excluded. As stated by Fiori and Brandao (2007, p.12-13), ‘good design and urbanism can help create ‘platforms’ for other social and political developments Architecture Landscape in the city. It will not however, automatically Architecture create inclusive and just cities. But neither will just cities come about without appropriate spatial and design strategies.’

Urban Design Natural Law Sciences

Right and Below: Possible theoretical and practical positions of the practise of urban design from Schurch.The practice of capacity Civil Engineering development also sits within and between many Social disciplines. This and other similarities between Sciences the two practices may place urban design in the most favourable position of the design disciplines Town Planning to be used as a tool for capacity development.

Architecture Landscape Housing Streets Object Subject Architecture

UD UD UD

Town Planning Economic Nature Development 10 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

Upon demolition of Pruitt Igoe in 1972, Charles Jenks called it ‘the day modern architecture died.’ Although this is debatable, the failure of Pruitt Igoe proved dramatically that mass housing without community infrastructure could not work. Above: The Pruitt Igoe complex in St Louis, Missouri built as mass social housing in the 1950s. Unfortunately, the failures of modern architecture Lack of community infrastructure and inappropriate architecture led to its complete failure. led to ‘justifi ed criticisms’ and a ‘powerful anti Mass housing alone will never lift the capacity of a whole community for positive development. design discourse.’(Fiori and Brandao, p3) (Photo:http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/data/13030/zm/ft8779p1zm/fi gures/ft8779p1zm_00000.jpg) (Images:affordablehousinginstitute.org)

The ‘Favela Bairro’ program of the 1990s saw a focus on architecture that provided community infrastructure rather than housing. Sports fi elds (left), community laundries (above), public space and street improvements. This focus, and a participatory process has led to greater success. (Images: Architecture For Humanity, p220) 11

EMERGENCE OF URBAN DESIGN FOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT

1960S- 1980S 1990S PRESENT FUTURE... 1970S

‘Top down’ approach Focus on building ‘Strategic planning’ consisting of aid from the capacity of the rather than spatial Focus on three linked Demand side ownership the ‘outside’ focussed ‘organisation’ rather design tiers of capacity regarded as essential. on the ‘individual’ than the ‘individual’ development. The Notion of ‘strategic CAPACITY ‘individual’, the incramentalism’ DEVELOPMENT ‘organisation’ and the emerging ‘institution’ together

URBAN DESIGN DESIGN Works of urban engineering FOR CAPACITY

‘Top down’ approach DEVELOPMENT consisting of mass De-spatialisation of Process led urban design. housing, slum aid, due in part to the Practice of ‘city acupuncture’ eradication and failures of modernist Participatory design emerging modernists’ overlay schemes such as Pruitt Theoretical investigations processes emerge with of ‘order’ on ‘disorder’ Igoe of disorder and chaos a focus on developing (example:Pruitt Igoe as reaction to modernist community and urban schemes of schemes. (investigations of Le Corbusier) Christopher Alexander and Team X)

This diagram represents a timeline of two emerging practices. The upper line represents the evolution of the practice of ‘capacity development’, the lower line represents the evolution of ‘design for capacity development’ The diagram illustrates where both practices have aligned and diverted. It shows the possibility for future alignment, where urban design becomes a key tool for capacity development in developing countries. 12

PART TWO

THE URBAN DESIGN PILOT PROJECT 13

3.INTRODUCING JOHANNESBURG

There are 3.2 million residents in system of apartheid.’ Johannesburg in an area of 1600km2. The government’s Black Economic Broadly, there are 8.8 million in the Empowerment (BEE) policies have greater province of Gauteng, an area of changed the way the economy stands. 17,000 km2. These population fi gures BEE is a policy based on the transfer of do not include the tens of thousands economic power from white to black. A of unrecorded immigrants from super rich class of black entrepreneurs has neighboring countries that live throughout emerged but this new wealth distribution Johannesburg. has been very uneven. Quick wealth is There are staggering health problems, resulting in a lavish material culture for with 34% of the recorded population aged those who can afford it. This has added 24-29 infected with HIV and only 4% of the to the extreme contrasts of wealth rather population reaching the age of 65. 24.1% than a feeling of shared prosperity for all of Johannesburg’s population (over 700 (Bremner 2007, p.210). 000 people) lives below the poverty line Above: One example of South African planning For some of the majority that have no and 31% of the population is unemployed. under apartheid. Planning for racial segregation. legal way to acquire such wealth, criminal (Bremner 2007, p.206) Johannesburg was a city whose rapid activity is often the only way to achieve the development took place due to the lifestyles so brazenly advertised throughout discovery of gold in 1886. It was under the wealthy and still mostly white the ‘Group Areas Act’ of 1950 that major enclaves of the rich. A massive and visual segregation was written into the planning disjunction in wealth and opportunity has law of the South African government. Each resulted in a wave of violent crime that has residential area was formed on the basis led to the development of highly fortifi ed of race. Each area was to be functionally and enclosed and guarded residential independent from the others and areas settlements. As Bremner states ‘this logic were to be seperated by boundaries of defensiveness reinforces apartheid of transport infrastructure (roads and geographies and defers the possibility of railways) or preferably by large natural anything remotely resembling a coherent barriers (Bremner 2007, p. 206). city emerging’ (Bremner 2007, p.211). As Mayekiso (2006, p.68) explains: ‘Racist public policy has been completely eradicated, but the scars left by the system of apartheid are still with us, most explicitly in the form of economic inequality. Thus the racial ghettos of the past, such as the peripheral townships remain. However, Above: In todays Johannesburg, a ‘logic of they are now defi ned as economic defensiveness’ reinforces apartheid geographies ghettos because of the uneven nature of (Images: Tyrrell 2007) development under the racial capitalist 14 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

Diepsloot Midrand/ Randburg Ivory Park Northern MSS Sandton/ Sandton/ Alexandra Eastern Roodepoort Rosebank Alexandra MSS Dobsonville/ Western Roodepoort Northcliff MSS Central CBD CBD Region Doornkopf/ Diepkloof/ Soweto Soweto Meadowlands Johannesburg South South East Southern MSS South West Ennerdale/ Orange Farm

Nth 0510km

Above: The evolving shape and division of Johannesburg since the end of aparthaid between 1995 and 2000. Note the emergence of Diepsloot 24km to the northeast of the former city centre (data from Beavon 2004, p.238) 15

Diepsloot Informal Settlement, Diepsloot Midrand/ Ivory Park the focus of this proposal

Sandton/ Rosebank Alexandra

Roodepoort

Northcliff

Doornkopf/ Soweto

Johannesburg South

Ennerdale/ Orange Farm Above: A map showing the informal settlements of Johannesburg. These however are only the formally recognised informal settlements. There are many more pockets of informality throughout Johannesburg especially in the former downtown areas of Marshalltown and surrounds. (Data from City of Johannesburg Corporate GIS in Beavon 2004, p.272) 16 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements DIEPSLOOT IN CONTEXT 17 DIEPSLOOT EXTENSIONS

Diepsloot West

Extension 3

Extension 1

Reception Area

Extension 6 Diepsloot West Extension 9 Extension 5 Tanganani

Extension 5 Extension 4

Extension 2

Extension 7 18 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

4.INTRODUCING DIEPSLOOT

Diepsloot is a post-apartheid low- of refugees from Somalia, the Congo income settlement created in 1994 to and recently many from Zimbabwe. With accommodate people forcibly relocated the increasing population of the informal from Zavenfontein to the west of Diepsloot. component of the settlement, many There has been much subsequent problems with basic infrastructure have relocation from surrounding local areas, also developed. It has been diffi cult for the ratio indicating the greatest proportion Diepsloot to develop strong community arrived from Alexandra, followed by cohesion: ‘The continuing infl ux of people Skotipol and Randburg. Of these to the area including a mixture of people relocations, about half were forced and half seeking economic opportunities; illegal moved to be closer to their work. immigrants; and a substantial criminal element - combined with poor, inadequate Diepsloot is located 24km to the north of services results in ‘chaotic social dynamics’ Johannesburg’s city centre. It began as a negatively impacting on the delivery of temporary transit camp and became an Welcome to Diepsloot township sign. development plans’(Land Management area with land allocated for permanent (Image: Chang 2007) Research Draft 2007) development by the poor. It is currently home to roughly 150 000 people, over As a response to uneven or unsuccessful half of whom are unemployed. (Diepsloot development, many informal systems baseline survey). While there are both operate throughout Diepsloot, from formal subsidised housing developments networks of paths and tracks, dumping and informal settlements in Diepsloot, areas, agriculture, economy and rental the majority of people (about 76%) live arrangements. Informal systems are born in informal settlements and in backyard from necessity and overlay and at times shacks. overlap with the formal. The informal overlays are generally part of a survivalist Four primary schools have been developed response to poverty and without better in Diepsloot, but no secondary schools. links with formal systems, are unable to There are ten churches, one community develop beyond this point. centre, and one political party offi ce. The area has only one clinic and the nearest hospital is located about 25km away. The distance to the nearest police station is 10km and is 20km to the fi re station and post offi ce. (Land Management Research Draft 2007) The township has become home to a marginalised and often transient population. This results from the area initially being set up as a temporary transit camp. There has been a constant fl ow 19

5. XENEPHOBIC VIOLENCE OF 2008

In May of 2008, horrifi c images of It must now become South Africa’s top violence were broadcast from the informal priority to focus upon new development settlements of Johannesburg throughout models within the townships. Models the world. Descriptions by the press that quickly lift the capacity of whole used the term ‘xenephobic violence’, communities rather than the capacity of reportedly directed at immigrants from chosen individuals only. African countries surrounding South Africa. Violence and rioting occurred in many of Johannesburg’s townships including Diepsloot. Anti-immigrant township riots, May 2008 This violence has resulted from a perception amongst some South African township dwellers that immigrants, many of them Zimbabwean refugees fl eeing the Mugabe regime, have been taking employment opportunities and housing resources away from poor South Africans. Skilled and educated immigrants are percieved to have a better chance of securing work than locals.They are also Horrifi c Johannesburg township violence, May suspected by some of bringing criminal 2008. activity to the township areas. Image from BBC news ‘In pictures: Attacks have taken place involving public Johannesburg Violencehttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/ burning and beating of immigrants to hi/in_pictures/7407572.stm death. At the time of writing, 62 people had been killed and 670 injured.1300 arrests had been made. It is thought that Mozambicans and Malawians mostly returned home, however those from Zimbabwe, Somalia and the Congo were unable to return to their own countries. The United Nations set up temporary camps for the thousands of displaced township residents with nowhere else to go. (Various internet news sources, Mass exodus of immigrants fearing for their lives May 2008) Image from BBC news story ‘scramble to fl ee South Africa’ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ africa/7415507.stm 20 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

6. PILOT PROJECT URBAN DESIGN METHODOLOGY

THE URBAN DESIGN LINKING FORMAL AND METHODOLOGY WILL CONSIST INFORMAL OF THE FOLLOWING STAGES: In Diepsloot and other informal 1.Investigating the current ‘formal’ settlements, for every ‘formal’ urban development model being applied to component, there is also an ‘informal’ Diepsloot. These are development overlay or alternative born from necessity. proposals for the township and the general The formal RDP house on its lot becomes use of the RDP house throughout South a modifi ed perimeter block of shacks and Africa. How do these models intersect with communal lanes and spaces. There are the informal components of the settlement? formal river crossing points, yet also clear desire lines worn into the marshes at 2.Mapping the layers of the township. informal crossing points. There is a formal This involves taking the Diepsloot map refuse collection service that responds and mapping layers of informal and formal to the formal development pattern, yet rather than just formal areas. Uncovering mounds of rubbish accumulate along the spatial layout of the township as a lines of informal movement and activity whole, regarding informal and formal producing traces of informal life over the together as an urban structure. recognised formal structure. 3.Proposing physical design solutions that This legible duality extends through to build community capacity of Diepsloot as a recognition of the sites ecological layers. whole rather than individual capacity alone. Provision of water and sanitation relate Shared community infrastructure rather primarily to formal structures and ‘best than individual housing supply. practice’ engineering solutions rather 4.Urban acupuncture and strategic than an investigation of local patterns and incramentalism: Proposing a phased and conditions in order to discover the ‘best fi t’ locally driven approach to design and solution for the site. construction. Which projects will have Through viewing ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ as the greatest and quickest benefi t for separate elements and often ‘formal’ as community development? the solution to ‘informal’, little cohesion or community development is achieved. This design proposal focuses on transforming Diepsloot’s divisive central marshland space into a social and ecological spine. This transformation will be essential in linking informal and formal systems and building the capacity of the Diepsloot community as a whole. 21

A SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL SPINE 22 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

7.THE CURRENT HOUSING SITUATION AND THE ‘FORMAL’ AND ‘INFORMAL’ RESPONSES TO DIEPSLOOT’S HOUSING CRISIS

Housing provision is the major physical model for South Africa. Adequate public home outside the city and do not need development challenge for South Africa. transport, service delivery and fl exibility a government house. ‘Tying them down After apartheid ended it was written into of housing type are not achievable with to an RDP house might not be what the constitution that housing was a basic this model. Procurement of the amount they want. These (fl ats) will help us human right. Below is the national housing of land required also slows the delivery. remove a huge segment of the people vision from the national white paper on Harrison (2006, p.20) aligns the values living in informal settlements.’ One housing issued by the South African of the compact city model with those of hurdle is ensuring building keeps pace government (4.2 National Housing Vision): the environmental planning movement. with a continuing fl ow of rural dwellers He regards the benefi ts as mainly and illegal immigrants into places like ‘All South Africa’s people will have reducing emissions and designing effi cient Diepsloot. Every year up to 300 000 access on a progressive basis, to: infrastructure. He proposes that in South fl ock to Gauteng - the province that A permanent residential structure with Africa specifi cally, environmental concerns encompasses Johannesburg, Pretoria, secure tenure, ensuring privacy and are coupled with the dysfunctional city Soweto and Diepsloot. Some squeeze providing adequate protection against form developed through the apartheid era. into shacks belonging to family or the elements; and potable water, Today, the low-density typology of the RDP friends, living six or seven to a room adequate sanitary facilities including house continues this pattern of exclusion. a few metres wide while others put up waste disposal and domestic electricity new shacks, adding to overcrowding Harrison (2006, p.21) notes that in South supply.’ in the slums. Police are rarely seen Africa there are currently attempts to in the twisting slum alleys and rapes (http://www.info.gov.za/ introduce urban growth boundaries to and muggings are common. Fire is Whitepapers/1994/housing.htm#4.2) halt the process of sprawl, it is clear that also a danger - a spilt candle could the success of these boundaries will RDP houses are those delivered by the send fl ames racing through hundreds depend on the acceptance of new models ‘Housing and Reconstruction Development of densely packed shacks. ‘There’s of higher density government supplied Programme’ in order to attempt to achieve no order here. People do what they housing. Fortunately, it is understood at a these housing goals. To qualify for an RDP want’ said Matthew Baloyi pointing to government level that the RDP house type house, a person must meet the following Diepsloot’s unpaved streets strewn with is not suitable. The following news story criteria: 1. Be a South African citizen 2. Be rubbish and spotted with puddles from illustrates the government’s dissatisfaction over 21 yrs of age 3. Have dependants broken water pipes. Around 20 slum with the current housing typology and its and 4. Earn between R0-3 500 per month. dwellers might share one portable toilet fl exibility on a social level: There are however severe quantitative and in this township and a stench hangs qualitative problems with the RDP housing ‘The ANC’s Sisulu is frank about the in the air. Baloyi was one of the few typology. effectiveness of the government’s thousand given a government house Reconstruction and Development here, but it was built on dusty soil too The RDP house consists of a small Programme (RDP). ‘I have not been poor to grow vegetables and is far from freestanding house on its own lot. This too happy with the quality and concept central Johannesburg where he hopes typology results in a very large land around the RDP house’ she said. ‘If we to fi nd work.’ take. In many developing and developed keep it we’ve defi nitely got to improve countries, a compact city model is more (http://www.namibian.com.na/2004/July/ on it.’ Her department is turning to fl at desirable than a sprawling low-density world/0455C9568D.html) rentals as a way of accommodating city. The low density of the RDP house single workers who often have a family makes it an unsustainable housing 23

Above: This photograph shows informal shack settlement in the forground, whilst in the background on the sloping land is the clear pattern of the RDP house layout, a single house on a block of land stamped over the landscape.(Image: Tyrrell 2007)

Above: Part of the informal component of Diepsloot (Image: Tyrrell 2007) 24 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

FORMAL SETTLEMENT:

This plan illustrates the ‘formal’ lot layout of Diepsloot. This is the pattern that appears on the city map of Diepsloot 25

INFORMAL SETTLEMENT:

In reality around 76% of residents live in the blank component of the previous plan (shown here in grey). Many residents also live in backyard shack arrangements within the ‘formal’ lot pattern. Parts of these informal settlements lie within the fl oodline of the marshlands (shown in blue) 26 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

8. HOW THE FORMAL HOUSING TYPOLOGY, THE RDP HOUSE, IS OVERLAID BY INFORMAL URBANISM AND WHAT THIS MAY SUGGEST

1. The image above shows an area of Diepsloot 2. Another area of Diepsloot where RDP houses 3. This is a third area of Diepsloot close to the where RDP houses have recently been have been standing for a longer period of time. reception area. While some original RDP houses delivered. The pattern of the single building in Here, there has been the addition of many can be seen here, the pattern of one house on space on a block of land is clear to see here. backyard shacks. Often these shacks are rented one lot seen in image one has been broken down This housing typology requires a very large out by the owner of the RDP house. The layout completely over time. The shacks and houses volume of land and makes service provision of the lots change, becoming higher density have become a far higher density and any left more costly. agglomorations. Services are often quickly over spaces are communal yards or lanes. overloaded. Interestingly the resultant block This transformation illustrates the innapropriate pattern becomes one of space forming buildings nature of the current RDP house. There is with communal courtyards. a necessity for higher density, more fl exible housing typologies. More communal living structures are very important for survival within informal settlements.

Images taken at same scale from Google Earth, 2008 27

THE ALEXANDRA RENEWAL PROGRAM

The Alexandra Renewal Program is working in Alexandra, Johannesburg to design and introduce new housing typologies.

Left: One of the new housing typologies designed for the Alexandra Renewal Program. These blocks are a more suitable density and include possibilities for fl exible living such as rentable rooms. These housing schemes would benifi t greatly by having storm water tanks installed during construction to capture roof water and reduce reliance on potable water.

Left: Another design being tested by the Alexandra Renewal Program.

There is great opposition to high rise fl ats due to their similarity to the ‘hostels’ of the apartheid era, notorious for their social problems. However, appropriate densities do not require high rise developments. 28 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

9. BUILDING COMMUNITY CAPACITY THROUGH PUBLIC OPEN SPACE RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL CAPACITY THROUGH HOUSING DELIVERY

In part seven and eight, the failures of major negative physical feature of the urban engineering ‘solutions’ in favor of the RDP housing typology have been community is clearly its central marshland redeveloping the marshlands into public reviewed. Although housing provision because: open space with a strong local identity. is important for communities, where the 1.It is unhealthy: Grey and black water fl ow Pendalosas observations support this scale of the housing shortage is so vast, through streets and wash mountains of argument stating that: ‘Although over development remains limited to those rubbish into this area. Hundreds of children time poor neighborhoods may solve the individuals who recieve housing benefi ts. play here in heavily polluted overfl ow. worst fl ooding risks and end up getting In contrast, the provision of public space water supplies, sewage and other basic and community infrastructure impacts upon 2.It divides the community and is very necessities, they are never cured of their many people and offers the possibility diffi cult to cross, especially for the elderly. lack of public space’ (Pendalosa 2007 for broad scale community capacity 3. It is dangerous in times of fl ood. People p.313). development. build shacks here and have been washed Ian McHarg’s ecological design philosophy Public space is important in all cities. It away. There have been fatalities. also supports the notion that the marshland has long been regarded as the glue of 4.It creates a strong sense of marginality area could be conceived as land for public community. In the 14th century, French amongst people who have been forcibly space. He states that: ‘We wish to fi nd mythographer Petrus Berchorius wrote relocated by the state to a poor quality and discrete aspects of natural processes that the following: ‘Since piazzas are areas dangerous environment carry their own values and prohibitions: it in villages or cities, empty of houses and is from these that open space should be other such things and of obstructions, There are clearly many ills associated with selected. It is these that should provide arranged for the purpose of providing this landscape setting, yet as a product of the pattern, not only of metropolitan open space or set up for the meetings of men, it its marginal nature, this central land has space, but also the positive pattern of should be remarked that in general through remained open and free of development. development.’ (McHarg 1992, p.57) There piazzas the condition of man in this world Here at the core of densely packed shacks may not be a need for heavy engineering can be discovered.’ Through the Agora, and informality, the marshes provide a solutions to fl ooding: ‘Many fl ood control the Greeks were the fi rst to create ‘a public large space that offers much needed relief. systems, usually designed to cope space as a necessary element of the The ills of the space at present outweigh with rare peak levels, also prevent the urban landscape through which to express its benefi t in spatial terms. As Tiwari states: ecologically valuable, regularly occurring, a community’s collective power’ (Kostov ‘residents should be proud of their public smaller fl oods’ (Langenbach 2007, p.82). 1992, p.153). In new colonial cities of the spaces, which contribute to their feeling of Greeks, land for the Agora was the fi rst to collective belonging’ (Tiwari 2007, p.360). be laid out. At present, the marginal and polluted land equates to a feeling of a marginalised In Diepsloot, formal public space is situated community. It is a landscape representing mostly on the periphery. On visiting the poor health, danger and depression. township, it is not a sense of positive shared public space that is the most There have been proposals put forward to obvious. Instead it is the space that cuts run pipes through the central marshland, the township in two, the marginal land of stabilise the land and build further RDP marshes and mounds of rubbish, fl ooded housing on it. In contrast, this ‘Urban with polluted water and raw sewage. The Design Vision’ argues against such 29

PERIPHERAL PUBLIC OPEN SPACE

Most formal open space provision is on the periphery of the township. The darker green indicates space with formal program such as sports fi elds. The lighter green indicates other less programmed open space.

There is a lack of functional open space at the centre of Diepsloot. The informal settlement areas are devoid of any functional public open space and have few formal links to the spaces shown here. 30 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

This design proposes the redevelopment of It is also important in the design of the the central corridor into a large functional public space for Diepsloot to encourage public space including wetlands, sports, people to visit from the outside. Whilst agriculture and community areas and there are clear disjunctions between formal the possibility of land put aside for public and informal on the inside of the township, buildings. Although housing is the major Diepsloot is still united in its isolation physical development challenge, it is as from the outside city of Johannesburg. Pendalosa says: ‘Pavements, bicycle The central spine proposed must be well lanes, plazas, parks, promenades, connected to the road through the transfer waterfronts and public sports facilities of civic functions into visible position. In (that) show respect for human dignity and this way the space not only helps to knit begin at least to compensate for inequality community but also links a peripheral in other realms.’ (Penalosa 2007, p.311) settlement, with the rest of the city. The roadside market has the potential to fulfi l Yet the public realm must represent such a landmark/gateway role, but needs more than the functional or programmed. to feel safer and more accessible to traffi c As Kostof writes: ‘Public places host passing by. structured or communal activities… because of that, such places will bear the designed evidence of our shared record of accomplishment and our ritual behaviour.’ (Kostof 1992, p.124) This record of community, a common memory, is essential in a township such as Diepsloot, only just beginning to establish itself, and with such divisions between formal and informal, opportunity and helplessness. A major priority of the Favela Bairro projects introduced earlier was both the improvement of existing and the creation of new public spaces. They were introduced to ‘encourage social integration among the residents’ (Fiori & Brandao 2007, p.17) As Fiori and Brandao (2007, p.19) state ‘It is understood that if the residents have a positive image of the public spaces they use daily, a sense of pride would arise which is crucial for the community to Above: The space in between. As a product of its marginal nature, this central land has remained open develop.’ and free of development. This space should be retained and become a central social and ecological spine for the township. 31

INFORMAL PATHS AND LITTER

The central marshland corridor divides the township in two. It is diffi cult to cross. This plan shows informal crossing points (dashed lines). This plan also shows locations of worst rubbish build up (red dots) They often correlate with informal circulation paths. Poor connectivity, has resulted in the breakdown of the refuse collection system. This is one example illustrating the importance of developing informal and formal as one entity rather than seperating the two. 32 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

10.REVERSING NEGATIVE SENSE OF PLACE IN DIEPSLOOT

Genius loci, originated as a concept of societies small environmental details that people are living near rather than the Romans, where the genius was the were known and meaningful, yet in removing them: ‘In situ upgrading is more guardian spirit to every independent being, modern society, concern for the practical likely to be responsive to poverty and a spirit that stayed with the person or workings of orientation have generally vulnerability, and to lead to social inclusion, place for its entire existence, determining left any environmental identifi cation to than a relocation process, due to the socio- both essence and character. (Norberg chance. As he states: ‘ True dwelling, in a economic disruption (of delicately balanced Schulz 1984, p.18) It was of particular psychological sense, has been substituted livelihoods) of the latter’ The people of importance in many ancient cultures to by alienation.’ If Norberg Schulz was Diepsloot should be encouraged to stay come to terms with and understand the referring here to the formal city, then his and encouraged to build as a community, genius of the area where life took place. In observations become only more pertinent a place to dwell rather than simply take many ancient and present day agricultural when applied to informal settlements. shelter and survive. riverside settlements for example, survival In Diepsloot where practicality of fi nding Norberg Schulz (1984, p.21) states that itself depends on good understanding shelter is a matter of survival, and ‘identifi cation means to become friends of the physical place. In ancient Egypt, relocation is always a threat, alienation, with a particular environment.’ The people this physical understanding extended has for most become a function of urban of Diepsloot need to be allowed to become further into the psychology of place. Public life. friends with their central marshland buildings were set out within the structure The design proposal for Diepsloot in corridor, let it not be fenced off and of the working landscape to give a sense essence is simple. Spatially the aim is to polluted, but let it become an expression of of symbolism and security in a larger transform what is a physical division within place and part of this communities identity. landscape order where man had located the community into a space that connects his secure place. In searching for the expression of the informal to formal and builds community city’s identity it is essential to look at Norberg Schulz (1984, p.19) uses the cohesion. The aim is also to study the local what McHarg (1992, p.185) calls ‘those word ‘dwelling’ to explain that where a landscape condition and turn what is a elements- in the natural identity and that of person dwells or lives, is ‘simultaneously negative environmental identity of polluted the created city – that are expressive and located in space and exposed to a certain wasteland into a positive environmental valuable.’ Interestingly, the name Diepsloot environmental character.’ Norberg Schulz identity through redeveloping a healthy comes from the Afrikaans language refers to the two psychological functions wetland ecosystem and recreational/civic meaning ‘valley in the village’. For at play here as being ‘orientation’ and environment. As McHarg (1992, p.185) Diepsloot, those elements of both identity ‘identifi cation’. He argues that to gain an states ‘It is possible to perceive the role of and ecological function will be found in the ‘existential foothold’ a person must be able apparently insignifi cant sites as part of an discarded marshland valley at its core. to orient themselves and also to identify important and valuable expression.’ with their environment. Where and how This expression must be sought out s/he is in the world. and celebrated in Diepsloot. Instead This identifi cation with place is important. of relocating people again, the power Norberg Schulz (1984, p.21) argues that of psychic and physical connection to a true sense of belonging is only born the environment must be returned to from a strong sense of orientation and the community. On a practical level, of identifi cation with the surrounding Huchzermeyer (2006, p.49) refers to the environment. He contends that in primitive notion of upgrading the dangerous land 33

34 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

The ‘Bridge Too Far’ project on the French Nord coal basin rehabilitation project: Wetland parks and bridges. (Topos, #56, 2006, p.25) Po River, Maosi, Gansu Provence, China is a good example of a simple structure for crossing a fl ood prone river. (Sinclair & Stohr 2006, p.274) 35

11.CONNECTIVITY: CONNECTIONS BETWEEN SIDES, CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ‘FORMAL’ AND ‘INFORMAL’ LAYERS.

It is proposed that the fi rst step in spaces and systems together. public spaces, future agriculture plots and developing a strong network of community environmental management systems that One of the main problems with the central infrastructure will be to increase occur at key overlaps between formal and marshland area is that it is diffi cult to cross. connectivity and permeability within informal settlement zones. Observations are that although there are Diepsloot. An analysis of the street several formalised crossing points, they are The idea is that these bridges are designed systems of Diepsloot has identifi ed a too far away from most people to be used. and built by community and internal South division between the two sides of the In Johannesburg, 30% of all journeys are African experts. This design framework marshland corridor. Informal paths of taken by foot yet in Diepsloot, this fi gure offers suggestions for their positioning and pedestrian travel have been mapped. would be far greater. People crossing phasing. Bridge structures could be porous Those most connected to formal road between the reception area and the gabion and steel constructions making networks have then been selected to facilities of Diepsloot West are not catered them simple to build and eliminating the become the sites for future road or for with any formalised crossing point and problem of either damming the river or pedestrian bridges. It is proposed that have worn tracks through the mud. being washed away in times of fl ood. these bridge connections become the catalysts for development of the water This design proposes eight new formalised The ‘Bridge Too Far’ project on the Po harvesting strategy, public open spaces, connection points. These connections River, Maosi, Gansu Provence, China is refuse collection routes and possibly sites would be one of the fi rst phase projects. a good example of this type of structure for agriculture and civic buildings within the They prevent dangerous crossing of the for crossing a fl ood prone river. This marshland corridor. marshlands, and create a focused path bridge does not attempt to breach the of movement. They connect informal highest water mark, instead it is a porous Theories of Kevin Lynch have helped to with formal and, most importantly, this structure of gabions that can be used explain in spatial ways the process of connection takes place within the central 95% of the year. (Sinclair & Stohr 2006, understanding many cultures have had, marshland corridor, the new spine. p.273) Gabion construction also means or seeked to develop in their environment. that locally sourced stones can be used Lynch talks of ‘nodes’ ‘paths’ and ‘districts’ The Lutschine River Tract project in and construction, maintenance and future that orient people in their environment. Switzerland by Anna Buchwald and Laura reconstruction can be undertaken by locals Together, Lynch proposes, these elements von Minckwitz deals with an occasionally as part of a government employment create an ‘environmental image’ that at its fl ooding river system. They introduce v programme. best can give a sense of emotional security shaped obstacles in the fl ood plain that and at its worst the terror of being lost in over time gather sediment and enable the world. vegetation. A more defi ned river and land system is created by the river and the Norburg Schulz (1984, p.172) notes that placed obstacles. (Girot 2007, p.70-76) ‘An urban valley settlement represents a center which gathers the surrounding It is proposed in Diepsloot that the space. This is achieved by introducing connectors themselves will become an axis accross the valley, mostly in carefully formed obstacles that can be connection with a ford or a bridge point.’ built against with extracted fi ll to form In Diepsloot, proposed crossing points or a more simple and controlled river and roads/paths and their associated spaces fl ooding pattern. In this way the connectors would serve to gather formal and informal become catalysts for a matrix of riverside 36 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

MAPPING CONNECTIVITY

EXISTING

This plan illustrates the current connectivity problems in Diepsloot. The central marshland area only has two formal crossing points.

37

PROPOSED

This plan illustrates proposed new connections. These new connections seek to link informal areas with formal areas and improve circulation throughout the township.

The new marshland crossing points connect isolated road systems and also become the catalysts for further development of the marshlands. 38 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

PROPOSED CONNECTIONS BETWEEN SIDES, CONNECTIONS BETWEEN ‘FORMAL’ AND ‘INFORMAL’ LAYERS.

This plan illustrates ten major crossing points proposed, including those two currently present and also four minor crossing points. These connection points have been chosen due to their proximity to current desire lines but more importantly, they make new connections between poorly connected road systems.

They also relate to overland fl ow paths and topography in order to be best placed as ‘catalyst obstacles’ for the hydrological strategy.

The construction of these proposed crossing points could be phased over any amount of time 39

NEW CONNECTIONS IN CONTEXT

This plan shows the proposed connections in context. 40 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

12.WATER MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IDENTITY

Soft water is not an inexhaustible resourse. for improvement of degraded marshland In Diepsloot the system must be designed It makes up less than 0.1% of the worlds and wetland systems. During times of so that in low rainfall months, water water and continually circulates through fl ood, the water in Diepsloot’s central can still move through and dilute. High the process of evaporation and rain. marshland rises and fl oods the surrounding temperatures and sunshine can reduce the Because wastewater is a component lands. Residents of the reception area amount of oxygen required for this step. of this cycle, water has the capacity to in particular are located often within the 4. Tertiary treatment: Elimination of transfer the negative effects of urbanisation fl ood line and there have been instances nitrogen and phosphorous. In planted fi lters to receiving waters far away from initial of property destruction and even several and marshlands, parasites and pathogens pollution. Eventually, because of the fatalities associated with fl ash fl ooding in can be eliminated through exposure cyclical process, the negative effects of the area. Examining the hydrology of the to ultraviolet rays (sun) and fi ltration wastewater pollution are felt on humans area as a whole, natural water fl ow is one through plants and sand/soil. Aeration is once again. In Diepsloot, due to its of the major organisational elements. also suggested for maximum ultraviolet degraded environmental setting, these In the case of Diepsloot, its location in a exposure. This can be incorporated into negative effects are felt at their source. marshland makes it a perfect environment the process through small fast fl owing World water consumption is constantly for water quality improvements and waterfalls or water fi lms. In Diepsloot there increasing and varies throughout different possibly even reuse of treated grey water is the potential to create such elements parts of the world. A European uses 70 for agricultural irrigation. with associated damming around current times the amount of water as a citizen of and proposed bridge connections. This THERE ARE SEVERAL STAGES Ghana, an American roughly 300 times step can also be achieved through the IN THE TOTAL WASTEWATER more (Izembart & Le Boudec 2003, p.14). use of ever-shallower settlement ponds TREATMENT CYCLE. Waste water treatment is essential for all ranging from 1200mm deep to 500mm. settlements in order to protect and best 1. Pre-Treatment: Elimination of large This process is known as lagooning and is use the small supplies of water the world solids, screening, grit and oil removal. perhaps the most simple method for large has access to. In Diepsloots case, this process must scale application in Diepsloot. be linked to the recycling and garbage Although the treatment of waste water In many locations, streets have become disposal strategy and also to an improved through natural processes has been large, heavily eroded storm and waste maintenance strategy for broken or blocked understood since the times of ancient water channels. They are places where sewerage and stormwater infrastructure. At Greeks and Chinese, techniques have rubbish collects and unhealthy water lays present these two maintenance factors are been researched and optomised since stagnant. For these streets a kind of street the single greatest source of pollution of the 1950s. Fairly low maintenance and swale system is envisioned. A series of the central marshland corridor. inexpensive solutions for the treatment linear rain gardens will become vegetated of wastewater are now gaining popularity 2. Primary Treatment: Involves the sponges for the polluted water. Not only around the world (Izembart & Le Boudec separation of suspended solids. In do these rain gardens slow the water in 2003, p.15). Diepsloot this could be achieved through periods of heavy rain, they also begin the isolated lagoons and fi ltering through water fi ltration process before the water Although simple reinstatement or reinstated planting of wetland beds. has even reached the central marshland. construction of reed beds will have its The swale systems also introduce further limitations in an established city system, 3. Secondary Treatment: Elimination of elements of urban green into the township, where such environments are already carbon pollution (organic matter). Once creating pleasant street environments. present there are many opportunities again, fi ltering plants can perform this task. 41

Despite its current condition, Diepsloots central marshland should not be piped and removed. The corridor should be reinvented as an open space that Diepsloots residents can enjoy while retaining its ecological function and ‘genius loci’ as a marshland. Revitalising the central marshland would reverse the negative sense of place and begin to create a network of environmental / recreational infrastructure at key links between formal and informal. (Image: Tyrrell 2007) 42 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

A swale and wetland system should life will return to the site and, as previously from the shared fl ush toilets / tap water be incorporated into any further urban discussed, a positive environmental stations and also from the cisterns points. extensions of Diepsloot. identity for the community can be fostered. The water often leaks from bathroom ‘Marshes are fl ood storage areas, aquifer fl ush boxes where the water refi ll keeps The fi nal system for application here would rechargers, the home of wildfowl and often recharging continuously and tap water have to be designed in detail with local both spawning and breeding grounds.’ fl ow is often clogged by food and other and perhaps international experts. With (McHarg 1992, p.56) This scheme will solids that result from washing. At cistern most of these systems there would also bring broader ecological benefi ts to the points water is simply lost in the process of be some additional maintenance required wider region. fi lling up and carrying buckets back to the in the removal of excess sludge every ten household. Such losses drain down to the years or so. This again should form part of Programs proposed in the central spine fl oodplain, carry large volumes of rubbish the maintenance contract returned to the such as public open space and productive and mix with grey water and pollutants people of Diepsloot by the government. agricultural land can work well within creating a very unhealthy environment. such ecosystems. As McHarg (1992, Close by in Soweto, a wetland revitalisation p.58) states: ‘In principle, land use policy These losses represent a waste of an project is being undertaken by the local for marshes should refl ect the roles of expensive and precious resource and group ‘Working For Wetlands’. Leader Irvin fl ood and water storage, wildlife habitat potable water frequently runs out leaving Ndumo and a team of sixty are restoring and fi sh spawning grounds. Land uses those who did not or could not collect, the Klipspruit river which fl ows into the that do not diminish the operation of the without water sometimes for days. The Klipspruit wetlands. The functioning of primary roles include recreation, certain government plans to provide extra water this system is of great importance. For types of agriculture and isolated urban by installing an additional line to double over a century the three thousand year development.’ There are also broad the volume. This must however be coupled old peat soils and wetland have treated reaching possibilities for Diepsloot as with an education and maintenance and retained most of the Witswatersrand a pilot project leading the way for other program, reduction of water losses and regions sewage and gold mining pollution, informal settlements on what has been creation of awareness about the scarcity of which could be released downstream if regarded as marginal land throughout the resource. the wetland dies completely. This is a vast Africa and the world. Wright (2007, p.81) project worth an estimated tens of millions The region is vulnerable to fl ash-fl ooding comments that ‘Informal settlements often of Rands. The local expertise built here during the rainy season (November to encroach on environmentally sensitive should be transferred to the Diepsloot March). Shacks have been washed areas. Could protection generate jobs for community as part of the capacity away and community members have local residents, rather than demands for development process. expressed their fear with regards to clearance and relocation?’ fl ooding. The dense and fast occupation Beyond actual re-use of water, the Water management is one of the major of land in Diepsloot has lead to a much revitalisation of the central marshland challenges facing Diepsloot and extends lower permeability of the soil. This has of Diepsloot will have broad community beyond the pollution of and danger posed drastically reducing the concentration time benefi ts. Access to dangerous water can by the central marshlands in its current and caused the water runoff to fl ow much be discouraged. If the central corridor state. It is also essential to reduce the faster to the fl ood plain contributing to very has a community use and benefi t, people settlements reliance on potable water. sudden growths of the river discharge. will have less incentive to build upon Signifi cant water losses were noticed, it. Plant life can re establish creating a in the informal settlements in particular, cooler microclimate in the summer, bird 43

Above and Below: A river system in Kyoto, Japan has been confi gured so that for most of the year when it is not fl ooding, it becomes a beautiful urban park where many people gather and enjoy nature within the city. (Images: Tyrrell 2007) 44 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

Above: One of the many deeper marshland areas in Diepsloot that could easily be confi gured into a Above: Many streets in Diepsloot have been healthy and functional wetland systems such as that pictured below. (Images: Tyrrell 2007) heavily eroded by overland fl ow. Rather than piping these fl ows under roads, vegetated bioswales such as the one pictured below could be introduced into the street network.

Above: Wetlands, natural and artifi cial are often reconfi gured to become enjoyable recreational A vegetated bioswale in Victoria Park, Sydney. elements in parks and urban plazas. (Point Fraser Wetland, Topos issue 59, 2007, p.16) This swale captures stormwater, slows it down and the plants remove pollutants. These swales become important green elements in the streets. 45

houses where space is less of a constraint Precipitation[mm*] Harvested rainwater from roof [Liters**] and gutters are already provided. Water Averagemonthly 32 m2 RDP house 60 m2 RDP house *** tanks should be included in the design of new RDP house typologies such as those January 125 3200 6000 pictured earlier. February 90 2304 4320 Non potable water collected can have March 91 2330 4368 many uses such as irrigation and cleaning. At present, scarce potable water fulfi ls April 54 1382 2592 this function. In addition to this, most May 13 333 624 of the RDP houses are higher in the catchment than the informal settlement of June 9 230 432 the reception area. The provision of water July 4 102 192 Above: A simple rain garden to slow and treat tanks becomes a fl ash fl ood mitigation water also becomes an important element in a tool as water is slowed down through its August 6 154 288 park. capture in many tanks. September 27 691 1296 As there are long dry periods, dust and dirt October 72 1843 3456 Individual rainwater harvesting should are likely to cover the roof causing the fi rst be taken into consideration as a way of rain after a dry period to ‘clean’ the roof November 117 2995 5616 reducing reliance on potable water and, at and carry suspended solids into the tank. the same time, reducing water fl ow to the It is advisable to include a simple fi rst fl ush December 105 2688 5040 fl ood plain during heavy rains. Rainwater diversion system. Total(lin/m) 7130 18253 34224 harvesting systems are used in urban areas in many parts of the world, the most Depending on the size of the home and the * This precipitation information is based on suitable system for Diepsloot consists amount of rain in the region, it is possible monthly averages for the 30-year period of collecting rainwater from house roofs to harvest signifi cant amounts of rainwater 1961 – 1990 for the city of Johannesburg for various domestic uses. Ideally every and therefore make considerable savings (South African Weather Service – www. RDP household could collect roof water on water supply systems. The rainfall weathersa.co.za) and store it in tanks of varying capacity pattern of Johannesburg – considered ** using a runoff coeffi cient of 0.8 (ASCH, depending on the roof areas. to be similar to Diepsloot – shows that from November to March rains are more 1992) The informal component of Diepsloot abundant, whereas from June to August *** two of the four types of RDP housing presents limitations for implementing these there is less than 10 mm of rain per that are to be constructed by the end of systems. This is due to factors such as month in average. The following table 2007 in Diepsloot (http://www.joburg.org. limited roof areas for collection, diffi culties indicates the quantity of water that could za/2005/jul/jul13_housing.stm) in installing gutters on roofs made from be harvested per month with two different scrap metal and the presence on the types of RDP houses. (Unpublished research Giuntoli 2007) roofs of objects that secure the roof itself from wind or are simply stored for lack of space. It would be more appropriate to limit the use of these systems to the RDP 46 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

PROPOSED WATER MANAGEMENT

This plan illustrates the proposed water management strategy. Dark blue areas will be deeper wetland lagoons that become ever shallower as water moves through the system.

Darker blue wetlands will be full at all times. Lighter blue illustrates ephemeral wetlands that will only be inundated in the wet season. The remainder of the year these areas will be masses of sedges and wetland grasses.

The proposed hydrological pattern is overlaying the existing fl oodline here to illustrate existing and proposed fl oodlines.

The green arrows represent best potential locations for bio-swales. They link small ‘raingardens’ together (shown as green shapes here). They slow and treat water before it reaches the main wetland system, they also improve the microclimate of the streets and draw planting through the township. 47

WATER MANAGEMENT IN CONTEXT

This plan shows the existing fl oodline/marshland boundary and the proposed wetland system. Flooded areas are confi ned to the central area of the marshland. This groundplane manipulation allows potential for new development within the current fl oodplane. 48 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

PROPOSED OPEN SPACE

This plan illustrates proposed parks and public open spaces. These spaces relate directly to the proposed crossing points creating community spaces at those areas where formal and informal systems have been linked by the new connectors.

This attachment to new crossing points is key to the public spaces. They become areas with the highest chance of use by all members of the Diepsloot community.

The structure of the connector bridges/roads should be designed in detail so as to allow the creation of this public land through backfi lling of excavated material against the road structure. This will allow a logically phased development that can be completed over any amount of time.

These open spaces include a large central park with a football fi eld. Other spaces are large enough for many formal and informal recreational uses. Such programs would be generated by the community. 49

OPEN SPACE IN CONTEXT

This plan shows the connector roads, thier effect on the hydrological system and the proposed public open spaces that relate to both proposed systems. 50 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

13. URBAN AGRICULTURE

Throughout Diepsloot there are several a process of ‘in-situ strip cropping’ was Although mainly as an education project small-scale agricultural initiatives. These proposed. Crops are planted on alternating to teach people how to grow food in are mostly growing leafy vegetables. strips that follow the contours of the land. confi ned conditions with one metre of soil, They are often associated with a small These crops control erosion and retain land reforms have been initiated along informal vegetable store. Although there water for crop growth. The crops are tilled with government supported agricultural is an interest and expertise in agriculture, back into the soil and through a series of collectives. The government is attempting there is not enough land secured for phases, renovate the soil profi le. Organic to cut down the dependency on imported any large-scale endeavors. At present, content and soil depth are increased food. (Brillembourg et al. 2005, p.114) agriculture is only an informal activity. whilst compacted soil is aerated. Native Through the process of reducing Throughout developing countries, it has grasses begin to re-seed. The important dependency on others, community capacity been proven that improved agriculture part of the Fresh Kills landscape is that the can be developed. results in more and cheaper food and rehabilitation phase of the parkland is as an increase in jobs. In Diepsloot, a important as the fi nal result. The positive component of the central river space could process of transformation and improved be converted to productive agricultural health is read in the landscape itself as the land. Due to the long-term pollution of this process takes place. The key techniques area, before agriculture is considered, soil used here are soil making, succession must be tested and rehabilitated. ‘Soils planting and landform manipulation. vary in their productivity for agriculture (Corner 2005, p.14-21) Below: Informal economy operates in Diepsloot. as a function of texture, organic matter, Most of these are small survivalist enterprises. Despite urban agriculture’s positive chemical composition, elevation, slope and (Image: Tyrrell 2007) outcomes for food security, fi nancial exposure.’ (McHarg 1992, p.56) As part of prosperity and skill development, its large- the long term phased approach, the central scale implementation may encounter initial marshlands project could be phased so diffi culties in Diepsloot. Consultation with that with each stage of development, some residents in 2007 suggested that some form of land rehabilitation is achieved. residents felt that they had moved closer to Fresh Kills parkland in New York is an the city so as to escape the rural lifestyle example of this type of phased land and were opposed to such farming work. rehabilitation model. Previously, the Others saw ownership of produce and site was the world’s largest sanitary possible theft as problematic, although waste dump. Now it is in the process of there is no evidence of theft occurring at transformation into 2200 acres of public the current small-scale enterprises. parkland, tidal marshland and creeks. Globally however, there are many Fresh Kills is a landscape scheme that was successful examples in developing conceived as an ecological rehabilitation and developed countries where urban project that could not be designed; rather agriculture has and is being tested. In it would evolve over a six-stage process Caracas for example, near the central taking thirty years to grow a landscape park, there is a government supported and its healthy ecosystems. Rather scheme to grow vegetables in the city. than importing uncontaminated topsoil, 51

Left: A small food store sells potatoes imported from Pretoria, a transport cost that could be easily eliminated. Some of the leafy vegetables grown in the plot pictured below are sold at this store. (Image: Tyrrell 2007)

Left: This is one of several small agricultural plots set up by individuals in Diepsloot. This one is affi xed to the small store above. (Image: Tyrrell 2007) 52 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

PROPOSED AGRICULTURAL PLOTS

This plan illustrates the proposed location of agricultural land in the central spine. These pieces of land are the upper terraces of the proposed hydrological system. They may or may not be able to use the treated grey water from adjacent wetlands for irrigation. This will depend on the water quality achieved by the hydrological treatment system proposed earlier.

The location of agricultural land is proposed between the public spaces further from the proposed connections.

A large area of productive land will be achieved through this scheme. This proposal will signifi cantly raise levels of food security, employment, wealth and community cohesion/ empowerment.

Formal recognition and supply of such land for agriculture will begin to move informal business ventures beyond survivalist enterprises. This capacity lift is the fi rst step towards inclusion of Diepsloot in the ‘formal’ economy of Johannesburg. 53

PROPOSED AGRICULTURAL PLOTS IN CONTEXT

This plan shows the proposed location of agricultural lands in relation to other elements of the proposal. Note thier proximity to informal settlement areas. 54 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

FURTHER PROPOSED CONNECTIONS

This plan illustrates further proposed connections through and beside the new community river corridor.

These connections unify the various public spaces and become ‘parkland promenades’

They are also important elements in order to increase safety through public surveillance of open space. 55

PROPOSED CONNECTIONS IN CONTEXT

The proposed links bring overall connectivity between all the proposed elements. 56 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

14. SITES FOR CIVIC BUILDINGS, RETAIL, RECYCLING AND NEW RESIDENTIAL TYPOLOGIES

As well as improved connectivity and public realm, it is proposed that the central marshland spine will also have the potential to introduce public buildings such as police stations, market buildings, schools, childcare facilities and transport nodes near the main road. Once the popularity of the central marshland area begins to grow, informal commercial activity will begin to occur. In turn, more formal commercial interventions and new compact housing models should be generated within these areas.

POTENTIAL SITES FOR CIVIC BUILDINGS

Potential sites for community buildings are illustrated in this plan. Similarly to the location of public open space, these locations have been proposed at key points where new connections or spaces will draw together formal and informal layers of the township.

On some occasions, the proposed location will complete development blocks and give them a new face in the central spine. These buildings would be perfectly located for a variety of community and institutional uses that are planned for Diepsloot.

The buildings proposed at the eastern end of the river corridor are located so as to become landmark structures for the new development. They could house market or transport nodes or both. They are key to linking Diepsloot to the outside world of Johannesburg via William Nicol Drive. 57

PROPOSED SITES FOR BUILDINGS

The proposed building sites relating to proposed key crossing points and open spaces. These buildings also relate to the grain of Diepsloot’s existing built form and road systems, often completing or giving a face to incomplete blocks. 58 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

15. THE URBAN DESIGN VISION

This plan shows all the proposed elements together. A complete transformation from polluted wasteland to a spine of community and ecological infrastructure. An intervention that connects ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ systems and develops Diepsloot as a whole.

This design proposal has taken care not to displace any existing structure or home, formal or informal that was erected at the time of the design. 59

THE URBAN DESIGN VISION IN CONTEXT 60 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

16. WHY SHOULD THE CITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPPORT THIS DESIGN PROPOSAL?

Unlike individual housing delivery, such as sports fi elds, community halls One of the fi rst steps in this process, community capacity to formulate policy etc. (Department of Housing 2005) These and the step most reliant on the city of and execute development can be built statements support the notion of new, Johannesburg will be legal protection of through the process of delivery of a shared community developed public space for the central marshland for the purpose of infrastructure. In this case the proposal Diepsloot. community use. Edesio Fernandes (2006, for shared infrastructure consists of water p.242) states that the future success With regards to the space being proposed treatment wetlands, public space and of cities in developing countries ‘will on marginal land of the central marshlands, agricultural plots that will, as a product also depend on how state action through land South Africa’s ‘Informal Settlement contribute to the capacity of the community. use regulation and strategies of urban Upgrading Programme’ provides funding The proposal fi ts with the government’s environmental management confront the for land rehabilitation. This programme white paper vision on community capacity process of socio-spatial exclusion and mostly funds ‘drainage, stormwater building, or as they call it: ‘people centered growing urban poverty.’ intervention and the engineering of steep development’ slopes’ (Department of Housing 2005) Fernandes argues for legal reform to 4.4.4 People-centred Development: Huchzermeyer (2006, p.50) presumes that ensure the ‘right to the city’. This proposal such intervention is beyond that simply for Diepsloot relies on the state providing ‘Government is committed to a required for development of housing. This security of tenure for the use of land to development process driven from technicality is key to this proposal as it is promote this communal right, the right to within communities. Through imperitive to rehabilitate the land as public free access to community space and a its policies and strategies it will infrastructure rather than develop further healthy environment for all citizens of the encourage and support initiatives housing on it. world. emerging from communities or broader local social compacts Further support can be found in Section aimed at equipping and 13.11 of the Housing Code, which covers empowering people to drive their the ‘General Conditions for Pilot Projects’. own economic empowerment, It states that areas to be rehabilitated the development of their physical ‘typically comprise areas with environment and the satisfaction extremely high water tables, of their basic needs. Policies must settlements situated on fl oodplains recognise and give effect to this and settlements located on infi ll approach.’ (http://www.info.gov. areas or near mine dumping sites/ za/whitepapers/1994/housing. slime dams’ (Department of Housing, htm#4.2) 2005c:31) (Huchzermeyer 2006, p.50) Huchzermeyer (2006, p.49) notes that These excerpts from the housing strategy ‘The provision of social and economic indicate that the government would facilities plays a major role in the objective in theory support the transformation of empowerment for the ‘Informal of the fl ood prone lands of Diepsloot Settlements Upgrading Programme’. into community open space and a Social development is envisioned ‘through water treatment train of environmental the delivery of primary, municipal-level infrastructure. social amenities and community facilities 61

17. DEVELOPMENT PHASING

Once government support for community (Brillembourg et al. 2005, p.107) These 2. The successes and failures of the land use is gained, it is proposed that are localised, small scale projects with project must be evaluated and the process the phasing of this development can direct community benefi t. The idea here is altered in light of these evaluations. then occur at a slower speed. Unlike a that these small projects would be brought The process should be clearly documented building, public space improvement does together by the agreed masterplan and that in order to develop a model for similar not need to be completed in totality prior they would become more than the sum of projects in other informal settlements in to its use. One of the major benefi ts of their parts through urban design process South Africa and beyond. this proposal is that it can be phased as and product. This city acupuncture has funding becomes available and community very close similarities to the way the World expertise is built. Once a master plan for Bank describes strategic incramentalism the area is in place and there is local and discussed earlier. government authorship / ownership of that Phasing of the project would therefore take plan, there is the potential for it to become the following broad direction: a series of smaller community led projects. IN THE SHORT TERM: The ‘Urban Think Tank’ experience in Caracas identifi es a key principle to be 1. The City of Johannesburg should shift applied to this Diepsloot project; that not immediate attention away from individual everything needs to be completed at housing supply in Diepsloot and onto once. Wright (2005, p.81) comments on community infrastructure supply. the notion of public space transformation: 2. The city must enable the security of the ‘Designated public spaces are rare in marshlands for such purposes. these dense informal agglomerations but, once again, it is possible to build IN THE MID TERM: on and transform what exists. After 1. Detailed schemes must be designed by all, people everywhere are drawn to local experts with the Diepsloot community spatial incongruities, irregularities and fully involved. improvisations. A space can bring together citizens whose urban rights have 2. One section of the entire overall been denied, reaffi rming their pride and proposal must be delivered quickly. i.e. resistance. A community building or open One connection, one agricultural plot, space is all the more signifi cant in peoples one storm water treatment wetland, one lives if it also provides for everyday needs playground, one meeting place / market like childcare, job training and sports’ area etc. (Wright cited in Brillembourg et al. 2005, p.81). IN THE LONG TERM: ‘One approach to phasing of a large 1. Capacity must be built in the community transformation such as the central members themselves. Community must marshlands scheme is what Ignasi de Sola be enabled to build out the rest of the plan Morales has defi ned as ‘city acupuncture’ with limited reliance on outside experts, yet strong links with the city of Johannesburg. 62 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

Tyrrell 2007 63

APPENDIX

A PROPOSAL FOR MOVING THE VISION FORWARD 64 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

18. CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNITY CAPACITY COMMUNITY CAPACITY Drive, with transport nodes, landmarks and DEVELOPED BY PROCESS: DEVELOPED BY PRODUCT: markets. When returned to South Africa, it is If parts, or the entire ‘Urban Design Vision’ intended that this design proposal proposed in part two are adopted by generates discussion and proposes a community and government, this scheme possible way forward for the development could: of Diepsloot. For the proposal to develop a. Establish stronger environmental identity community capacity, members of the and sense of place. Providing shared community will be called upon to be part space with a strong sense of locality of a series of design workshops with city is essential in building a community. In offi cials and local NGOs (open to all). Diepsloots case there is the possibility As described in part one, it is essential of turning the major boundary within the that there is demand side ownership of the community into the major binding element process and product. In early stages, this of the community and its formal and ‘Urban Design Vision’ will be presented informal components. as a set of loose ideas to promote debate b. Increase connectivity throughout the and understanding of current development township goals. This design will act as a catalyst for development discussion. The design c. Improve storm and grey water process will be driven from this point by management through swale and wetland government and community members, systems on public land, reducing fl ooding altered and changed as locals provide risk and improving sanitation. input and local experts are identifi ed. d. Provide safe space for recreation, Capacity will be developed through performance, sport etc. the process of building communities e. Increase food security and local experience in community policy economy through community agriculture on management and establishing stronger public land. communication links between the community and the government. It is f. Give a benefi cial use to the marshlands envisioned that through this process of that in time will discourage squatting upon working together at a broad visioning level, dangerously fl ood prone land. important networks will be built within g. Encourage the construction of civic community and between community and buildings and new retail and residential city offi cials. NGO groups should also be typologies in this rehabilitated central area. included in this process if possible. h. Increase links between formal and informal layers of community and also with the wider city by opening up the marshland corridor to the main road William Nicol 65

It is possible to help develop community capacity in Diepsloot through the process and product of small physical interventions.

This process was tested with success during ‘The Global Studio’ in 2007 where small scale stormwater repair and maintenance works were instigated by working groups of outsiders and residents and then carried forth by many community members. (Images: Tyrrell 2007) 66 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

19. MOVING FORWARD WITH THE PROPOSAL. SOME SUGGESTED STEPS TO SHIFT FROM DESIGN VISION TO DEVELOPMENT TOOL

STEP 1 CONSULTATION It may be useful to summarise key in collaboration with local community PROCESS stakeholders roles at different stages of the organisations to prepare performance project cycle, in a participation matrix. indicators. Design and conduct consultation processes to involve representatives Although diffi cult, attempts must be made STEP 1C ANALYSIS AND from local government departments to include in the dialogue those opposed PLANNING STRUCTURE (THE and local community organisations. The to change. There must be a strong position FOLLOWING LIST MUST BE consultation processes will facilitate and a plan for managing opposition. REVISED AS THE PROJECT sharing of information and provide a forum CONTINUES) STEP 1B REPRESENTATIVE for exchange of pertinent ideas relating ELECTIONS AND INFORMATION The overall environment to the proposed project. This will cultivate SUMMARY: a sense of ownership of the project by all Current social context, issues and stakeholders and interested community A percentage of the initial interested group challenges, specifi cally racial mix and the members from the initial stages, and a may be elected as representatives for the current threat of xenephobic violence shared sense of responsibility. periodic town hall meeting. Their jobs will Current economic context include following discussions, reviewing STEP 1A PARTICIPATORY information collected and clarifying Current political context DIAGNOSIS: underlying causes of any major problems. Priorities, policy making, individual and Hold a small town hall meeting in Diepsloot It is essential to distinguish between organisation capacity building on a periodic basis. Activities may include individual, organisational and institutional drawing up a list to include all stakeholders Key drivers of change capacity development possibilities and and interested community members. This between technical and governance Key stakeholders and their interests list would include their interests and a requirements. Problems caused by preliminary assessment of the likely impact Previous and current capacity building the defects in the wider institutional or of the project on those interests. efforts governance environment, for example poor Percieved constraints or problems policy framework should be understood. Expected or desired outcomes from the should be noted and incorporated in an proposed phase A tool such as a problem tree analysis may agenda. SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, aid in clarifying links between problems, Opportunities, Threats) analysis may Incentives to infl uence commitment and symptoms and real underlying causes. be used to encourage further dialogue. active, constructive participation of key stakeholders Community and government rather First phase construction projects must than external advisors should identify attain some tangible early successes to Accountability arrangements appropriate stakeholder participation. encourage and maintain support. This is in keeping with a phased building approach Less powerful members of the community similar to the ‘city acupuncture’ or ‘strategic must be included in the process. Their incramentalism’ models discussed earlier. input should be sought through informal smaller meetings as some of them may The project must seek to develop in a be reluctant to express their real views in participatory manner. Commitment to public. participatory outcomes may be improved by maintaining dialogue and working 67

CHECKLIST: STEP 3. CREATING JOBS Is the strategy changing? All construction and maintenance employment should be progressively What are the revised objectives and goals? transferred back to Diepsloot residents. What are the revised priorities? Key individuals trained during construction must pass on training within the township Has developing the strategy incorporated and be given incentive to do so. information obtained through consultations with key stakeholders and through SWOT Local people must be incorporated into the analysis? formal development process of Diepsloot in every possible way. This brings essential Have different gender needs and income to local people and thus creates experiences been considered? incentive for hard work and policy support. Are the goals and strategy generally understood? STEP 1D THE DEVELOPMENT ACTION PLAN An action plan should be designed to include: Objective and goal outcomes Expected main outcomes, products or services Indicators Anticipated impact of proposed phase STEP 2. WINNING MAXIMUM SUPPORT FROM GOVERNMENT AND NGOS Outcomes and the changing development plan should be shared with the government as well as any relevant NGOs. The process of design and delivery should at all times seek to link with the government’s informal settlement development policies discussed earlier. 68 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

20. FRAMEWORK FOR ONGOING EVALUATION

Constant evaluation and re-evaluation evaluation is necessarily qualitative (Ghai THE CHOSEN EVALUATION of the approach is essential in order cited in Maconick 2002, p.72). METHOD: to incorporate external environmental This has implications for the manner The proposal explained in section 19 variations due to changes in economy, in which evaluation is conducted. It is should be evaluated using an evaluation society and globalisation. The way to benefi cial to conduct it in inclusive way tool similar to the ‘Organisational determine whether the proposal as so that all participants feel a part of the Capacity Indicator’ and the ‘Institutional stated above will actually succeed once evaluation process, rather than the object Development Framework’ (USAID 2000). implemented is to put into place an of evaluation. Capacity evaluations have appropriate and effective evaluation tool. PROCESS OF SELECTING a tendency to generate a much higher Evaluation is essential for this Diepsloot EVALUATION GOALS: level of defensive behavior in those being proposal, in order that authentic capacity ORGANISATIONAL CAPACITY evaluated. It will therefore be necessary building may be initiated and sustained. INDICATOR: to bear this in mind when conducting The proposal must have tangible results. evaluations regarding implementation of The Organisational Capacity Indicator is an As Ghai notes, ‘the world community has design ideas. evaluation method whereby the capacity never been so unanimous in regarding areas of the group are entirely self defi ned. It is reasonable to assume that real the eradication of absolute poverty as progress may not be able to be assessed 1.The consultative process and the most important moral, social and for many years. There is little agreement implementation of the proposal will be economic challenge of our times. But the on what is a reasonable period within made up of a mixture of people from gap between offi cial rhetoric and concrete which to assess progress on capacity NGOs, Diepsloot and the government. The measures has seldom been so stark.’ issues (Morgan 2006, p.18) and therefore fi rst stages of consultation will establish (Ghai cited in Maconick 2002, p.13). It is it is important that the evaluation method a task group who are responsible for therefore clear that evaluation plays an chosen is not time-restrictive. the management and execution of the important role in ensuring that this proposal proposal. will not lead to rhetoric but instead will be a It is considered important that a range base for tangible results. of bodies in Diesploot undertakes the 2.The task group will together discuss evaluation. Maconick (2002, p.14) and consider their role and the existence INITIAL ASSUMPTIONS ON THE comments that it is essential to ensure of the team. They will identify hopes for EVALUATION METHOD the appropriate involvement of national the future, which will form the capacity Before launching into the chosen organisations, including local benefi ciaries areas that the team works to monitor and evaluation method, it is useful to fi rst and government authorities, in planning improve. acknowledge the assumptions upon which and implementing operational activities, as 3.The group will then develop ‘future the choice has been made. Firstly, the well as in evaluating their effectiveness, visions’. These are pictures of the future, proposed plan for the Diesploot settlement since only then can a signifi cant impact be and will contribute to the shape of the is one that builds upon the capacity of expected.’ group. They will contribute to the overall the settlement and the community within Accordingly, the evaluation method chosen objective that the group will measure it. Morgan states ‘in contrast to program must ensure that a diverse range of groups itself against its own vision for the future. evaluations, those to do with capacity carries out the evaluation. This is benefi cial because they will not issues come much closer to assessing be measured by an external standard. personal and organisational behavior’ This evaluation tool seeks to overcome (Morgan 2006, p.18). In other words, the 69

problems by ensuring that the evaluation method is fully participatory. 4.From the broad capacity areas, specifi c indicators are identifi ed. 5.The group then designs a process for assessing itself, the results of which facilitate future progress. The Institutional Development Framework should be used as a fl exible guide. ASSESSMENT TOOL: THE INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK: 1.This evaluation method should focus on fi ve key capacity areas and key indicators identifi ed in the above Organisational Capacity Indicator stage. 2.These key indicators will be rated at one of four states along a development continuum (1=start up, 2=development, 3=expansion/consolidation, and 4=sustainability). Criteria will be put against each stage of development. 3.Through discussion and consensus, the group members then use the criteria to determine where along the development continuum they are situated for each indicator. Then the group decides which areas are most important to work on and which should be granted the highest priority. The resulting graphic is a visual mark of their targets for the future. This method is suggested as it not only assesses an Tyrrell 2007 organisation’s capacity but also sets priorities for future improvements. 70 Urban Design for Capacity Development in Informal Settlements

21. REFERENCES

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Lynch, K. 1960,The Image of the City, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Maconick, R. 2002, Capacity-Building for Poverty Eradication : Analysis Of, and Lessons From, Evaluations of UN System Support to Countries’ Efforts, United Nations Publication, Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations, New York. Mason, J. 2003, Sustainable Agriculture, Landlinks Australia. McHarg, I. 1992, Design With Nature, Wiley, USA. Norberg-Schulz, C. 1984, Genius Loci. Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, Rizzoli International Publications Inc, New York. North, D., Wallis, J., Weingast, B. 2006, A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History, Working Paper 12795, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Rowe, C & Koetter, F. 1983, Collage City, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Schurch, T. 1999 ‘Reconsidering Urban Design: Thoughts about its Defi nition and Status as a Field or Profession’ , Journal of Urban Design, Vol. 4, No. 1. Sinclair, C & Stohr, K. 2006, Design Like You Give a Damn, Thames and Hudson, London. Teskey, G. 2005, ‘Capacity Development and State Building’: Issue, Evidence and Implications for DFID’, DFID, Government and Social Development Group. USAID Center for Development Information and Evaluation 2007, Recent Practices in Monitoring and Evaluation TIPS, USAID.

World Wide Web Resources: http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/384/70/PDF/N0238470.pdf http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/ http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rainwaterharvesting/sizingthesystem.html http://www.reuk.co.uk/index.htm