DOCSLIB.ORG

A CRITICAL REVIEW on AYURVEDIC DRUG KAPARDIKA (CYPRAEA MONETA LINN.) Kulshrestha Mayank Krishna1*, Karbhal Kamleshwar Singh2 1Dept

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A CRITICAL REVIEW on AYURVEDIC DRUG KAPARDIKA (CYPRAEA MONETA LINN.) Kulshrestha Mayank Krishna1*, Karbhal Kamleshwar Singh2 1Dept Kulshrestha Mayank Krishna et al. IRJP 2012, 3 (10) INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF PHARMACY www.irjponline.com ISSN 2230 – 8407 Review Article A CRITICAL REVIEW ON AYURVEDIC DRUG KAPARDIKA (CYPRAEA MONETA LINN.) Kulshrestha Mayank Krishna1*, Karbhal Kamleshwar Singh2 1Dept. Of Rasa Shastra & Bhaisajya Kalpana, Rajiv Lochan Ayurveda Medical College & Hospital, Chandkhuri, Durg, (C.G), India 2Dept. Of Rasa Shastra & Bhaisajya Kalpana, Govt. Ayurveda College, G.E. Road, Raipur, (C.G), India Article Received on: 16/08/12 Revised on: 15/09/12 Approved for publication: 13/10/12 *Dr. Mayank Krishna Kulshrestha Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Kapardika (Cypraea moneta Linn.) are the choice of drug for many indications in Ayurvedic practice. These are the sea products and obtained from seacoast. These were once used for playing purpose by children, ornamental purpose by women and used as money unit since ancient time. Literatures of ancient science and current available materials are reviewed to highlight the importance of Kapardika. This literary information may serve as an evidence to establish current research in ancient Ayurvedic systems. Key words- Ayurveda, Kapardika, Cypraea moneta INTRODUCTION Hindi - Kaudi Ayurveda is a well-documented traditional system of Indian Kannada - Kauri Medicine. Rasa Shastra, an offshoot of Ayurveda popular Latin - Cypraea Moneta from medieval period, mostly deals with therapeutic Marathi - Kauri utilization of metals and minerals1,2. In traditional system of Oriya - Kauri medicine the Kapardika (Cypraea moneta), have been used as Persian - Kajak, Khar-mohara, Gosh Mahi medicine to cure various ailments mainly related with Sanskrit - Kaparda stomach and in the treatment of dyspepsia, jaundice, Sindhi - Pingo enlarged spleen, liver, asthma, cough and also reported to be Tamil - Kauri externally used as caustic in various forms of ointments3,4. Telgu – Gavalu Kapardika is also included in Sadharan Rasa5,6. Kapardika is Description the name given to small convolute glossy shells of variegated Cowries generally belong to the member of mollusks and colours of oblong, oval shape varying in size7.Cowries shells family of Cypraeidae, they are favourite of collectors because were used in many area of medicines i.e. dyspepsia, jaundice, of their beautiful colours. The mantle is usually ornamented enlarged spleens and liver, asthma and cough8. In the present with papillae that provide camouflage and assist in scenario the use of Cowries preparations are single drugs or respiration. The colour of the mantle some times matched the as ingredients in many Ayurvedic medicines has evoked spongs it feed upon11. concerns and debate in the scientific forums in the recent Habitat times. The present study was undertaken to review the It is found in the Sea. It lives on rocky ground particularly in Ayurvedic as well as modern concept of Kapardika. and about coral roofs. It is found in Sea mainly in India and Synonyms Pacific Oceans7. Kapardika has numerous synonyms like, varat, varatika, Morphology kapardaka, kaparda, kapardi, charachar, char etc. The various It is small, convolute glossy shells of variegated colours synonyms of kapardika as explained in different Rasa Sastra (white, yellow, red) of oblong oval shape varying in size texts are given in Table-1. from a tamarind seed to an almond. The upper surface is Historical Review smooth, shiny and convex. Base is compressed with a cleft in An ancient time, Indians had a special definite and decisive the center which runs longitudinally, toothed on both sides knowledge of Kapardika. According to the text, Kapardika and channeled at each end7. has been possibly considered to be used since mid-eval Varieties period9.First affirms knowledge of Kapardika was known by In Rasa sastra varieties of Kapardika are mentioned on the the Indus Valley civilization. Ayurvedic texts have adequate basis of its weight, size and colour. On the basis of knowledge about Kapardika bhasma, its various formulations weight5,13,15,27,28,31,39,40,41,43, there are three varieties i.e. 11/2 and its medicinal properties. Mainly in Rasa Sastra texts Niska, 1 Niska and ¾ Niska. Kapardika which is one and half Kapardika is mentioned in “Sadharan Rasa”. The etymology Niska (11/2 sana) in weight, is considered as Uttam (best). of Kapardika has mentioned in the text “Amarkosha”10. Kapardika which is one Niska in weight is Madhyama Vernacular names of kapardika7,8,12,20 (medium). Kapardika which is ¾ Niska in weight is Hina Arabic - Sadaf (inferior). Bengali - Kadi According Rasa ratna samucchaya5,15,27,28,31,39,40,41,43, Chinese - Shou Mu Li Kapardika which is having yellowish tinge, has nodules on English - Cowrie, Marine shell, Covries the back and which is oval in shape, is praised as Kapardika. French - Porcelaneous Ecale The Kapardika which is not processing above mentioned German - Porcelaneous Schalen qualities considered as Guru and to increase Kapha and Pitta Gujarati - Kodi dosa. On the basis of colour14, there are three varieties of Page 8 Kulshrestha Mayank Krishna et al. IRJP 2012, 3 (10) Kapardika are mentioned on the basis of colour i.e. Pitta Vipaka6 - Katu (yellow), Sweta (white) and Dhusra (grey). Out of these Pitta Verya6 - Ushna (yellow) colour Kapardika is considered as best. Sweta Karma6 - Depana, Vrushya, netrya, Rasayana, Sukrakara, (white) colour as medium and Dhusara (grey) colour as Rasendrajarana, Dosahari, Vida nirmanakari. undesired. According to Ayurveda Prakash15,43, three types of Dosa Prabhava6 - Kaphavataghna, Kapardika are Sweta (white), Rakta (Red) and Pitta (Yellow). Vyadhi Prabhava6 - Parinam asula, Grahani, Kshaya roga, Based on structure two types Kapardika are described i.e. Sula, Netra roga, Sukra susti, Sphota, Karna srava, Granthi Yukta (with knot) and Granthi Vihina (without Agnimandya, Pitta roga, Rakta roga, Kapharoga. Knot)16. Dose20,43 - 2 Ratti (250 mg). Physical Properties Anupana20,43 - Vasa swarasa, Nimbu swarasa, Trikatu Yellowish in colour, having nods on back surface, heavy in kashaya, Udumbara swarasa. weight and long Vrinta (Peripheri) should not have any Vrana Chemical Constituents (cut or fissure) on their surface6. The ash form of Cyprea moneta known as cowrie bhasma Modern View contains phosphate, fluoride and Carbonate of Calcium, The money cowrie shell or Cypraea moneta belongs to the mangnesium and phosphate and manganese8. The analysis of cowrie family. It occurs in areas with warm water the Kapardika bhsama shows that the overall process of the temperatures such as the Maldive Islands. These shells have formation of kapardika bhasma involves decarbonation of medium size teeth, not extending across the base. They are calcium carbonate in aragonite form and reformation of the heavily margined, with base and margin white and unspotted. calcium carbonate in the calcite form. This transformation In some modern examples a black transverse line crosses the occurs via formation of calcium hydroxide and calcium oxide dorsum almost centrally17. The cowrie shell is one of the as the intermediates. Kapardika bhasma is thus highly most remarkable primitive currencies ever used before the crystalline calcium carbonate in the calcite form with advent of gold and silver coinage. This shell extended its presence of trace elements like Mg, Al, K, Fe and Zn13. range further than any form of money before or since, Pharmacological Activity spreading from China and India to the Pacific Islands, Cowries shells were used in many area of medicine, travelling across and encircling Africa and then penetrating examples include deadly venoms of some cowries shells used the New World18. Cypraea moneta Linnaeus,1758, is an to help victims of strokes and heart diseases and to produce a abundant and easily recognized gastropod throughout the revolutionary new drug for chronic pain control. The cement Indo-West-Pacific. A number of names distinguishing of the carrier shell is used as a possible cement for bone subspecies and races have been introduced for the money fractures. Powdered Pearl’s from shell are used as a topical cowry, and it is generally recognized as a highly variable eye medicine and it has been scientifically proved to have species19. Different colours of cowries are dependent on the21 some anti-inflammatory effect in painful condition called » Sexual hormones conjunctivitis and is also used as calcium supplement both » Genetic factor for human and animal and is an inhibitor of cancer in mice22 . » Pigmentationss Report shows that 10% of all cowries had been investigated » Disease in detail for bioactive agent24,25. » Injury Toxicity Study » Diet Animals (mice) treated with Kapardika bhasma did not show » Presence or absence of aluminium and other compounds any sign of toxicity in the acute toxicity study. No abnormal » The acidity of the soil and water22 behavior and mortality was observed during 72 hrs after drug » Temperature of water treatment in any experimental group. The haematological, Primarily genetic abnormalities, injury,disease, and biochemical parameters and biopsy were also taken into environmental factors.Genetic factors can for instance lead to consideration for assessing the toxicity of above-mentioned albinism, while certain diseases produce unusually large and drug26. heavy shells with a calloused, mottled appearance. Uses And Indications Shodhana (Purification) It is used in indigestion, colic, peptic ulcer, eye diseases, It is the process which removes the impurities to some extent dysentery, earache, ulcer7, dyspepsia, jaundice, enlarged and helps in increasing the therapeutic values of the drugs. spleen & liver, asthma and cough8. Calx is prepared from the The various media and procedures as explained in different shells of Cyprea moneta and used as expectorant in chronic Rasa Shastra texts are given in Table 2. bronchitis. A yellow variety is considered good. It is diuretic, Marana (Incineration) anti-diarrhoeic and of value in eye diseases, if used in the Marana (Incineration) is a process of Rasa Shastra to make form of “Surama”, local application with Saltpetre is good for Bhasmas out of metals and minerals for internal leucoderma and skin diseases. Ash is mixed with butter and administration.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 6 Self-Expression and the Materiality of Cowrie Shell Snuff Boxes
    BOXING VENUS: COWRIE SHELL SNUFF BOXES IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE, 1680-1800 by Alexandra Ward A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in American Material Culture Spring 2017 © 2017 Alexandra Ward All Rights Reserved BOXING VENUS: COWRIE SHELL SNUFF BOXES IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE, 1680-1800 by Alexandra Ward Approved: __________________________________________________________ Monica Dominguez Torres, Ph.D. Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee Approved: __________________________________________________________ J. Ritchie Garrison, Ph.D. Director of the Winterthur Program in American Material Culture Approved: __________________________________________________________ George H. Watson, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Arts & Sciences Approved: __________________________________________________________ Ann L. Ardis, Ph.D. Senior Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I began this project I had no idea where it would lead me or whom I would meet along the way, but I am incredibly appreciative for the support and enthusiasm I received during the thesis process. I am grateful to Leah Lane who first showed me these boxes. I am deeply indebted and grateful to my advisor, Monica Dominguez Torres. Her unwavering guidance, dynamic perspective, and constructive feedback helped shape my thesis from its inception. Ann Wagner warmly shared her time and expertise. Her boundless knowledge was instrumental in thinking through the boxes as objects of material culture and understanding how the shell boxes were constructed. I am grateful to Bruno Pouliot for examining Winterthur’s boxes with me and for our discussion on the materiality of the shells.
    [Show full text]
  • Early Globalization Cowries As Currency, 600 BCE-1900
    PETER BOOMGAARD Early globalization Cowries as currency, 600 BCE-1900 Shell money Unless you are a shell collector or a specialist in pre-modern and early modern monetary history of Asia (or Africa), chances are that you have never heard of cowries. Cowries are (usually) relatively small, pretty shells which look as if they are made out of porcelain. They can be found in many tropical seas. There are over 250 recognized species of cowrie (also spelled ‘cowry’), but this article deals mainly with two of them, Cypraea moneta and Cypraea annulus. The first and main protagonist is C. moneta, the money cowrie, as the scien- tific name already indicates. However, C. annulus (the ring cowrie), also used locally as money, is a good second, the more so as primary sources and litera- ture do not always make a distinction between the two. The two species were (and are) to be found in large sections of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, includ- ing areas along the shores of eastern Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, Southeast Asia, China, Oceania, and Australia.1 Cowries have served as ornaments and jewellery in countless societies, past and present. They have been valued by many civilizations since prehistoric times. They were given by rulers as prestige items to individuals, or donated to religious institutions. In addition to all this, the money cowrie and the ring cowrie have circulated as currencies in a number of economies, either alone, or in combination with precious and base metals, coined and uncoined. In historical times, the value of one single cowrie shell was usually very low, and people in those societies where they were legal tender walked around with strings of them, or even entire baskets.
    [Show full text]
  • Cowry Shell Money and Monsoon Trade: the Maldives in Past Globalizations
    Cowry Shell Money and Monsoon Trade: The Maldives in Past Globalizations Mirani Litster Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The Australian National University 2016 To the best of my knowledge the research presented in this thesis is my own except where the work of others has been acknowledged. This thesis has not previously been submitted in any form for any other degree at this or any other university. Mirani Litster -CONTENTS- Contents Abstract xv Acknowledgements xvi Chapter One — Introduction and Scope 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 An Early Global Commodity: Cowry Shell Money 4 1.2.1 Extraction in the Maldives 6 1.2.2 China 8 1.2.3 India 9 1.2.4 Mainland Southeast Asia 9 1.2.5 West and East Africa 10 1.3 Previous Perspectives and Frameworks: The Indian Ocean 11 and Early Globalization 1.4 Research Aims 13 1.5 Research Background and Methodology 15 1.6 Thesis Structure 16 Chapter Two — Past Globalizations: Defining Concepts and 18 Theories 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Defining Globalization 19 2.3 Theories of Globalization 21 2.3.1 World Systems Theory 21 2.3.2 Theories of Global Capitalism 24 2.3.3 The Network Society 25 2.3.4 Transnationality and Transnationalism 26 2.3.5 Cultural Theories of Globalization 26 2.4 Past Globalizations and Archaeology 27 2.4.1 Globalization in the Past: Varied Approaches 28 i -CONTENTS- 2.4.2 Identifying Past Globalizations in the Archaeological 30 Record 2.5 Summary 32 Chapter Three — Periods of Indian Ocean Interaction 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Defining the Physical Parameters 34 3.2.1
    [Show full text]
  • Phenetic Relationship Study of Gold Ring Cowry, Cypraea Annulus
    Aquacu nd ltu a r e s e J i o r u e r h n s a i l F Fisheries and Aquaculture Journal Laimeheriwa, Fish Aqua J 2017, 8:3 ISSN: 2150-3508 DOI: 10.4172/2150-3508.1000215 Research Article Open Access Phenetic Relationship Study of Gold Ring Cowry, Cypraea Annulus (Gastropods: Cypraeidae) in Mollucas Islands Based on Shell Morphological Bruri Melky Laimeheriwa* Department of Water Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Unpatti, Center of Marine and Marine Affairs Pattimura University Ambon, Maluku, Indonesia *Corresponding author: Bruri Melky Laimeheriwa, Department of Water Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Unpatti, Center of Marine and Marine Affairs Pattimura University Ambon, Maluku, Indonesia, Tel: +62 911 322628; E-mail: [email protected] Received date: July 17, 2017; Accepted date: August 08, 2017; Published date: August 15, 2017 Copyright: © 2017 Laimeheriwa MB. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Abstract This study aims to construct taxonomic character of Cypraea annulus based on shell morphological; analyzed the developmental stages of the snail shell and investigated the similarities and phenotypic distances of snails with numerical taxonomic approaches. This research lasted four years on island of Larat and Ambon. The sample used was 2926. Construction of morphological taxonomic characters using binary data types with 296 test characters and ordinal types with 173 test characters; and 32 specimens of operational taxonomic units. The data is processed and analyzed on Lasboratory of Maritime and Marine Study Centre, University of Pattimura.
    [Show full text]
  • Pacific Island Economies
    Pacific Island Economies James Mak Emeritus Professor of Economics University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Illustrations by Julianne Walsh January 2001 (rev July 2012) Center for Pacific Islands Studies School of Pacific and Asian Studies University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa Dr James Mak is an emeritus professor of economics at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. Dr Julianne Walsh is an anthropologist with longtime experience in the Marshall Islands. The Center for Pacific Islands Studies is a National Resource Center for the Pacific, partially supported by funds from the US Department of Education Title VI Program. It is part of the School of Pacific & Asian Studies at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. The center offers a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree in Pacific Islands studies and has an active publishing program, including two book series, a journal on the contemporary Pacific (The Contemporary Pacific: A Journal of Island Affairs), an Occasional Paper series, and a quarterly newsletter. It also has an active outreach program to the community, including teachers. The center may be contacted at: Center for Pacific Islands Studies School of Pacific and Asian Studies University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa 1890 East-West Road, Moore 215 Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822 Fax: (808) 956-7053 Telephone: (808) 956-7700 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.hawaii.edu/cpis 2 Contents Chapters: Chapter 1: What is an Economy? 3 Chapter 2: How Big are Pacific Island economies? 5 Chapter 3: Do Pacific Island Peoples Live Poorly? 10 Chapter 4: What are “Economic
    [Show full text]
  • Issue No. 9 Winter 1993
    African-American Archaeology Newsletter of the African-American Archaeology Network Nurnber9 Thomas R. Wheaton, Editor Winter 1993 New South AssociateS, Inc. Update #3: To Whom Do They New York's Rfrican Belong?: Burial Ground Cowrie Shells in Historical Archaeology (Submitted by Jerome S. Handler) This newsletter has provided two earlier (Submitted by Laurie E. Pearce) reports on the African burial ground in Lower Manhattan (Spring 1992 and Spring 1993). Over the last two decades the field of historical This update reports on major events as of archaeology has undergone an exciting shift November 1,1993. away from focusing on the realm of the wealthy white planter, to include the study of African­ Artifacts from the site are still housed in a labo­ American slaves and freedmen. Where porce­ ratory at the World Trade Center where they lain and silver studies once predominated, are being conserved by a team from John Colonoware and cowrie shells are now taking Milner Associates. In mid-September the first their place as data in interpreting the lives of group of skeletal remains was shipped from African Americans. The cowrie shell (Cypraea Lehman College to Howard University. By the annulus and Cypraea moneta), indigenous to end of September Howard had received 79 skel­ the tropical waters of the Pacific and Indian etons, and by the end of October a total of Oceans, has been postulated as a vestige of approximately 270 skeletons had been received. African culture. This brief report summarizes The skeletons arrived in excellent condition. It the general findings of a preliminary study of is expected that Howard will have the entire the archaeological evidence for cowrie shells in collection of approximately 400 skeletons by North America (Pearce 1992), and raises mid-November.
    [Show full text]
  • Product Catalogue
    Product Catalogue Product : Cowries HSN Code : 05080030 Country of Origin : Africa Scientific Name : Cyprea Moneta (Cowrie Shells /Yellow Cowries/ Money Cowrie/ Peeli or Laxmi Kodi) Pictures General Information Monetaria moneta, common name the money cowry, is a species of small sea snail, a marine marine gastropod mollusk in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries. This species is called "money cowry" because the shells were historically widely used in many Pacific and Indian Ocean countries as shell money before coinage was in common usage. This is a very common species which is found widely in Indo-Pacific tropical waters. It is present in numerous regions, including East and South Africa, Madagascar, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, Maldives, eastern Polynesia, Galapagos, Clipperton and Cocos islands off Central America, southern Japan, Midway and Hawaii, and northern New South Wales and Lord Howe Island. This cowry lives in intertidal rocky areas and shallow tide pools among sea weed, coral remains, and empty bivalve shells. It can be found on and under rocks in shallow water and on exposed reefs at low tide. It feeds on algae and marine vegetation growing on loose rocks and pieces of dead coral. Shells of this cowry were commonly used as a medium of exchange in many areas of Africa, Asia and the Pacific islands until the late 19th century. The Maldives provided the main source of cowrie shells, throughout Asia and parts of the East African coast. Huge amounts of Maldivian cowries were introduced into Africa by slave traders. It was also traded to Native Americans by European settlers.
    [Show full text]
  • The Cowrie Shells
    Chapter 21 The Cowrie Shells Annalisa Christie and Anne Haour 1 Introduction Table 21.1 Sites from which cowries were evaluated Cowrie shells Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) and # Site code No. of specimens Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Figure 21.1; formerly known in the literature as Cypraea moneta and Cypraea 1 KOZ-14-SI 1 annulus), as well as unidentified Cypraea Sp. shells were 2 TOU-14-SI 4 recovered from 11 archaeological sites excavated during 3 TOW-14-SI 3 the Crossroads of Empires project:1 Kozungu, Tomboutou, 4 GOB-14-SI 3 Tondo windi (Birni Lafia), Gorouberi-14, Bogo Bogo, 5 GOG-14-SI 1 Kargui, Molla, Toutokayeri, Boyeri, Kompanti and Tin 6 KGI-14-SI 3 Tin Kanza2 (Table 21.1). These sites cover a range of dates 7 MOL-14-SI 2 from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries AD. This 8 TTO-14-SI 2 chapter summarises the preliminary outcomes of the 9 BOY-14-SI 2 assessment and highlights areas for further work and 10 PTI-14-SI 1 investigation. 11 TTK-13-SII 1 Cowries’ importance to the West African past is undeni- able: they are inevitably mentioned as markers of Africa’s global connections (e.g. Mitchell 2005), and their role that cowries are among the most sought-after commodi- within the West African social fabric suggests a deep his- ties in Kugha, which is seemingly an early capital of the tory. Cowries in West Africa are first mentioned in the mid- Songhai empire, in present-day Mali or Niger (in Levtzion tenth century, as ornaments in women’s hair (Levtzion & & Hopkins 2000: 83).
    [Show full text]
  • Tracking the Cowrie Shell: Excavations in the Maldives, 2016 Anne Haour*, Annalisa Christie, Shiura Jaufar Sainsbury Research Un
    NYAME AKUMA No. 85 JUNE 2016 MALDIVES The importance of cowries in the West African past is well known. They are inevitably mentioned as markers of Africa’s global connections (e.g., John- son 1970; Mitchell 2005; York 1972), and their role Tracking the Cowrie Shell: within the West African social fabric suggests a deep Excavations in the Maldives, history. Cowries in West Africa are first mentioned in th 2016 the mid-10 century, as ornaments in women’s hair (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000: 35). In the 11th century al-Bakri states (in Hopkins and Levtzion 2000: 83) Anne Haour*, Annalisa Christie, that cowries are among the most sought-after com- Shiura Jaufar modities in Kugha (seemingly an early capital of the Songhai Empire, in present-day Mali or Niger); by Sainsbury Research Unit for the the 14th century, cowries are described as currency, Arts of Africa, Oceania and the and an import on which vast profits were made (al Americas Umari, in Hopkins and Levtzion 2000: 260, 269). In the 14th century, ibn Battuta saw 1150 cowries sold University of East Anglia, Norwich for one gold dinar in Mali. Simon Lucas, in the late NR47TJ, United Kingdom. 18th century, explicitly writes that sub-Saharan con- *corresponding author: sumers valued cowries for both ritual and currency usage. Oral traditions today evidence the centrality [email protected] of cowries to West African thought (see especially Iroko 1987), while archaeology confirms the antiq- uity of cowrie usage. They are routinely recovered, some well-known instances being the first-millen- Introduction nium necropolis of Kissi, Burkina Faso (Magnavita 2009), a 10th century burial at Akumbu, Mali (To- This note reports on archaeological fieldwork gola 2008), the 11th century ‘lost caravan’ from the undertaken in early 2016 in the Maldives archipel- Mauritanian Sahara (Monod 1969), the mound of ago, involving excavation at three sites and wider Yohongou in the Atakora mountains of Benin (Petit surveys.
    [Show full text]
  • Cowries from the Missing Caravan of Ma'den Ijafen
    Title: The ‘lost caravan’ of the Ma’den Ijafen revisited: re-appraising its cargo of cowries, a medieval global commodity. Authors: Christie, A.C and Haour, A. Affiliation: University of East Anglia Main Author Email: [email protected] Correspondence Address: Sainsbury Research Unit, Sainsbury Centre For Visual Arts, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom 1 Abstract The lost caravan of Ma’den Ijafen, Mauritania, with its cargo of cowries and brass, is widely discussed in African archaeology, providing significant insight into the nature of long distance trade in the medieval period. While the brass rods recovered by Théodore Monod during his expedition to the site in 1962 have received considerable attention, the cowrie shells described in his comprehensive publication of the assemblage in 1969 have received much less. This issue was addressed during a recent visit to the Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire (IFAN) in Dakar, Senegal in May 2017, when the authors re-examined, the shells. This was part of a wider project which also involved archaeological and environmental surveys in the Maldives, the oft-assumed source of these shells. Examinations of natural history collections of cowries, ethnographic interviews in the Maldives, and environmental surveys in East Africa were also carried out. Drawing on insights from the wider project, we systematically compared the Ma’den Ijafen cowrie assemblage to three others from the Maldives, focussing on four criteria: species composition and diversity, shell size and evidence of modifications. This analysis enabled us to shed new light on the nature of the Ma’den Ijafen cowries and their wider significance to West Africa.
    [Show full text]
  • Kissi Penny, Salt and Manilla: Traditional Money in Africa
    Kissi Penny, Salt and Manilla: Traditional Money in Africa The attempt to pack the various means of payment differing from western coins into one term is ethnocentric, and moreover rather difficult. For many years, the expression "primitive money" has been ordinary. This name is, even though unfortunate, regrettably still frequent. The common name "pre- coinage currencies" is more neutral, but insufficient for uncoined forms of money, as it refers to means of payment before the development of coins, to cultural-historical pre-stages of coined money thus. Yet uncoined forms of money form a much wider field: Its most important and long-lasting representative was the cowry currency, which circulated in many countries parallel to coins; in some places, cowry shells were even a fixed denomination within the currency system. Also often used, but wrongly so, it the term "natural money" for uncoined forms of money. Yet manilas, Katanga crosses and many other uncoined monies are made from metal, and thus not more natural than western gold and silver coins. In fact, natural money is a specific level of development of these means of payment, just as tool money, ornamental money, and bar money. To pay tribute to the diversity of uncoined forms of money, the MoneyMuseum compiles these means of payment under the term "traditional money." Such currencies were developed in virtually all cultures. With the following tour, we will introduce a small selection of African forms. 1 von 16 www.sunflower.ch Cowrie Shell Cypraea moneta Denomination: Cypraea moneta (Money Cowrie) Mint Authority: Mint: Year of Issue: 1900 Weight (g): 2.9 Diameter (mm): 22.0 Material: Others Owner: Sunflower Foundation Cowrie shells were used as money in China, India, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, the Maldives, in New Guinea, the Pacific and in Africa for centuries.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter IV Using Archaeological Material to Supplement Historical Evidence
    University of Pretoria etd – Burger, E (2004) Chapter IV Using archaeological material to supplement historical evidence An interrogation of the documentary evidence in chapter I and II showed that some ambiguities as to the location of the wreck site still exist and that very little has been done to find the survivor camp. Background research and scientific analysis of the archaeological material found in Port Edward may possibly clear up these ambiguities and answer questions as to the final resting place of the São João. Primary archaeological sources i.e. material found during excavations, discussed in chapter III, will be examined according to what has been scientifically achieved with tests and classification together with a discussion of secondary archaeological sources i.e. material found by other researchers and their contribution to the interpretation of the archaeological material. Furthermore, the examination of primary and secondary archaeological sources aims to provide historical insight as to the true origin of the artefacts found in Port Edward. In the past it was believed that the red cornelian beads found along the south east coast are Phoenician trading beads originating from Arab dhows1, while the ship called the Ivy that foundered on the 27th of March 1878, on its way from London to Durban with a large cargo of liquor2 was responsible for fragments of blue-and-white china washed onto the beaches of Port Edward. It will be shown how the archaeological investigation in the area proved that a sixteenth century Portuguese wreck, possibly the São João, is responsible for these particular artefacts washed onto the beaches.
    [Show full text]