Primate Self-Medication, Passive Prevention and Active Treatment - a Brief Review
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
IJMS 2016 vol. 3 (2): 1 - 10 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies (IJMS) Volume 3, Issue 2, 2016 Primate Self-Medication, Passive Prevention and Active Treatment - A Brief Review Michael A Huffman Section of Social Systems Evolution, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan ABSTRACT Parasites and pathogens are a source of diseases that can affect the health, behavior and reproductive fitness of an individual. The study of animal self-medication as a science is relatively new, but traditional societies have long looked to animals for clues to nature’s medicine cabinet. Evidence of self-medication is widespread throughout the animal kingdom. To date, research has classified health maintenance and self-medicative behaviors into five levels: 1) ‘sick behaviors’; 2) behavioral avoidance or reduction of the possibility for disease transmission; 3) dietary selection of items with a preventative or health maintenance effect; 4) ingestion of a substance for the curative treatment of a disease or the symptoms thereof, and; 5) application of a substance to the body or a living space for the treatment or control of vectors or external health condition. Among the groups of animals studied to date, primates have provided the most details for level 3 and 4 behaviors, exemplified by such diverse dietary selection and behaviors as bitter pith chewing and whole leaf swallowing behaviors, used directly in response to increased levels of parasite infection. KEYWORDS: Animal self-medication, primates, medicinal plants, disease control, homeostasis Corresponding author: Michael A. Huffman, Email: [email protected] Michael A. Huffman “The adaptive value of warding off predators, whether larger and faster, or smaller and stealthier then oneself should not be surprising, yet science has been slow to recognize the ability of animals to avoid, suppress or eliminate parasites and other agents of disease that equally compromise their health and wellbeing. While it appears that an awareness of and even practical applications based on the behavior of animals as a source of medicinal wisdom has been around for much of our own species history, science has been slow to appreciate this.” Huffman 2015a 1. INTRODUCTION illness, but there is no reason why it should be restricted to such illnesses alone (Huffman, The study of animal self-medication as a science 1997; 2007b). As all animals experience illness, is relatively recent, although history tells us that it should come as no surprise if we find evidence humans have traditionally long looked to in virtually every living species today. The animals as a source of medicinal knowledge ability of a species to defend itself against life- (Engel, 2002; Huffman, 2002; 2007a). Not only threatening disease provides a significant have humans learned from watching sick wild adaptive advantage and is predicted to occur animals, because we share the same throughout the animal kingdom. evolutionary history, possess a common physiology and have lived together under Much work exists describing the diversity of similar environmental condition for much of our host-parasite relationships in the animal species history, it can be argued that we have kingdom (Clayton & Moore, 1997). Some inherited many of the same ways to combat parasitic infections seem to go unnoticed by the common diseases in the environment (Huffman, hosts. In other cases, when homeostasis is 2015a). In support of this notion, recent disrupted or threatened, it is in the best interest archeological and biochemical evidence of the host to actively respond to alleviate suggests that a close extinct relative in our discomfort. Regardless of the illness, there are lineage, Homo neanderthalensis, also used four basic requirements for demonstrating self- medicinal plants that are still in use today by our medication: i) identify the disease or own species (Hardy et al., 2012; 2013; Huffman, symptom(s) being treated; ii) distinguish the use 2016). of a therapeutic agent from that of everyday food items and or ‘medicinal foods’; iii) demonstrate Research in the field of self-medication is a positive change in health condition following devoted to understanding how animals respond self-medicative behavior, and; iv) provide to threats to their health and how these behaviors evidence for plant activity and or direct are transmitted across generations. It has pharmacological analysis of compounds provided a “bio-rational” for the exploration and extracted from these therapeutic agents exploitation of novel secondary plant (Huffman, 1997). compounds and new insights into how they can be used for the management of health in humans Given our current level of understanding, and livestock (Huffman et al., 1996; 1998; Krief response to illness, either as health maintenance et al., 2005; 2006; Petroni et al., 2016). At the or direct self-medicative behavior, can be proximate level, self-medication may be driven classified into five levels (Huffman, 1994; by the individual’s ‘need’ to maintain 2004): 1) ‘sick behaviors’ (lethargy, depression, physiological homeostasis; that is to feel well anorexia, reduction in grooming, behavioral (Foitova et al., 2009; Forbey et al., 2009). fever, basking behavior; 2) behavioral avoidance or reduction of the possibility for To date, the majority of evidence for self- disease transmission (avoidance of feces medication in animals is about ways in which contaminated food, water, substrates); 3) dietary they deal with parasite or pathogen induced selection of items with a preventative or health Primate Self-Medication, Passive Prevention and Active Treatment maintenance effect (items eaten routinely in and how to ingest it, appear to be acquired and small amounts or on a limited basis); 4) transmitted from generation to generation via ingestion of a substance for the curative socially biased learning and maintained in the treatment of a disease or the symptoms thereof group as culture (Huffman & Hirata, 2004; (use of toxic or biologically active items at low Huffman et al., 2010). frequency or in small amounts, having little no nutritional value), and; 5) application of a substance to the body or a living space for the 2. DIETARY SELECTION OR PASSIVE treatment or control of vectors or external DISEASE PREVENTION? health condition. 2.1. Medicinal food Behaviors to be focused on here fall within levels 3 and 4. In general terms, level 3 includes passive dietary prophylaxis or the consumption For energy, growth, general maintenance, and of ‘medicinal foods’ as health maintenance reproduction the selection a proper diet is very behavior. Emphasis is put on the passive nature important. Typically one thinks of animal of such behavior, since prophylactic treatment feeding strategies as being based on finding and implies intentionality and an understanding of consuming the most essential nutritional both the cause and prevention of illness. So far, elements that is carbohydrates, fats, proteins and this has not been demonstrated in animals, so vitamins and while at the same time avoiding the these dietary choices are expected to be based on negative impact of secondary metabolites in some immediate feedback. plants. For plants, these secondary metabolites protect them from over predation from an array Level 4 includes therapeutic behaviors such as of herbivores (insect, vertebrates) that prey upon the extraction and ingestion of them by reducing palatability and / or pharmacologically active substances from plants digestibility (Glander, 1982). Nonetheless, this or the peculiar ingestion of plants without does not necessarily prevent some animals from nutritional gain. This necessarily requires some actually benefiting from these defense level of awareness of wellness and discomfort compounds. Adult danaine butterflies store and the ability to respond with behaviors that bitter and toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids in their bring about positive change in one’s condition. bodies for defense against predators and males Evidence for self-medication at these two levels depend on them as a precursor for the has been found across the animal kingdom, with biosynthesis of a pheromone component needed homologous behaviors appearing in for courtship. The wooly bear caterpillars of the phylogenetically distant taxa (e.g. swallowing of tiger moth (Platyprepia virginalis) protect whole leaves for the expulsion of tapeworms and themselves from the fatal effects of tachinid nodule worms in chimpanzees, gorillas, parasitoid wasp larvae (Thelaira americana) bonobos, gibbons, and brown bear, snow geese, infection by changing their diet from innocuous civets Huffman, 1997; also see below). The lupine (Lupinus arboreus) to the toxic alkaloid diversity of potentially self-medicating species abundant hemlock (Conium maculatum) if they recognized thus far reflects the common need to become infected. The alkaloids may not kill the prevent, suppress or cure disease, as mentioned developing parasite within the caterpillar, but it above. Current evidence suggest that for insects, does allow the caterpillar to survive such an self-medication may be operated entirely by infection. Studying these kinds of tri-trophic innate mechanisms (Bernays & Singer, 2005), interactions (insect host, plant, parasite) can while for some higher vertebrates like surely help to better understand the foundations chimpanzees, important aspects of self- for the evolution of self-medication in higher medication, such as what plant species and when vertebrates (Bernays