Original article Indian Journal of Forensic Odontology105 Volume 5 Number 3, July - September 2012 Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry

Bhupesh Gupta* Sonia Datta** Pankaj Datta*** *Reader, Department of Conservative Dentistry Endodontics, Inderprastha Dental College & Hospital, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. **Senior Lecturer, Department of Public Health Dentistry, Inderprastha Dental College & Hospital, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad, UP. ***Principal, Professor & Head, Department of Prosthodontics & Dental Materials, Inderprastha Dental College & Hospital, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad, UP. Abstract Forensic expertise methodology normally used in different criminal investigation and forensic medicine field such as blood type, anthropologic analysis and forensic dentistry (dental records, X-rays, bite marks, among others) solved and will continue solving many crimes. Those methods will continue estimating age of several people. Nevertheless, since the development of genetics and molecular biology there were an increase in number and quality of solved cases. The present work points out the importance to associate certain forensic biology areas to traditional investigation methods in human identification, especially with forensic dentistry. It also shows that in some situations, teeth are an important source to genetic analysis and molecular studies. After a scientific literature review it was concluded that it is mandatory that those in forensic investigations acquire knowledge in forensic genetics in order to apply with traditional investigation techniques, this fact would produce an increase of information to Justice. Key Words: Forensic dentistry; Genetic analysis; Molecular biology; Victim identification.

Introduction Therefore, Dental Surgeon acting as a forensic expert helps to solve judicial matters in several Lawsuit areas such as civil and Forensic dentistry can be defined as the field criminal which are the ones most commons. that aims to research psychics, physics, In the former, patients usually argue dentist chemical and biological alterations that may clinical conduct that possibly resulted in a occur to the living or dead as well to a person’s malpractice case and therefore capable of skeleton and even human parts or evidences, receiving money to compensate moral or also it researches human lesions that may material damage1. happen partially or totally, reversible or irreversible. Forensic dentistry researches are On the other hand clinicians may also sue usually associated to the Dental Surgeon field patients in civil area especially when the issue of action and it may consist of analysis, involves charging for professional work. expertise and evaluation of dentistry related While civil matters are related to financial and episodes, but it also can be extended to other material reasons, criminal cases deal with areas if it is necessary in order to find the truth applying punishment either preventive or within Justice and Administration interests. repressive. The most common studied area is to establish relationship between the action and lesions that may have been caused by dental treatment. Others studied areas are Corresponding author: Dr. Pankaj Datta, Principal, Professor & Head, Department of Prosthodontics & Dental related to oral maxilla facial trauma caused Materials, Inderprastha Dental College & Hospital, Sahibabad, by different sources such as mechanical, Ghaziabad, UP. Email: [email protected]

Volume© Red Flower 5 Number Publication 3 July Pvt. - September Ltd 2012 106 Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry physical and chemical and dental analysis several areas of criminal investigation, forensic used for human identification.2 medical and dental would associate classical Several proper and specific individual investigation techniques to molecular biology characteristics may be used in human analysis and DNA examination in order to identification, among the identification achieve more reliable, objective and specific methods; finger printing is the most used one results facing complex cases. whenever the observed soft tissue is in good Expertise examination must show a conditions.3 When the body is an advanced multidisciplinary approach; therefore the stage of decomposition, burned or only bones, present paper presents a scientific literature anthropologic and forensic dentistry review aiming to point out the importance of techniques are powerful tools, showing forensic genetics used along with traditional trustable results.4 investigation methods in human identification, Nevertheless, Genetics great development in mainly with forensic dentistry. It also intends the 80’s allowed innovations to medical field to show the forensic relevance of tooth as a as well to forensic sciences due to discovery of source of material to genetic and molecular specific mini satellite regions of human genome studies. which had the so called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) “digital impressions”. Molecular biology studies Its analysis led to human individuality information.5 From that point, genetics Nowadays, forensic anthropology has research dealing with DNA polymorphism has molecular biology as a powerful allied, mainly had a great development and this human in species, family background, sex and age identification methodology relies upon three investigation. Since that, determination of important steps: DNA isolation or extraction, species using bone, tooth, hair or organic fluid amplification of specific DNA regions using samples was done PCR technique (Polymerase Chain Reaction) searching for exclusive human molecular and molecule profiles analysis.7 indicators.9 Those indicators are polymorphic Human individuality identification tests and easily detectable in the population. They using DNA are based upon polymorphism of can refer to a gene, a restrict site or any other several mini and micro satellite loci. This DNA sequence which presents different allelic polymorphism in autosomal chromosomes version to that locus. The mechanisms that (not sexual chromosomes) is considered a great explain polymorphism can be single changes individuality indicator.7 First, in order to do in nucleotides (substitution) such as SNP the amplification phase, highly specific probes (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism), VNTR were developed which allow simultaneous (variable number of tandem repeats) and STR scanning in several loci of the sample. After (short tandem repeats) and the insertion or the material amplification using PCR exclusion of DNA sequences (Indels), such as 10 technique, they are analyzed in agarose or Alu insertions. It is important to add that polyacrilamid gel or in automatic sequencer. some indicators are specific to a determined Depending on the quality and quantity of the population, this happens because the obtained sample, analysis can be done from difference frequency between two big nuclear DNA or mitochondrial (mtDNA), populations is more than 50% (such as both shows advantages and limitations.8 Europeans and Africans). Those indicators are called PSAs, more recently named ancestor Computer aid in several laboratories steps indicators (AIMs).11 associated to biotechnology and forensic mathematics increase the reliability of In order to determine sex or gender it is examination to determine sex, age estimation, possible to associate qualitative and parenthood and human identity. Therefore it quantitative anthropologic analysis of became mandatory that forensic experts in cranium, pelvis and other bones with

Indian Journal of Forensic Odontology Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry 107 cytogenesis examination (Barr corpuscle disadvantages for each source, those aspects presence in female population), molecule are related to how the source is available, how examination (indicators in Y chromosomes) it degrades and extraction technique, among and mainly analyzing the responsible gene for others. amelogenin which is the most found protein When dealing with living suspects in in the dental enamel. The amelogenin gene is parenthood test (father, mother and son), found in chromosome X and Y and the genetic material is preferably obtained from different size and pattern of both genes are either blood (leukocyte) or buccal mucosa. used as reliable indicators to determine sex, Trevilatto et al.25 collected buccal mucosa 12-13 even when there is little DNA quantity. epithelium samples from 83 individuals, they 14 Meyer et al. using old bones aging 4000 and wrote that this particular method shows the 7000 years compared the morphologic sex advantage to be more feasible to be done with amelogenin analysis results from bone specially when the suspect refuses to cooperate and tooth materials, they found an with blood or when dealing with children. The amplification index of this gene greater than amount of DNA obtained to verify the gender 15 90%. In another research, Faerman et al. in amelogenin locus of X chromosome was determined sex using amelogenin analysis satisfactory in most cases. extracted from bones and teeth in 18 from 22 bodies. Those bodies had aged from 200 to In the other hand, if it is necessary to verify 8000 years. genetic relation involving pot-mortem material, time from death and corpse Concerning age estimative, classical condition are relevant factors to choose which methods are performed using chronologic method of DNA extraction to be used. In a eruption, tooth mineralization and bone recent death case blood, viscera and soft tissue formation centers analysis. Those methods are the first materials choice, but as time goes 16-17 show satisfactory precision in youngsters. by those sources become inappropriate, Nevertheless, when the subject to have the age leading to mineral tissues sources: bones and estimated is an adult or elder person, the teeth. Bones are an important source to obtain preference methods are suture bonding genetic material since they are inner the body associated to regressive tooth changes related and because their mineral condition, which 18 to Gustafson technique, but the range of cortical protects the medullar part from results may deviate a lot. In order to increase external factors and microorganism that may age estimative precision of decomposed bodies degrade the DNA. 26 In mass disaster such as bones several researches have been situations, Andelinovic et al.27 presented that developed trying to mainly the racemic DNA analysis from bone and tooth material mixture of aspartic acid (D/L) from tooth allowed identify 109 victims of 12 year war in tissues along with one chronological age. It is the former Yugoslavia. Traditional well known that aspartic acid, particularly in identification methods would not give such its destrogen form (D), linearly increases along good results. DNA analysis from bones and 19-22 aging. Others biochemical indicators such teeth would also guide anthropologic studies as gelatinase A and glutamic acid from to identify population migration origin in dentine, are also being researched to be use in ancient times. 28-29 age estimative cases. 23-24 In exhumation cases, there are some procedures that must be observed to collect Human identification using DNA sample in order to minimize its contamination. 30 Genetic material can be obtained from Melki et al. studied 10 exhumations for several biological sources such as body fluids genetic relationship purposes. The authors (blood and saliva), soft tissues (muscles and presented a procedure protocol to grant the viscera) and mineralized tissues (bones and origin and the choice of the best bone material teeth). There are advantages and to be examined.

Volume 5 Number 3 July - September 2012 108 Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry

Even though Sample integrity is a Some legal precautions must be followed fundamental factor in DNA extraction, studies when dealing with dental material as source with degraded biological material showed to to obtain DNA since the process destroys the be possible to analyze genetic material when material used in the examination. Those it is fragmented (200 to 1200 pair bases). 31-33 precautions involve proper teeth identification, describing all characteristics and if it is possible, taking pictures and X-rays Teeth as genetic material source in the original positions when they are Teeth also are a good source to obtain genetic removed from dental arch. Those precautions material. This is true mainly because their are done to preserve dental characteristics of great tissue resistance (enamel, dentin, evidences in order to prove their genuine value cementum and pulp) against external injurers. when doubts are raised concerning their origin 34-35 or the results of the person identity. Malaver et al.36 extracted DNA obtained After the dental recording and filing phase from dentin and cementum of 20 corpses that and before the handling of samples, it is had been buried for at least 5 years. Pulp tissue necessary to decontaminate dental surface, is a loose connective tissue and it degrades Sodium Hypochlorite is substance most used, easily when compared to others dental tissues. but it is necessary to have a optimization Pfeiffer et al.37 studied the environment among concentration, time and applying influence in DNA degradation in teeth that method of this substance. 42 were kept underneath soil. They observed that a tooth with opened pulp exposed to external agents showed a significant degradation in 18 Multi disciplinary approach in human weeks, but 20 sound teeth that had been buried identification for one year showed preserved genetic Person identification is necessary in several material, allowing mtDNA amplification in all law situations and the most appropriate examined samples (20 teeth). identification methodology is related to Dental pulp is protected by tooth structures collected samples such as: person is living or and therefore can present better condition dead; recent or past death; the corpse is than others soft tissue for DNA extraction. complete, in pieces or decomposed. After Lessing et al.38 showed that pulp can be source being properly collected, suspected samples of DNA in teeth that had been kept or are compared to materials which origin is obtained in different conditions such as teeth previously known or proven, in other words, that had been extracted when the person was standard material that can have biological alive and after death and kept in room nature or records (medical, dental or temperature for respectively 12 and 6 months. photographical). Amelogenin can be also studied from dental Nowadays, some identification cases urge material that had been through adverse for a multi disciplinary approach, this happens situations. Murakami et al.39 showed that a either because of lack or absence of standard person’s sex can be determined using dental material to be compared or because of the pulp kept in room temperature for 22 years, presence of more than one type of evidence to teeth kept in sea water for one to four weeks be examined. and buried teeth for one, four and eight weeks. For instance, in criminal investigations the There are several techniques to obtain dental person’s identity can be achieved by digital material to extract DNA such as tooth grinding impressions left in the crime scene3. But if the or crushing, tooth horizontal sectioning, pulp collected material does not show quality or extirpation by tooth irrigation and sectioning quantity of enough characteristics to be and nitrogen liquid cryogenic pulverization. compared, genetic profile analysis can be 40-41

Indian Journal of Forensic Odontology Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry 109 performed trying to get biological material 6 months after the body was found. from suspect digital material. 43 Anthropologic techniques, forensic dentistry, Forensics investigations developed a lot from computer superposition (face/cranium) and the moment that they had genetic examination DNA investigation were used. Sex was associated to traditional methods. Not too long determined by cranium characteristics and as ago, sexual violence cases were mostly well by amelogenin analysis. restricted to spermatozoid research in the Age was estimated using longitudinal collected sample, blood type or other blood divided crown measurements and computer tests which results were not accurate. When superposition showed a positive identification genetic material became possible to be between victim facial structures and the found extracted from spermatozoid, hair bulb, fetal head. DNA was extracted from dental pulp, material the capacity to include or exclude a bones, muscle tissues and compared to genetic rape or sexual violent attempt suspect was a profile of the victim’s presumed daughter and real possibility. This did not depend on the wife. Fatherhood indication was verified in 11 presence of genetic material in the examined examined loci. In another case, Sweet et al.53 sample. 44-45 presented an identification of human parts In forensic dentistry, DNA examination can from a woman that had been disappeared for be used together with traditional techniques 3 years. Investigations showed that the showing great results to identify destroyed or presumed victim had 3 smear cell laminas in advanced decomposed stage corpses. 46 Besides the laboratory files. DNA was extracted and that, DNA analysis obtained from oral mucosa compared to genetic profile obtained from the cells has great importance in dental dental sample of the found corpse. The result impressions, also known as bite marks. was positive, showing coincidence in 8 of the Normally, the primary investigation approach 8 examined loci, including amelogenin. of this type of evidence is related to the In the identification of charred bodies, the analysis of dental characteristics left in the great resistance of mineralized tissues allows victim or in the object. 47-48 the victims to be identified not only by DNA 54 Nevertheless, when those marks do not give extracted from bone material, but also from 55 a conclusive result, biological material dental material. Sweet et al. showed an collection from the place where bite was identification of a homicide victim that had applied is extremely important to find the been charred with fuel. DNA was obtained identity of the person who was responsible for from dental pulp extracted from intra osseous 56 the mark. Among the techniques to obtain third molar. Yamada et al. presented another DNA from human skin there is the double identification case of a charred body whose swab technique which consists of applying a head was found 4 months after the body. The swab with sterilized distil water followed by relation between head and body was positively another dry swab on the bite mark. This proven according to DNA obtained from technique showed good results to obtain muscle tissue and DNA from dentin. Facing biological material to be researched. 49-50 In the an overwhelming result presented in the Borgula et al.51 experimental research was forensic literature and from the even more demonstrated that is possible to analyze the reliable techniques, DNA examination and genotype of specific bacteria found in the oral Molecular Biology analysis became an essential cavity (Streptococcus) of individuals as an tool to help or solve investigation matters that alternative when it is not possible to obtain had been considered irresolvable in crime the DNA of the one who caused the bite mark. investigation and forensic medicine. Therefore it is mandatory that those in forensic In more complex cases such as presented investigations acquire knowledge about 52 by Bilge et al. a multi field approach forensic genetics in order to apply with investigation was necessary to identify a traditional investigation techniques. corpse whose head was found approximately

Volume 5 Number 3 July - September 2012 110 Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry

This association would result in a greater 14. Meyer E, Wiese M, Bruchhaus H, Claussen M, increase of Justice and society would be the Klein A. Extraction and amplification of most beneficiate. authentic DNA from ancient human remains. Forensic Sci Int 2000; 113: 87-90. 15. Faerman M, Filon D, Kahila G, Greenblatt CL, References Smith P, Oppenheim A. Sex identification of archaeological human remains based on amplification of the X and Y amelogenin alleles. 1. Ramos DIA, Daruge E, Daruge Júnior E, Antunes Gene 1995; 167: 327-32. FCM, Melendez BVC, Francesquini Júnior L, et 16. Liversidge HM, Lyons F, Hector MP. The al. Transposición dentaly sus implicaciones accuracy of three methods of age estimation eticas y legais. Rev ADM 2005; 62: 185-90. using radiographic measurements of developing 2. Gonçalves ACS, Travassos DV, Silva M. Campo teeth. Forensic Sci Int 2003; 131: 22-9. de atuação do odontolegista. RPG Rev Pos-Grad 17. Mesotten K, Gunst K, Carbonez A, Willems G. J 1999; 6: 60-5. Forensic Odontostomatol 2003; 21: 31-5. 3. Figini ARL, Silva JRL, Jobim LF, Silva M. Tratado 18. Gustafson G. Dental identification. In: Forensic de perícias criminalísticas - identificação odontology. London: Staples Press; 1966. humana. 2 ed. Campinas: Millenium Editora; 19. Yamamoto K. Molecular biological studies on 2003. teeth, and inquests. Forensic Sci Int 1996; 80: 79- 4. Silva RF, Cruz BVM, Daruge Júnior E, Daruge E, 87. Francesquini Júnior L. La importância de la 20. Othani S. Estimation of age from dentin by documentación odontological en la utilizing the racemization of aspartic acid: identificación humana. Acta Odontol Venez 2005; influence of pH. Forensic Sci Int 1995; 75: 181-7. 43: 67-74. 21. Ohtani S. Yamada Y, Yamamoto I. Age 5. Jeffreys AJ, Wilson V, Thein SL. Hypervariable estimation from racemization rate using heated minisatellite regions in human DNA. Nature teeth. J Forensic Odontostomatol 1997; 15: 9-12. 1985; 314: 67-73. 22. Arany S, Ohtani S, Yoshioka N, Gonmori K. Age 6. Alonso LG, Genofre GC. Genética molecular e estimation from aspartic acid racemization of root odontologia forense. Rev Odontol Univ St dentin by internal standard method. Forensic Sci Amaro 1999; 4: 30-3. Int 2004; 141: 127-30. 7. Pena SDJ. Homo Brasilis - Aspectos genéticos, 23. Sajdok J, Pilin A, Pudil F, Zídková J, Kás J. A new lingüísticos, históricos e sócio-antropológicos da method of age estimation based on the changes formação do povo brasileiro. Ribeirão Preto: in human non-collagenous proteins from dentin. Editora Funpec; 2002. Forensic Sci Int 2006; 156: 245-9. 8. Smith BC. Introduction to DNA analysis. Dent 24. Martín-de las Heras S, Valenzuela A, Overall Clin North Am 2001; 45: 229-35. CM. Gelatinase A in human dentin as a new 9. Jobim LF, Costa LRS, Silva M. Tratado de perícias biochemical marker for age estimation. J Forensic criminalísticas - identificação humana. Sci 2000; 45: 807-11. Campinas: Millenium Editor, 2006; II. 25. Trevilatto PC, Line SRP. Use of buccal epithelial 10. Edwards A, Civitello A, Hammond HA, Caskey cells for PCR amplification of large DNA CT. DNA Typing and Genetic Mapping with fragments. J Forensic Odontostomatol 2000; 18: 6- Trimeric and Tetrameric Tandem Repeats. Am J 9. Hum Genet 1991; 49: 746-56. 26. Iwamura ESM, Soares-Vieira JA, Muñoz DR. 11. Shriver MD, Mei R, Parra EJ, Sonpar V, Halder J, Human identification and analysis of DNA in Tishkoff AS, et al. Large-scale SNP analysis bones. Rev Hosp Clin Fac Med Sao Paulo 2004; 59: reveals clustered and continuous patterns of 383-8. human genetic variation. Hum Genomics 2005; 2: 27. Andelinovic S, Sutlovic D, Ivkosic IE, Skaro V, 81-9. Ivkosic A, Paic F, et al. Twelve-year experience 12. Slavkin HC. Sex, enamel and forensic dentistry: in identification of skeletal remains from mass a search for identity. J Am Dent Assoc 1997; 128: graves. Croat Med J 2005; 46: 530-9. 1021-5. 28. Lleonart R, Riego E, Suárez RR, Ruiz RT, Fuente 13. Santos MCLG, Line SRP. The epigenetics of J. Analyses of DNA from ancient bones of a pre- enamel formation. Braz J Oral Sci 2006; 17: 991-5. columbian Cuban woman and a child. Genet Mol Biol 1999; 22: 285-9.

Indian Journal of Forensic Odontology Bhupesh Gupta et al / Application of Molecular Biology in Forensic Dentistry 111

29. Vernesi C, Benedetto G, Caramelli D, Secchieri E, 44. Goes ACS, Silva DA, Domingues CS, Sobrinho Simoni L, Katti E, et al. Genetic characterization JM, Carvalho EF. Identification of a criminal by of the body attributed to the evangelist Luke. Proc DNA typing in a rape case in Rio de Janeiro, Natl Acad Sci 2001; 98: 13460-3. Brazil. Sao Paulo Med J 2002; 120: 77-80. 30. Melki JAD, Martin CCS, Simões AL. 45. Silva DA, Goes ACS, Carvalho JJ, Carvalho EF. Procedimentos em exumações para investigação DNA typing from vaginal smear slides in de vínculo genético em ossos. J Public Health suspected rape cases. Sao Paulo Med J 2004; 122: 2001; 35: 368-74. 70-2. 31. Ogata M, Mattern R, Schneider PM, Schacker U, 46. Silva RF, Pereira SDR, Daruge Júnior E, Daruge Kaufmann T, Rittner C. Quantitative and E, Francesquini Júnior L. A confiabilidade do qualitative analysis of DNA extracted from exame odontolegal na identificação humana. postmortem muscle tissues. Z Rechtsmed 1990; ROBRAC 2004; 35: 46-50. 103: 397-406. 47. Atsü SS, Gökdemir K, Kedici PS, Ikyaz YY. 32. Wurmb-Schwark N, Harbeck M, Wiesbrock U, Bitemarks in forensic odontology. J Forensic Schroeder I, Ritz-Timme S, Oehmichen M. Odontostomatol 1998; 16: 30-4. Extraction and amplification of nuclear and 48. McKenna CJ, Haron MI, Brown KA, Jones DAJ. mitochondrial DNA from ancient and artificially Bitemarks in chocolate: a case report. J Forensic aged bones. Leg Med 2003; 5: S169-72. Odontostomatol 2000; 18: 10-4. 33. Bender K, Farfán MJ, Schneider PM. Preparation 49. Sweet D, Lorente M, Lorente JA, Valenzuela A, of degraded human DNA under controlled Villanueva E. An improved method to recover conditions. Forensic Sci Int 2004; 139: 135-40. saliva from human skin: the double swab 34. Pretty IA, Sweet D. A look at forensic dentistry. technique. J Forensic Sci 1997; 42: 320-2. Part 1: the role of teeth in the determination of 50. Bowers CM. Forensic dental evidence – An human identity. Br Dent J 2001; 190: 359-66. investigator’s handbook. San Diego:Elsevier; 35. Gaytmenn R, Sweet D. Quantification of forensic 2004. DNA from various regions of human teeth. J 51. Borgula LM, Robinson FG, Rahimi M, Chew KE, Forensic Sci 2003; 48: 622-5. Birchmeier KR, Owens SG, et al. Isolation and 36. Malaver PC, Yunis JJ. Different dental tissues as genotypic comparison of oral streptococci from source of DNA for human identification in experimental bitemarks. J Forensic Odontostomatol forensic cases. Croat Med J 2003; 44: 306-9. 2003; 21: 23-30. 37. Pfeiffer H, Hühne J, Seitz B, Brinkmann B. 52. Bilge Y, Kedici PS, Alakoç YD, Ûlküer KÛ, Ilkyaz Influence of soil storage and exposure period on YY. The identification of a dismembered human DNA recovery from teeth. Int J Legal Med 1999; body: a multidisciplinary approach. Forensic Sci 112: 142-4. Int 2003; 137: 141-6. 38. Lessig R, Edelmann J. Individualisation of dental 53. Sweet D, Hidelbrand D, Phillips D. tissue - an aid for odontological identification? J Identification of a skeleton using DNA from Forensic Odontostomatol 1995; 13: 1-3. teeth and PAP smear. J Forensic Sci 1999; 44: 630- 39. Murakami H, Yamamoto Y, Yoshitome K, Ono 3. T, Okamoto O, Shigeta Y, et al. Forensic study of 54. Soares-Vieira JA, Billerbeck AEC, Iwamura ESM, sex determination using PCR on teeth samples. Cardoso LA, Muñoz DR. Post-mortem forensic Acta Med Okayama 2000; 54: 21-32. identity testing: application of PCR to the 40. Sweet D, Hildebrand D. Recovery of DNA from identification of fire victim. Sao Paulo Med J 2000; human teeth by cryogenic grinding. J Forensic 118: 75-7. Sci 1998; 43: 1199-1202. 55. Sweet D, Sweet CHW. DNA analysis of dental 41. Trivedi R, Chattopadhyay P, Kashyap K. A new pulp to link incinerated remains of homicide improved method for extraction of DNA from victim to crime scene. J Forensic Sci 1995; 40: 310- teeth for the analysis of hypervariavel loci. Am J 4. Forensic Med Pathol 2002; 23: 191-6. 56. Yamada Y, Ohira H, Iwase H, Takatori T, Nagao 42. Kemp BM, Smith DG. Use of bleach to eliminate M, Ohtani S. Sequencing mitochondrial DNA contaminating DNA from the surface of bones from a tooth and application to forensic and teeths. Forensic Sci Int 2005; 154: 53-61. odontology. J Forensic Odontostomatol 1997; 15: 43. Schulz MM, Reichert W. Archived or directly 13-6. swabbed latent fingerprints as a DNA source for STR typing. Forensic Sci Int 2002; 127: 128-30.

Volume 5 Number 3 July - September 2012