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Evidence That the Reactivity of the Martian Soil Is Due To R EPORTS Similar coherence between heavy-hole and 8. E. Hagley et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 1 (1997). ed. For some carefully arranged excitation (red-side- light-hole excitons has been reported in (33). 9. See the article in the Search and Discovery section band excitation) and a specific initial condition (two-ion [Phys. Today 53, 20 (January 2000)] for discussions ground state with one phonon), no sublevels in the These are examples of quantum coherence in- on entanglement in liquid-state NMR. For experimen- fourth (upper-most) level are resonant with the laser volving a nonradiative superposition of states, tal demonstrations of quantum algorithms using beams, resulting in a zero-probability amplitude of this which leads to many novel phenomena such as NMR, see, for example, I. L. Chuang et al., Phys. Rev. level and therefore a nonfactorizable wavefunction. the Hanle effect, dark states, lasing without Lett. 80, 3408 (1998). 24. N. H. Bonadeo et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 2759 (1998). 10. C. Monroe, D. M. Meekhof, B. E. King, W. M. Itano, D. J. 25. For our experiment, the pump and probe fields (Epump inversion, electromagnetically induced trans- Wineland, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 4714 (1995). and Eprobe) are amplitude-modulated by two standing- parency, and population trapping [see (33) and 11. Q. A. Turchette, C. J. Hood, W. Lange, H. Mabuchi, wave acousto-optical modulators at frequency fpump and f , respectively. These frequencies (ϳ100 MHz) references therein]. However, unlike the QD H. J. Kimble, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 4710 (1995). probe 12. J. Ahn, T. C. Weinacht, P. H. Bucksbaum, Science 287, are sufficient to suppress the slow nonelfectronic non- system, atomic Zeeman coherence does not 463 (2000). linearities as well as the Overhauser effect present in (3) necessarily involve two differentiable electrons, 13. A. Ekert and R. Jozsa, Rev. Mod. Phys. 68, 733 (1996). the system. The third-order coherent nonlinear field ENL proportional to ␹(3) E E* E is emitted along in contrast to the experiment we present here. 14. D. Loss and D. P. DiVincenzo, Phys. Rev. A 57, 120 pump pump probe (1998). the probe direction. A photodetector placed in the Finally, it is critical to note that while the transmitted probe beam along with a lock-in amplifier 15. A. Imamoglu et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 4204 (1999). Ϫ simple discussion related to Fig. 1 shows the 16. G. Schedelbeck, W. Wegscheider, M. Bichler, G. Ab- phase-locked to fpump fprobe detects signal that is proportional to the real part of E(3)E* [the imaginary origin of the entanglement, the discussion is streiter, Science 277, 1792 (1997). NL probe part of ␹(3)]. The pump and the probe are from the same considerably over-simplified; it completely dis- 17. C. B. Murray, C. R. Kagan, M. G. Bawendi, Science 270, 1335 (1995). laser for the degenerate experiment and from two separate but mutually coherent lasers for the nonde- regards the possibility that fast dephasing of the 18. L. J. Sham and T. M. Rice, Phys. Rev. 144, 708 (1966). generate experiment. Zeeman coherence could lead to an unobserv- 19. For two noninteracting systems under the excitation 26. D. Gammon, E. S. Snow, B. V. Shanabrook, D. S. scheme described in the text, the total wavefunction able effect, even if the single-exciton states Katzer, D. Park, Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 3005 (1996). is factorizable. This is explicit from the total Hamil- themselves were long-lived. In the language of 27. ࿜࿜࿜࿜ , Science 273, 87 (1996). tonian of the system, which is a sum of two inde- 28. S. W. Brown, T. A. Kennedy, D. Gammon, Phys. Rev. B NMR, this is saying that a long T and T pendent Hamiltonians describing each system under 1 2 54, R17339 (1996). excitation. The coupling needed for entanglement is associated with the single-exciton states does 29. I. M. Beterov and V. P. Chebotaev, Prog. Quantum provided through a number of ways under different not guarantee a comparable T for the Zeeman Electron. 3, 1 (1974). 2 circumstances. In cavity QED, the atoms are coupled 30. The mutual coherence bandwidth for the two lasers coherence. The magnitude of the decoherence through cavity fields. The Coulomb interaction pro- must be less than the decay rate of the coherence ␥ vides the coupling for entangling two trapped ions rate, ij (1/T2), in Eq. 2 can be determined by between the two excitons. The two lasers used in our and in our case, two excitonic transitions in a single comparing the relative strength of the coherent measurement have a mutual bandwidth of about 3 quantum dot. MHz. and incoherent contribution. The dephasing rate 20. T. O¬ streich, K. Scho¬nhammer, L. J. Sham, Phys. Rev. 31. C. Sieh et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 3112 (1999). of the radiative coherence was already shown in Lett. 75, 2554 (1995). 32. C. H. Bennett, D. P. DiVincenzo, J. A. Smolin, W. K. (24)tobeϳ20 ps and is comparable to the 21. See, for example, K. Bottet et al., Phys. Rev. B 48, Wootters, Phys. Rev. A 54, 3824 (1996). ⌫ 17418 (1993). energy relaxation rate, (1/T1). This measure- 33. K. Ferrio and D. Steel, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 786 (1998). 22. K. Brunner, G. Abstreiter, G. Bo¬hn, G. Tra¬nkle, G. 34. This work was supported in part by the National ment further gives the decay rate of the Zeeman Weimann, Phys. Rev. Lett. 73, 1138 (1994). ϳ Security Agency and Advanced Research and Devel- coherence as 20 ps, which again is similar to 23. In the case of entangling two trapped ions (7), one opment Activity under Army Research Office grant the energy relaxation rate and shows that the needs to rely on their common phonon modes that DAAG55-98-1-0373, Air Force Office of Scientific result from the Coulomb interaction. Since the ions are pure dephasing of the two-exciton coherence is Research grant F49620-99-1-0045, NSF grant DMR well separated in space, the weak interaction only cre- 97-21444, and the Office of Naval Research. We not significant in QDs. By exchanging the spec- ates collective motional modes without affecting their thank R. Merlin, P. Berman, H. J. Kimble, D. Wineland, tral position of the pump and the probe (the internal states. Therefore, none of the electronic states and D. DiVincenzo for helpful discussions, and R. within one ion is mixed with those of its neighbor. Each Merlin for loaning critical equipment. polarization has to be changed accordingly, level of the four-level model would in fact consist of a too), the relative time scale of incoherent spin series of sublevels with the phonon modes incorporat- 29 March 2000; accepted 4 August 2000 relaxation can also be estimated. As expected, the Zeeman splitting has reduced this process to an unobservable level (Ͼ100 ps). In summary, we have inferred from our Evidence That the Reactivity of measurements entanglement of an excitonic system in single GaAs QDs and shown the the Martian Soil Is Due to importance of exciton-exciton Coulomb inter- action for this observation. Our results are ex- plained by a three-level model in a two-exciton Superoxide Ions basis. The next step, though more challenging, A. S. Yen,1*S.S.Kim,1 M. H. Hecht,1 M. S. Frant,2 B. Murray3 is to recover the same type of entanglement between coupled QDs [as proposed, for exam- The Viking Landers were unable to detect evidence of life on Mars but, instead, ple, in (13, 14)]. This would allow for scaling found a chemically reactive soil capable of decomposing organic molecules. This the experiment to larger systems. reactivity was attributed to the presence of one or more as-yet-unidentified inorganic superoxides or peroxides in the martian soil. Using electron para- Ð References and Notes magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we show that superoxide radical ions (O2 ) 1. A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, N. Rosen, Phys. Rev. 47, 777 form directly on Mars-analog mineral surfaces exposed to ultraviolet radiation (1935). under a simulated martian atmosphere. These oxygen radicals can explain the 2. E. Schro¬dinger, Proc. Camb. Philos. Soc. 31, 555 (1935). reactive nature of the soil and the apparent absence of organic material at the 3. R. J. C. Spreeuw, Found. Phys. 28, 361 (1998). martian surface. 4. For an introductory review, see the special issue on quantum information [Phys. World 11, 33 (March The 1976 Mars Viking Landers performed a found to be chemically reactive (1). Upon the 1998)]. 5. See the review by A. Zeilinger [Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, series of experiments in which soil samples introduction of water vapor, oxygen was re- S288 (1999)] for discussions on entangling pho- were analyzed for evidence of life. Biological leased from the soil samples in larger quan- tons. responses were not detected; however, the tities than would be expected from physical 6. C. A. Sackett et al., Nature 404, 256 (2000). 7. Q. A. Turchette et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 3631 soil samples from the surface as well as from adsorption in equilibrium with the ambient (1998). ϳ10 cm beneath the immediate surface were atmosphere (2). Furthermore, isotopically la- www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 289 15 SEPTEMBER 2000 1909 R EPORTS Ϫ Ϫ6 beled organic nutrient solutions were decom- ions (O2 ) are responsible for the chemical pumped down to 10 torr, backfilled with posed when exposed to the soil (3). It was reactivity of the martian soil. We demonstrate different partial pressures of oxygen (10 mtorr, also discovered that the surface was devoid of in the laboratory a process for the formation of 1 torr, and 700 torr), and then exposed to UV Ϫ organic molecules above part-per-billion lev- O2 on Mars on the basis of known environ- radiation for 5 hours.
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