The Catholic Church in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton, 1981) P

Notes

CHAPTER ONE

I. Ivan Vallier, ' Extr action, Insulation and Re-entry: Toward a Theory of Religious Change', in Henry Landsberger, ed . The Church and Social Change in Latin America (Notre Dame, 1970) p. 9. 2. Daniel Levine, Religion and Politics in Latin America: The Catholic Church in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton, 1981) p. 35. 3. Thomas O'Dea, The Catholic Crisis (Boston, 1968) pp. 16-20. 4. Renato Poblete SJ, ' F ro m Medellin to Puebla', in Daniel Levine, ed . Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills, 1980) p. 45. 5. Ken Medhurst, 'The Latin American Church', Journal ofLatin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, (November 1985) p. 429. 6. The sign ificance of Vatican II and Medellin has been discussed by a number of authors. See for example, Thomas O'Dea, op . cit.; Peter Hebblethwaite, The Runaway Church (London, 1975); Daniel Levine, Religion and Politics . .. pp . 34-41 ; Renato Poblete SJ, 'From Medellin to Puebla', op. cit. ; and Pablo Richard, La Iglesia Latino-americana Entre el Temor y la Esperanza: Apuntes Teologicos para la Decada de los Alios 80 (San Jose, 1980) pp. 49--57. 7. Phillip Berryman, 'What Happened at Puebla?' in Daniel Levine, ed . Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills, 1980) p. 58. 8. Medhurst, op . cit., pp. 427-8. 9. Comunidades eclesiales de base are small groups of Christians from the same barrio or rural community who gather to discuss their daily problems in the light ofthe Bible. 10. ' Institutional Church' refers to the Church 'as institution', with a heavy emphasis on hierarchy and centralized authority. II. For a discussion of this theme with relation to the Catholic Church in Colombia, see Daniel Levine, 'Continuities in Colombia', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, (November 1985) pp . 295-317. 12. Thomas Bruneau, The Church in Brazil: The Politics ofReligion (Austin, 1982) pp. 3-10. 13. Ibid ., p. 3. 14. 'Social insertion' refers to the Church's identification with particular groups in society and with their political positions.

183 184The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

15. Ivan Vallier, op. cit., pp . 9- 35. 16. Ibid ., p. 23. 17. Thomas Sanders, 'The Politics ofCatholicism in Latin America'. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. vol. 24, no . 2, (May 1982) p. 257. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid . 20. Daniel Levine and Alexander Wilde, 'The Catholic Church. " Politics". and "Violence" : The Columbian Case', Review ofPolitics, vol. 39, no . 2. (April 1977) p. 244. 21. Bruneau, op. cit., p. 7. 22. Levine and Wilde , op . cit., p. 225. 23. Sanders, op . cit ., p. 257. 24. Levine, Religion and Politics . .., p. 305. 25. For a good discussion of the notion of Christendom and the historical models associated with it, see Pablo Richard. La Iglesia Latino americana . . ., pp. 96-9. 26. Levine, Religion and Politics . .., p. 305. 27. Leonardo Boff, Iglesia: Carisma J' Poder (Santander. 1982) p. 19. 28. Levine. Religion and Politics . .., p. 305. 29. This compares with recent studies of the Church in Central America which have focused exclusively on the Church's role under authori tarian regimes . See, for example, Phillip Berryman, The Religious Roots of Rebellion: Christians in Central American Revolutions (Lon don, 1984).

CHAPTER TWO

I. See Edgar Zuniga, Historia Eclesiastica de Nicaragua : La Cristiandad Colonial ( /542-/82/) (Managua, 1981). for a good historical account of the Nicaraguan Church during the colonial period. 2. Enrique Dussel, A History ofthe Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation ( /492-/979) (Grand Rapids, 1981) p. 43. 3. Encomenderos were granted encomiendas (which included land and the Indians on the land) by the Spanish Crown. 4. Manzar Foroohar, 'The Catholic Church and Socio-Political Conflict in Nicaragua' (UCLA, 1984) p. 93. 5. See Zuniga, op . cit., pp. 95-6. 6. John A. Booth. The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution (Boulder, 1982) p. 13. 7. Ibid ., p. 12. 8. Matilde Gutierrez D., et al., 'Investigaciones para la Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua' (Managua, 1975) p. 64. 9. Pablo Antonio Cuadra, ' Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua'. in Richard Pattee, EI Catolicismo Contemporaneo de Hispanoamerica (Buenos Aires, 1948) p. 349. 10. Foroohar, op . cit., p. 102. II . See'Concordato Celebrado Entre la Santa Sede Apostolica y la Republica de Nicaragua', in Gutierrez, op . cit ., pp. 407-22. Notes 185

12. The national right of presentation gave the government the power to nominate ecclesiastical autho rities. 13. Fran co Cerutti, Los Jesuiras en el Siglo XIX (San Jo se. 1984) pp . 62, 85. 14. Foroohar, op . cit., p. 105. 15. Ja ime Wheelo ck Roman, Nicaragua: Imperialismo r Dictadura (La Habana, 1980) pp . 26-7. 16. Jorge Eduardo Arellano, Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua ( 1523-1979) (Mana gua. 1979) pp . 57-70. 17. Revista de la Academia de Geografia e Historia. no. 39. (Managua. January-June 1971) pp . 62-68. 18. Wheelock, op . cit. , pp . 107-8. 19. Cuadra, op . cit., pp . 340-1. 20. Gregorio Seiser, Sandin o (New York, 1981) p. 122. 21. Ibid., p. 105. 22. 'Pastoral del Ilustrisimo Arzobispo y Obispos de Nicaragua Sobre la Necesidad Nacional de Pacificar Las Segovias', in Gutierrez. op . cit., pp . 432-9. 23. See Jean Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People Between Church and State 1926-1929 (Cambridge, 1976). 24. Foreign Relations of the United States, Department of State, vol. III (Washington D.C., 1928) p. 567. 25. Cuadra. op. cit., p. 351. 26. Wheelock, op . cit. , p. 117. 27. Guardia Nacional, Afio IX, no s. 104-5 (Managua, October-November 1941). Th is entire issue of the Guardia Nacional was ded icated to the crowning of Lillian Somoza Debayle as 'Queen of the Army'. Much was made of the fact that Lillian had previously been procla imed 'Queen of the Apple Blossom' in Schenadoah, Virginia. 28. Ibid., p. 23. 29. Guardia Nacional, Afio XXIV, nos . 286-7 (Managua. September October 1956)pp. 12-13. 30. Frederick Pike, 'The Catholic Church in Central America', Re view of Politics, vol. 21, no . I, (January 1959). pp. 95-6 and J. Lloyd Mccham. Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1966) pp. 329-31. 31. Arellano, op . cit., pp . 88-9. 32. Booth, op. cit., p. 62. 33. 'Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiast icas de Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre cl Comunismo' , Mensajero del Clero, no. 8 (San Jose , August 1935) pp . 981-4. 34. Arellano, op . cit ., pp . 82-3.. 35. 'Primera Carta Pastoral de Centro America y Panama' (San Jose, 27 May 1956). 36. A Dominican priest in Leon, Luis Suarez, described in a Icttcr dated 23.1.61 to Luis Somoza his struggle to combat communism in the University of Leon. He organized some 80 Catholic students to infiltrate communist groups at the university, and he himself spoke to parents of communist students, convincing them to send their children abroad. In this way, he succeeded in stamping out leftist ideas, supplanting them with 'catholic inspired social doctrine'. He concluded the letter saying , 186 The Catholic Church and Polit ics in Nicaragua and Costa R ica

'today no one is sympathizing with Fidel.' See Archivo Nac ional de Nicaragua, Secretaria de la Presidencia, Serie B, Caja no. 40, (29) Clero , 1961. 37. Interview with Mons . Bismark Carballo (Director of Radio Catoticat 3 August 1983, Managua; interview with Luis Cesar Nunez (Administra tive Director ofCaritas de Nicaragua) 27 July 1983, Managua. 38. 'Carta Pastoral Eclesiastica de Vicente Alejandro Gonzalez y Robleto' (Managua,3AugustI959)p.13. 39. Ibid., p. 12. 40. Ibid., p. 14. 41. Charles D. Ameringer, Don Pepe: A Political Biography ofJose Figueres ofCosta Rica (Albuquerque, 1978) pp. 159-60. 42. 'Sexta Carta Pastoral del Octavio Jose Calderon y Padilla ' (Matagalpa, 15August 1959)pp. 13-14. 43. Ibid. 44. Looking through various years of correspondence between the Somoza government and clergy, one can find numerous instances of priests and bishops being granted personal 'favours'. These ranged from free airline passes for travel abroad, to gifts of automobiles, to outright cash advancements. In May 1965, for example, the Archbishop Mons . Gonzalez y Robleto was sent a 'special contribution' of $1500.00 towards his expenses while he was in New York for a week to have an eye operation. Of course , his airfare had already been covered. See Archivo Nacional de Nicaragua, Secretaria de la Presidencia, Serie B, Caja no. 7. (33a) Clero, 1965. 45. See next chapter for a discussion ofthis. 46. Booth, op. cit., pp. 77-80. 47. Primer Encuentro Pastoral en Managua, 'De Cara al Futuro de la Iglesia en Nicaragua', Documentos (Managua, 1969) pp. 38-9, pp. 100-122. 48. Booth, op. cit., p. 73. 49. Julio Lopez c., et al., La Caida del Somocismo )' la Luella Sandinista en Nicaragua (San Jose, 1980) pp. 26-7. 50. La Prensa, 17July 1969. 51. La Prensa, 20 July 1969. 52. La Prensu, 17January 1970. 53. The Jesuit-run university in Managua, which was founded in the early 1960s by the three capitalist factions in Nicaragua: BANIC, BANAMERICA and the Somoza group. 54. In July 1970, an opposition front had been founded - the Coalicion Opositora Nacional (CON) - which included the Independent Liberal Party (PLI), the Social Christian Party (PSC), and the Authentic Nicaraguan Conservative Party (ANC). The CON was formed to protest Somoza's political designs to continue in power , but disbanded just two months after the second student protest (which the CON supported). Obviously, the political parties which made up the CON recognized that their efforts were useless in the face of'Somoza's malintent. 55. La Prensa, 8 May 1971. 56. Interview with Mons. Frederico Argiiello (parish priest in Diriamba), 28 December 1984, Diriamba. Notes 187

57. La Prensa, 7 March 1970, 15 March 1970. 58. La Prensa, II March 1970. 59. La Prensa , 26 March 1971. 60. La Prensa, 19 November 1971 . 61. Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua (CEN), 'Sobre el Deber del Testimonio y de la Accion Cristiana en el Orden Politico' (Managua , 29.6.71)p. II. 62. Ibid ., p. 20. 63. In January 1972, Obando removed Mons. Chavez Nunez from his duties as auxiliary bishop. The immediate reason was his presenceat the signing of the Kupia-Kumi pact. 64. CEN, 'Sobre los Principios que Rigen la Actividad Politica de Toda la Iglesia Como Tal' (Managua, 19.3.72) p. II . 65. La Prensa, 6 April 1972. 66. La Prensa, 15April 1972, 19April 1972. 67. Donaldo Chavez Nunez, Una Ventana Abierta: Vision Retrospectiva de una Vida (Managua, 1974)p. 174. 68. La Prensa , 6 May 1972. 69. Jose Coronel Urtecho, 'Cornentarios Sobre la Pastoral', Revista Conservadora, no. 139(April 1972)p. 25. 70. Pablo Antonio Cuadra, 'Construir el Futuro: Obligacion Cristiana' , Revista Conservadora, no. 139(April 1972),pp. 27-8 . 71 . Dr. Amando Lopez and Dr. Juan B. Arrien, 'EI Papel de la Iglesia en la Coyuntura Nacional', Encuentro, no. 14, (July-December 1978)p. 129. 72. Novedades, 23 March 1972. 73. Booth , op. cit., p. 81. 74. Michael Dodson and Tommie Sue Montgomery, 'Churches in the Nicaraguan Revolution', in Thomas Walker ed., Nicaragua in Revolution (New York, 1982)p. 168. 75. La Prensa, 22 December 1973. 76. La Prensa , 29 December 1973. 77. Alejandro Bendafia, 'Crisis in Nicaragua', NACLA Report on the Americas (November-December 1978)pp.13-14. 78. La Prensa, 2 March 1974. 79. This was obviously in reference to the wave of strikes which racked the economy throughout 1973 (construction workers, hospital workers, nurses, and textile workers). 80. UDEL was composed of the Nicaraguan Socialist Party (PSN), a faction of the Social Christian Party (PSC), labour groupings (CTN and CGT), Conservatives, and the Independent Liberal Party (PLI). 81. Bendafia, op. cit., p. 15. 82. CEN, 'Declaracion de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua Reunida en Sesion Extraordinaria' (Managua, 27.5.74); CEN, 'EI Hombre, la Iglesia y 1aSociedad, (Granada, 6.8.74). 83. La Prensa, 26 June 1974. It was this same group whichfive months later joined to form UDEL. 84. La Prensa, 7 August 1974. Also see Phillip Berryman, The Religious Roots ofRebellion: Christians in Central American Revolutions (London, 1984)pp. 68-9 on this point. 85. Claribel Alegria and D. J. Flakoll, Nicaragua: La Revolucion Sandinista 188 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

(Mexico, D.F., 1982) p. 230. 86. SeeAmnesty International Report on Nicaragua for 1977. 87. CEN, 'Mensaje de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua Renovando la Esperanza Cristiana al Iniciarse el Ano 1977' (Managua, 8.1.77). 88. Novedades, 5 May 1977. 89. Lopez and Arrien, op . cit ., p. 133. 90. Bendafia, op . cit., p. 23. 91. Los Doce included several respected professionals and two priests. Fernando Cardenal SJ and Miguel D'Escoto. 92. Servicio de Informacion y Documentacion (SID) (November-December 1977)p. 6. 93. Lopez, et al., op . cit ., pp . 141-5. 94. Lo Prensa, 23 October 1977. 95. Lo Prensa, 26 October 1977. 96. La Prensa, 25 November 1977. 97. Booth, op . cit ., p. 155. 98. La Prensa, 17January 1978. 99. La Prensa, 9 February 1978. 100. CEN, 'Mensaje al Pueblo de Dios al Iniciarse el Afio 1978' (Managua, 6.1 .78). 101. Booth, op . cit ., p. 160. 102. CEN, 'Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua a los Hombres de Buena Voluntad', Encuentro, no. 14 (July-December 1978) p. 109. 103. Ibid., pp. 108-11. 104. See 'Programa Democratico del Gobierno Nacional del Frente Amplio Opositor (FAO)', in Lopez, et al., op. cit., pp . 357-9. 105. Encuentro, no. 14, (July-December 1978) pp . 112-14. 106. Novedades, 6 August 1978. 107. George Black, Triumph of the People: the Sandinist Revolut ion in Nicaragua (London, 1981) p. 319. 108. 'Programa de Gobierno Sandinista ', Eco Catolico (San Jose, 24 September 1978) p. 12. 109. LaPrensa, 29 September 1978. 110. Booth , op. cit., pp . 165-6. III. Ibid., p. 166. 112. LaPrensa, 29 November 1978. 113. LaPrensa, 23 November 1978. 114. La Prensa, 30 March 1979. 115. La Prensa, 26 April 1979. 116. CEN, 'Mensaje al Pueblo Nicaragiiense: Momento Insurreccional' (Managua, 2 June 1979). 117. Pablo Richard, 'La Iglesia que Nace en America Central por la Fuerza de Dios ', mimeo (San Jose, March 1984) pp . 4-5. 118. The Instituto de Promocion Humana (lNPRHU), based in Managua, conducted a survey in 1969 and again in 1973 to measure the Catholic Church's prestige amongst the faithful. In 1969, less than 5 per cent of those surveyed characterized the Church's attitude toward political and economic problems as 'good and very good'. By the time of the 1973 survey, however, the percentage ofthose surveyed who held a favourable opinion of the Church had risen to 37.2 per cent. Even so, 31.2 per cent Notes 189

still characterized the Church's attitude as 'normal' and 22.3 per cent as 'bad and very bad' . Obviously, the Church still had a long way to go to reinforce its positive influence amongst Nicaraguans. La Prensa, 14 February 1974. 119. Richard, op. cit., pp. 7-8.

CHAPTER THREE

I. Robert Pring-Mill, 'Profile: Ernesto Cardenal', in Index on Censorship, vol. VIII, no. 3 (May-June 1979)p. 50. 2. La Prensa, 24---26 September 1972. 3. Interview with Florian Ruskamp, OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father), 28 January 1985,Managua. 4. Phillip Berryman, The Religious Roots of Rebellion: Christians in the Central American Revolutions (London , 1984) p. 60. 5. Rosa Maria Pochet and Abelino Martinez, 'Nicaragua. Iglesia: Manipu lacion Politica 0 Profecia?', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, February 1985)chapter 2, pp. 18-20. 6. Concientizacionis a Latin American concept without a literal translation . The nearest would be 'consciousness-raising' or a lifting of social awareness. 7. Ibid., pp. 21-4. 8. Berryman, op. cit., p. 60. 9. Pochet and Martinez, op. cit., p. 24. 10. Ibid., pp. 36-44. 11. Maryknoll Sisters, 'Ciudad Sandino Evaluation', unpublished/undated mimeo (Managua) p. 1. 12. Interview with Sister Rita Owczarek, 26 November 1984, Ciudad Sandino; interview with Valentin Martinez SJ, 12 December 1984, Ciudad Sandino. 13. La Prensa, 19and 20 December 1977; see also Penny Lernoux, Cry ofthe People (New York, 1982)pp. 93-4. 14. Interview with Maryknoll sister. 15. See Urie1 Molina, 'Sendero de una experiencia',Nicarauac, no. 5 (April-June 1981) pp. 17-37; and Margaret Randall, Cristianos en la Revolucion (Managua, 1983)pp. 135-166. 16. La Prensa, 19May 1977;Novedades, 19May 1977. 17. Dodson and Montgomery, op. cit., pp. 170-71. 18. Gregorio Smutko , 'Cristianos de 1a Costa Atlantica en 1a Revolucion', Nicarauac, no. 5(April-June 1981) pp. 52-3. 19. Ibid., p. 53. 20. Gregorio Smutko, 'Informes: Implicaciones Politicas de los Programas de Accion Social de la Iglesia Catolica en Centroamerica', Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacion, nos. 2-3 (January-June 1980)p. 18. 21. Interview with Teodoro Niehaus OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father) , 26 July 1983,Managua. 22. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap., (Capuchin Father), 20 November 1984,Managua. 23. Manuel Rodriguez Garcia, Gaspar Vive (San Jose, 1981)pp. 120-21. 190 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

24. Ibid. 25. Ibid., p. 122. 26. CEPA, Cristo Campesino, no. 3 (Managua, (975) p. 8. 27. Ibid., p. II. 28. Confidential interview. 29. See Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 123. 30. Interview with Justinian Liebl (Director of CEPA). 4 August 1983. Managua . 31 . Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 126. 32. Teofilo Cabestrero, Revolucionarios por el Evangelio (Bilbao, 1983) pp. 153-4. 33. lbid., p. 156. 34. Luis Serra, 'Ideologia, Religion y Lucha de Clases en la Revolucion', in Richard Harris and Carlos M. Vilas eds, La Revolucion en Nicaragua (Mexico D.F., 1985)p. 276. 35. Interview with Gregorio Barriales OP (parish priest in Rivas), 7 January 1985, Rivas. 36. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap. (parish priest in Wiwili and Quilali), 20 November 1984, Managua; interview with Ramon Pardina MSC (parish priest in San Juan del Sur), 10 January 1985, San Juan del Sur; interview with Enrique Coursol (parish priest in Totogalpa), 2 December 1984,Totogalpa. 37. In the EI Jicaro parish (Nueva Segovia), for example, nine Delegates of the Word have been assassinated by the contra . This represents about a third of the total number working in the parish. Interview with Alfredo Gundrum OFM Cap., op. cit.; for a collection of first-hand accounts of contra atrocities against Catholic lay leaders, see Teofilo Cabestrero, Bloodofthe Innocent (London, 1985). 38. Interview with Bernard Wagner OFM Cap ., op . cit. 39. Interview with Alfredo Gundrum OFM Cap., op. cit. 40. Confidential interview. 41. Interview with Enrique Coursol, op. cit.; interviews with Jose Luis Ortega 8J and Augustin Torranza SJ, I December 1984,Ocotal. 42. Envio, no. 30 (December 1983) p. 6b. 43. CDSs are organized at the urban block level and function as political decision-making bodies concerned with production, distribution, health, education and militia organization. 44. Rosa Maria Pochet and Abelino Martinez, op . cit., chapter 2, p. 60. 45. Amanecer, nos. 7-8 (March-April 1982)p. 13. 46. Pochet and Martinez, op. cit., chapter 2, pp . 63-4. 47. Interview with Domingo Gatti OFM, 17-18 May 1985, Juigalpa. 48. CEN, 'Jesucristo y la Unidad de su Iglesia en Nicaragua' (Managua, 22.10.80)p. II. 49. It is not surprising that the majority of the removals were carried out in the Archdiocese. £1 Nuevo Diario, 4 November 1983. 50. For a good account of the conflict, see Pat Hynds, 'The Catholic Church in Nicaragua', in Central American Update (November 1982) pp. 3-4. 51. The Dominicans are particularly united in their support for the revolutionary process. Interview with Juan Merino OP, (former Notes 191

Regional Superior of Dominicans in Central America), 24 April 1985, San Jose, Costa Rica . 52. In October 1985 Obando met with Vatican Secretary of State, Cardinal Casaroli, asking his intervention in the matter. See Update, no. 84a (21.1.86). 53. Envio, no. 30 (December 1983) pp. 22b-23b ; EI Nuevo Diario, I November 1983. 54. Confidential interview . 55. Confidential interview. 56. Mons . Ruben Lopez Ardon, 'Instruccion Diocesana "Eminente Voca cion" Sobre los Delegados de la Palabra' (Esteli, 24.9.84). Despite these measures, the Bishop of Esteli is one of the more moderate bishops. However, as the only Nicaraguan among them, he is under constant pressure from the hardline bishops (all of whom are Nicaraguans) to come down on their side. 57. Miguel Ernesto Vigil, 'Sospechoso Interes del CELAM sobre la Iglesia en Nicaragua', EI Nuevo Diario, 21-2 September 1980. 58. The total budget for the Plan was $320,000. CELAM. 'Proyecto de Programa de Ayuda a la Iglesia de Nicaragua, undated memo. 59. CELAM, no. 159(February 1981)pp. 16-18. 60. 'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero', (Rome), letter dated 14July 1982. 61. See next chapter. 62. 'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero', op. cit. 63. Barricada, 23 July 1983. 64. Archivo de CONFER, 'Observaciones de la Sagrada Congregacion de Religiosos e Inst itutos Seculares (SCRIS) al Proyecto de Estatutos de CONFER', undated memo ; also see CONFER, 'Estatutos de la Conferencia Nacional de Superiores Mayores de Nicaragua' , 21 Novem ber 1983. 65. Interview with Rosalia Cereda MSC (Former Secretary of CONFER), 27 November 1984, Managua. 66. Interview with Jose Manuel Guijo SDB (President of CONFER), 18 January 1985,Managua. 67. Article 34, in fact, provides for a comision mixta to be composed of bishops and religious, who will meet periodically to discuss differences. See CONFER, 'Estatutos ...',21 November 1983.

CHAPTER FOUR

I. CEN, 'Compromise Cristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva' (Managua, 17.11.79). 2. Robert Ullman, 'At War with Nicaragua', Foreign Affairs (Fall, 1983) pp.48-9. 3. The typology is based on information collected during more than fifty interviews with bishops, priests and religious in Nicaragua (all dioceses were represented). The interviews were conducted during three visits to Nicaragua: July-August 1983; October 1984-February 1985; and May 1985.While the typology is an attempt to describe a particular historical conjuncture, it may also be of a more general use. 192 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

4. Examples are Xabier Gorostiaga SJ, who served in the Ministry of Planning until 1982, and Peter Marchetti SJ, who works for the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios de la Reforma Agraria (CIERA). 5. Teofilo Cabestrero, Ministros de Dios, M inistros del Pueblo (Bilbao, 1983) p. 36. 6. Interview with Ernesto Cardenal (Minister ofCulture), 15January 1985. 7. Interview with Fernando Cardenal SJ (Minister of Education), 8 February 1985, Managua. 8. Interview with Ernesto Cardenal, op. cit. 9. Fernando Cardenal SJ, 'Carta a mis Amigos', in Barricada, II December 1984. 10. Anabel Torres, et al., 'Lucha Ideologica en el Campo Religioso y su SignificadoPolitico', unpublished mimeo (Managua, 1981)p. II-3. II . The Central was originally affiliated with CONFER. It became an independent organization in 1984, when a group of conservative religious took control of CONFER's directorate. Conversations with Ani Wihbey of the Central de Servicios Multiples, November-December 1984, Managua. 12. Maryknoll Sisters, 'Ciudad Sandino Evaluation" unpublished /undated mirneo,Managua. 13. Interviews with Maryknoll sisters in Ciudad Sandino (26 November 1984), Ocotal (2 December 1984),and Leon (I January 1985). 14. The clearest statement of this group's criticisms of the revolutionary process is contained in the Jesuits' response to the bishops' 22 April 1984 pastoral letter. See 'Declaracion del Delegado de los Jesuitas con su Consulta', Barricada,9 May 1984. 15. Confidential interview. 16. Interview with Mons. Julian Barni OFM (Bishop of Leon), 23 August 1983, Leon; interview with Mons . Carlos Santi OFM (Bishop of Matagalpa), 21 July 1983, Matagalpa. 17. Priestsand religious within group 4 carry out a pastoral strategy which is based on apostolic movements, such as the Charismatics and Catecumen ados, rather than CEBs . The former tend to concentrate on personal conversion as opposed to socio-political commitment. 18. LaPrensa, 10September 1984. 19. Interview with Mons. Pablo Antonio Vega (Bishop of Juigalpa), 18 December 1984,Managua. 20. Interview with Mons. Miguel Obando y Bravo (Archbishop of Mana gua), 16August 1983,Managua. 21. The analogy is misleading, however. In Cuba, the Catholic Church's loss of influence was caused more by its relative weakness before the revolution and the exodus of clergy after it, than by government persecution. For a discussion on this, see Margaret Crahan, 'Salvation Through Christ or Marx : Religion in Revolutionary Cuba', Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs, vol. XXI, no. 2 (February 1979) pp. 156-84. 22. Interview with Mons. Vega" op. cit. 23. Envio, no. 30(December 1983)p. 9b. 24. Becauseof the scarcity ofnative-born clergy, the Nicaraguan Church has alwaysrelied heavily on foreign religious, who make up 60 per cent of the Notes 193

total number of priests in the country. The percentage is even higher in the Archdiocese because of the existence of several Catholic schools and the Jesuit-run university. 25. Luis Serra, op. cit., p. 276. 26. Margaret Randall, Cristianos en la Revolucion (Managua, 1983)p. 57. 27. Tomas Borge, EI Axioma de la Esperan:a (Bilbao, 1984) p. 101 . 28. Interview with Teodoro Niehaus OFM Cap .. (former parish priest in Siuna), 26 July 1983, Managua; interview with Alfredo Gundrum OFM Cap., (parish priest in EI Jicaro), 7 December 1984, El Jicaro; also see Gregorio Smutko, op. cit. 29. See Margaret Randall, op . cit., pp. 150-54, 159. 30. Giulio Girardi, Fe en la Revolucion, Revolucion en la Cultura (Managua. 1983) p. 69. 31. Quoted in Luis Serra, op . cit., p. 277. 32. Ibid. 33. Instead of being confined to jails. some prisoners are assigned to farms where they live and work . Although a government responsable assists them during the day, they are left unguarded at night. 34. Barricada, 7 October 1980. 35. Cesar Jerez SJ, The Church and the Nicaraguan Revolution (London, 1984) pp . 15-16. 36. For a useful typology of the various attitudes towards religion within the FSLN, see ibid., pp . 16-17. 37. Luis Serra, op. cit., p. 279. 38. EI Nuevo Diario , 15 August 1982; La Prensa. 13August 1982. 39. For a full account of the Carballo incident, see Pat Hynds, 'The Catholic Church in Nicaragua', Central America Update (November 1982)p. 4. 40. Barricada, 12August 1982. 41. CEN, 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Nicaragiiense Sobre la Reconcili- acion' (Managua, 22.4.84). 42. La Prensa, 22 June 1984. 43. Amanecer, nos. 28-9, p. 10. 44. Ibid ., p. II . 45. Barricada, 10 July 1984; EI Nuevo Diario, 10 July 1984; La Prensa, 10 July 1984. 46. Barricada, 9 July 1984. 47. Barricada, 10July 1984. 48. One can also point to the manipulation of religious symbols by political opposition groups. A good example was La Prensa's stories on the 'Virgen de Cuapa'. La Prensa interpreted the Virgin's appearances before a poor campesino in Cuapa as signalling the Virgin's desire to save Nicaragua from its present suffering - implicitly suggesting that the revolution was responsible for the suffering. See La Prensa. 30 March 1981, 21 and 28 April 1981. 49. 'Decreto de la JGRN Sobre la Navidad', in CEP , Nicaragua : La Hora de los Desafios(Lima, 1981) pp . 101-2. 50. CEN, 'Respuesta de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua' (Managua, 17.10.80)p.17. 51. This author was in EI Jicaro (near the Honduran border) during the 1984 La Purisima celebrations. There, members of the army distributed small 194 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

toys, candy and fruit to hundreds ofyoung children. 52. Barricada.S December 1984. 53. For a discussion of the Pope's visit to Nicaragua, see IEPALA. £1 Papa en Nicaragua: Analisis de su Visita (Madrid. 1983) and £111'10 . no . 21 (March 1983). 54. EI Nuevo Diario, 3 March 1983. 55. Confidential interview . 56. IEPALA, op . cit., pp. 86-7. 57. After his resignation. Robelo dedicated his energies to the Movim iento Democratico Nicaragiiense(MDN), a business-backed pro-reform move ment he had founded in April 1978. During the next two years the MDN directed its attacks against the political and economic policies of the FSLN . In 1981, Robelo went into exile in Costa Rica . where he and the MDN joined ARDE, one ofthe contra groupings. 58. Interview with Norman Bent (Moravian Pastor). 18 August 1983. Managua. 59. Afterwards. the government admitted it was wrong in carrying out the relocation. Throughout 1985, the Miskitos were allowed to return to their villages. 60. CEN . 'Mensaje de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua' (Managua. 18.2.82). 61. The US Secretary of State. Alexander Haig, and the US Ambassador to the United Nations, Jean Kirkpatrick. later pointed to the government's treatment of the Miskitos as additional justification for the Reagan administration's policy towards Nicaragua. 62. CEN . 'Consideraciones Generales de la Confcrencia Episcopal dc Nicaragua Sobre el Servicio Militar' (Managua. 29.8.83). 63. The CON is made up of the Social Christian Party (PSC) . the Social Democratic Party (PSD), the Constitutionalist Liberal Party (PLC), the Conservative Party of Nicaragua (PCN). labour groupings (CTN and CUS), and COSEP. 64. CEN . 'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua' (Mana gua.22.3.85). 65. EI1I'lo, no. 46 (April 1985) pp. I a-2a. 66. Mons . Pablo Antonio Vega. 'Nuestro Aporte de Iglesia a la Humaniz aci6n de la Historia: Una Invitacion a la Reflexion Cristiana Ante el Momento Nicaragiiense' (Managua. 24.10.84) . 67. It was, in fact, Obando's first mass after being appointed Cardinal in April 1985. See Update. no . 84a (21 January 1986) p. 6. 68. See Ana Maria Ezcurra, Agresioll Ideologica Contra la Revolucion Sandinista (Mexico D.F ., '1983) pp . 71-89. 69. Caritas de Nicaragua has branch offices in each diocese. These are under the control of the local bishops, who exercise free reign over the contracting of outside funding. 70. Ezcurra, op. cit., p. 51. 71. Interv iew with Father Rene Espinoza Jiron (Director of Caritas), 4 August 1983, Managua. 72. Ezcurra, op, cit., p. 55. 73. Interview with Lie. Roberto Rivas (Director of COPROSA). 13 January 1985, Managua. Notes 195

74. Ezcurra, op . cit., pp. 59-70. More recently, it has been suggested that the Archdiocese 'received hundreds of thousands of dollars in covert aid from the United States - from the CIA until 1985 . .. ' See 'Covert aid and the Church';Newsweek, IS June 1987. 75. Ibid., pp. 89-93. 76. Envio, no . 30 (December 1983) p. 14b. 77 . EI Nuevo Diario, 5 July 1986. 78. Central America Report, 12 December 1986, p. 381. 79. Envio, September 1986, pp. 10-12 .

CHAPTER FIVE

1. Ricardo Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica de Costa Rica: 1502-1850 (San Jose, 1983)pp.147,218. 2. Miguel Picado, 'Para una Historia de la Iglesia en Costa Rica ', Senderos, Afio 2, no . 3 (January-March 1979) p. 10. 3. This compares with Nicaragua, where large estates, especially haciendas, developed to a much greater extent. 4. Picado, ' Para una Historia ... ' (January-March 1979)p. 24. 5. In those zones not dominated militarily, the Church had no presence whatsoever. See Picado, ibid ., p. 14. 6. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica . .., p. 109. 7. The Church's economic poverty was decisive in its relations with the State. In fact, in moments of Church-State tension, the State did not confiscate Church property, since it was minimal. See Picado, 'Para una Historia ...' (January-March 1979)p. 29. 8. Ricardo Blanco Segura, 1884: £1 Estado, la Iglesia J' las Reformas Liberales (San Jose, 1984) p. 23. 9. Ibid ., p. 16. 10. Ibid ., p. 24. II . Thi s partly explains why Costa Rica was so quick to switch over to coffee production. 12. Frederick Pike, 'The Catholic Church in Central America', Review of Politics, vol. 21, no. I (January 1959)p. 89. 13. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica ..., p. 286. 14. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . ., p. 39. IS. Picado, ' Pa ra una Historia .. .' (April-June 1979)p. 112. 16. The constitutional modifications must have had some effect, since between 1864 and 1892 the population grew from approximately 120,000 to 240,000. For more on the origins of Protestantism in Costa Rica. see Arturo Piedra, 'Origenes y Efectos del Protestantismo en Costa Rica' , Senderos, no . 20 (May-September 1984)pp. 3-28 . 17. Eugenio Rodriguez. Biografia de Costa Rica (San Jose, 1982) p. 67. 18. Blanco Segura, Historia Eclesiastica . .., pp. 225-326 . 19. Blanco Segura, 1884 .. . , p. 41. ' 20. Rodriguez, op . cit., p. 75. 21. J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill, 1966) p.333. 22. Pike, op . cit., p. 91. 196 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

23. Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 91. 24. This is not to suggest that there were no anti-clericals in Costa Rica . Indeed, a number of influential Liberals adhered to Barrios' strain of liberalism . 25. Rodriguez, op . cit., p. 100. 26. Mons. Victor Sanabria, Bernardo Augusto Thiel (San Jose, 1982) pp. 134-5. 27. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . . , p. 148. 28. On this point, see ibid., pp. 319-20. 29. Ibid., pp. 157, 166-8 . 30. Ibid., pp. )69-73. 3) . Sanabria, op . cit., p. 202. 32. Ibid., pp. 208-10. 33. Blanco Segura, 1884 ..., pp . )73--4 and Sanabria, op . cit., p. III . 34. Mecham , op. cit ., p. 333. 35. Blanco Segura, 1884 . . ., p. 320. 36. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . .' (April-June 1979) p. 124. 37. James Backer, La Iglesia y el Sindicalismo en Costa Rica (San Jose, 1978) p.49. 38. Sanabria, op. cit., p. 416. 39. 'Trigesima Carta Pastoral de Mons. Bernardo Augusto Thiel', in Miguel Picado, La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricences (San Jose, 1982) pp.27-36. 40. Backer, op . cit., p. 49. 41. 'Trigesima Carta Pastoral . . ., op . cit ., p. 30. 42. Sanabria, op. cit., pp. 436-7. 43. Picado, 'Para una Historia ...' (April-June 1979) p. 126. 44. lbid., p. 124. 45. Sanabria, op. cit., p. 452. 46. Ibid., pp. 391-2. 47. Picado, 'Para una Historia ...' (April-June 1979) p. 126. 48. Sanabria, op. cit., p. 392. 49. Ibid., pp. 459-60. 50. In May) 894, a group of Congressional deputies attempted to pass a law prohibiting clergy from any form of political participation. The final outcome was a law prohibiting the use of religious symbols or motives (by either clergy or laity) for political propaganda purposes. Sanabria, op. cit., pp. 464-6. 51. Ibid., pp. 459-60. 52. Picado, 'Para una Historia ...' (July-September 1979) p. 229. 53. Backer, op . cit., p. 57. 54. Ibid., p. 58. 55. lbid., pp . 58-60. 56. In 1921, the Diocese of Costa Rica was divided into the Archdiocese of San Jose, the Diocese ofAlajuela, and the Vicariato Apostolico oflimon. 57. Backer, op. cit., pp . 63--4. 58. Rodriguez, op. cit., p. 154. 59. See Picado, 'Para una Historia ...' (July-September 1979) pp 231-3 and Backer, op . cit ., pp. 71--4. 60. Backer, op . cit., p. 73. Notes 197

61. 'Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiasticas de Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre el Com un ismo' Mensajero del Clero, no. 8 (August 1935) p. 982. 62. Jose Luis Vega Carballo, Hacia una Interpretac ion del Desarrollo Costarricens e: Ensayo Sociologico (San Jose, 1983) p. 322. 63. The Costa Rican hierarchy obviously applied its own selective interpre- tation to the social encyclicals. Backer, op . cit., pp . 76-7. 64. Ibid ., p. 75. 65. Ibid ., p. 80. 66. Marina Volio, Jorge Volio yel Partido Reformista (San Jose, 1983) p. 25. 67. Ibid., pp. 35-41. 68. Ibid ., pp . 75-7, 92. 69. Ibid ., pp . 95-129. 70. Ibid ., pp. 170-75. 71. Picado, 'Para una Historia .. . ' (July-September 1979)p. 240. 72. Volio , op . cit., pp. 262-3. 73. Coffee accounted for more than 50 per cent ofthe total export earnings. 74. Vega Carballo, op . cit., p. 315. 75. DanielCamacho,'PorQuePersisteelJuego Democraticoen Costa Rica',in Chester Zelaya ed ., Demo cracia en Costa Rica?(San Jose, 1983) p. 114. 76. Vega Carballo , op . cit., pp . 316-22. 77. Jorge Mario Salazar, Politica y Reforma en Costa Rica: 1914-1958 (San Jose , 1982) pp . 19-20,72-3. 78. Jorge Rovira Mas, Estado y Politica en Costa Rica: 1948-1970 (San Jose, 1983) pp . 31-2. 79. Salazar, op . cit., pp . 57-60, 74. 80. Rodriguez, op . cit., p. 168. 81. Salazar, op . cit., pp . 70-71. 82. Rodriguez, op . cit ., pp. 171-2. 83. Backer, op . cit., pp . 100-101. 84. 'Presentacion del Programa Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria como Obispo de la Diocesis de Alajuela', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., p. 46. 85. Backer, op . cit ., p. 89. 86. 'Carta Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria con Motivo de la Toma de Posesion de la Sede Metropolitana de San Jose', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., p.51. 87. 'Carta Pastoral Sobre el Justo Salario', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., p.68. 88. 'Cartas Cruzadas Entre el Presidente Rafael Calderon Guardia y los Obispos de Costa Rica', in ibid ., p. 78. 89. Booth, op . cit., pp . 65, 121. 90. The communists claimed that the government was handing over the country's wealth to foreign investors. See Backer, op . cit., p. 91. 91. Miguel Picado, 'Mons. Sanabria: Compromiso Social y Pensamiento Teologico', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, 1985) p. 12. 92. Salazar, op . cit., p. 74. 93. Picado, 'Mons. Sanabria . . . ', p. 12. 94. 'Carta del Jefe del Partido Comunista Costarricense don Manuel Mora a Mons.Victor Sanabria M. Arzobispo de San Jose', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., pp. 81-2. 198 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

95. 'Respuesta de Mons. Sanabria M. Arzobispo de San Jose a don Manuel Mora', in ibid, pp. 83-7. 96. 'Declaraciones de Mons. Sanabria', in ibid., pp. 89-95 . 97. 'Presentacion del Program a Pastoral de Mons . Sanabria como Obispo de la Diocesis de Alajuela', op . cit., p. 48. 98. Ibid. 99. 'Declaraciones de Mons. Sanabria'. op. cit., p. 92. 100. Backer,op. cit., p. 107. 101. Ibid.,pp.III-13. 102. Ibid., pp. 113-20. 103. lbid., pp. 121-5. 104. Benjamin Nunez, 'EI Movimiento Sindical Rerum Novarum: Un Ensayo de Aplicacion de la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia'. Senderos, Afio 4. no. 10 (January-ApriI1981)pp.6-12. 105. Sanabria also personally advocated a position of mutual collaboration vis-Ii-vis the CTCR . See 'Discurso del Mons . Sanabria en la Convencion de la CCTRN celebrada el I de Mayo de 1945', in Picado, La Palabra Social . . ., pp. 111-12. 106. Picado, 'Para una Historia . .. ' (October-December 1979)p. 353. 107. Backer,op. cit., pp. 127-9. 108. VegaCarballo, op. cit., pp. 331-6 . 109. Salazar, op. cit., pp. 117-18. 110. Jacobo Schifter, La Fase Oculta de la Guerra Civil en Costa Rica (San Jose, 1981)pp. 68-73. For a more detailed discussion of the CEPN and the PSD see Jorge E. Romero, La Social Democracia en Costa Rica (San Jose, 1982)pp. 69-116. III. Schifter,op. cit., p. 75. 112. Rovira Mas, op. cit., pp. 35-6. 113. Schifter, op. cit., pp. 76-7. 114. Salazar, op. cit., pp. 134-8. 115. The official turnout was suspiciously low in traditional Calderonista strongholds. SeeSchifter, op . cit., p. 80. 116. Ibid., pp. 80-83. 117. Ibid., pp. 78-9. 118. The relative weakness of Figueres' position was reflected in the PSD's poor showing during the September 1948 national assembly elections, whereit only polled 6.4 per cent of the popular vote. Ibid ., p. 88. 119. It is interesting that after Nunez assumed his position in the government, the CCTRN entered into a period of decline - an obvious reflection of the personalist nature of the movement. See Backer, op. cit., pp. 151-6. 120. Picado, 'Para una Historia . .. ' (October-December 1979)p. 356. 121. Backer, op. cit., pp. 161-3. 122. Sanabria figured prominently in the protests against these proposals. However. this was his last significant public intervention in political matters before his death in 1952. 123. Pike, op. cit., pp. 94-5 . Notes 199

CHAPTER SIX

I. Jose Miguel Rodriguez, 'Politica y Religion: La Funcion Politica de la Iglesia Catolica en Costa Rica', Revista de Ciencias Sociales , no. 13 (April 1977),pp. 77-101. 2. Ruben Odio Herrera, 'Primera Carta Pastoral con Motivo de su Consagraci6n y Toma de Posesion del Arzobispado' (San Jose, 12 December 1952)p. 9. 3. Although the Communist Party had been proscribed by the 1949 Constitution, it was still very influential in the labour movement, particularly the banana workers' union. 4. Episcopado Costarricense, 'Carta Pastoral Colectiva con Motivo de la Consagracion de la Republica al Sagrado Corazon de Jesus' (San Jose, 30 September 1953)p. 7. 5. Jose Miguel Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos Ideologicos y Estructurales de la Relacion Entre la Iglesia Catolica de Costa Rica y el Sistema Politico Nacional' (Universidad de Costa Rica, 1976)p.47. 6. During the 1940s and 1950s, a number of Northamerican pentecostal groups (induding the Assembly of God and Church of God) established missions in Costa Rica, steadily gaining adherents. In contrast to the more established Protestant churches, these sects dedicated much of their energy to religious proselytism . See Senderos, no. 20 (May-September 1984)pp. 36-7. 7. Backer, op . cit., pp. 171-2. 8. Ibid., pp. 174-8. 9. Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos Ideologicos . . . " p. 52. 10. The PLN was founded by Jose Figueres in 1951,with the PSD providing most of its leadership cadres . For more on the political history of the PLN see Burt H. English, Liberacion Nacional in Costa Rica: The Development of a Political Party in a Transitional Society (Gainesville, 1971);and Jaime Delgado, EI Partido Libera cion Nacional: Analisis de su Discurso Politico-Ideologico (Heredia, 1983). II . For a good overview ofthis period, seeSalazar, op. cit., pp. 172-216; and Rovira Mas, op. cit., pp. 63-87,119-133. 12. One author has suggested that Sanabria had already set the pattern for a more passive role by the hierarchy. His relative silence regarding socio-economic issues in the wake of the civil war signalled his retreat from the campo social. See Jorge Arturo Chaves, 'La Iglesia y la Produccion Material en Costa Rica', Prax is, nos. 5-6 (July-December 1977)pp. 90-93. 13. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., pp. 264-5. 14. The agro-export sector opposed membership in the CACM, as other emerging sectors would challenge its economic hegemony. Nevertheless, the Orlich government maintained the policy of defending coffee production, since it was so essential to the country's economic well being. See Rovira Mas, op. cit., p. 94. 15. Rodolfo Cerdas, 'Costa Rica: Problemas Actuales de una Revolucion Democratica', in Zelaya, op. cit., pp. 169-72. 16. Jacobo Schifter, 'La Democracia en Costa Rica Como Producto de la Neutralizacion de Clases', in Zelaya, op. cit., p. 227. 200 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

17. See Mitchell Seligson, EI Campesino )' el Capitalismo Agrario de Costa Rica(SanJose,1984)pp.158-85. 18. Andres Opazo Bernales, ' La Iglesia Costarricense y el Orden Social Sacralizado', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, 1984) p. 27. 19. Rovira Mas, op. cit., p. 92. 20. Rodriguez Zamora, 'Aspectos ldeologicos . . . , pp. 55-6. 21. The conservative sector of the clergy (which , of course, included Rodriguez), was especially delighted with Trejos' election, since he represented the interests of the traditional agro-export bourgeoisie, which opposed the State's growing intervention in the economy. 22. Mensajero del Clero, nos. 9-10 (September-October 1966) pp . 217-19. 23. 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense', Eco Catolico, 26 February 1978and 5 March 1978. 24. Ibid. 25. 'Obispos Denuncian la Corrupcion Moral', Eco Catolico, 2 December 1973. 26. Quoted in Backer, op . cit., p. 188. 27. Rodriguez Zamora, op. cit., p. 54. 28. Rodriguez' preoccupation with the 'communist threat' was probably a reaction to the successful Cuban Revolution, two years earlier. 29. Mons. Carlos Humberto Rodriguez Quiros, 'Llamarnicnto e Invitacion para el Proximo Primero de Mayo, Dia del Trabajo, en la Catedral de San Jose ' (San Jose, 30 April 1970) p. 2. 30. Ibid. 31. Backer, op. cit., p. 187. 32. Ibid., p. 186. 33. La Nacion, 30 September 1972, p. 8. For more on this, see next chapter. 34. Backer, op. cit., pp. 196-7 . 35. Mons. Carlos Humberto Rodriguez Quiros, 'Cornunicacion' (San Jose, 29 March 1963)p. 6. 36. The communist labour movement was especially strong in the banana zones. 37. Mons. Rodriguez refused to establish links with the COCC, contending that it had been infiltrated by the communists. See Backer, op . cit ., pp . 201'-2. 38. Ibid., pp . 191-3. 39. Gustavo Blanco and Orlando Navarro, £1 Solidarismo: Pensamiento )' Dinamico Social de un Movimiento Obrero-Patronal (San Jose , 1984) p. 72. 40. Interview with Father Claudio Solano (Director of ESJ23), 22 July 1985, Curridibat. 41. Ibid. 42. Blanco and Navarro, op. cit., p. 50. 43. Ibid., p. 28. 44. Ibid., p. 168. 45. Interview with Solano, op . cit. 46. Between 1973 and 1981, the number of Asociaciones Solidaristas de Empleados (ASEs) in Costa Rica rose from 30 to 216. This compared to 259 trade unions in 1981. See Blanco and Navarro, op . cit. , pp . 106-13. Notes 201

47. Blanco and Navarro, op. cit., pp. 178-9; and interviewwith Solano, op. cit. 48. Eeo Catolico, 22 July 1973, p. 10. 49. Ibid. 50. Blanco and Navarro, op. cit., p. 176. 51 . Mensajero del Clero, no. 6 (June 1965)pp. 171-3. 52. Roman Arrieta, 'Ante el Sesquicentenario de Nuestra Independencia' (15 September 1971). Personal Archive of Javier Solis. 53. Eco Catolico, 7 January 1973, p. 8. 54. Javier Solis, La Herencia De Sanabria (San Jose, 1983) pp. 161-2. 55. See Eco Catolico, 25 May 1969, p. 5. 56. Apparently, this did not include direct criticisms of the regime's shortcomings. 57. Three quarters of the total land was owned by 17agricultural enterprises. 58. Roman Arrieta, 'Las Tierras Irrigadas por el Proyecto del Arenal: A Quienes Benificiaran?' (31 March 1975). Personal Archive of Javier Solis. 59. La Nacion, 14April 1975,p. 6A. 60. 'Mons. Arrieta a la Conciencia del Pais' (27 April 1975) p. I. Personal Archive of Javier Solis. 61. Solis, op. cit., pp. 84-5 . 62. 'Declaracion de los Sacerdotes de la Diocesis de Tilaran Sobre el Proyecto de Ley de Creacion del Distrito de Riego de Moracia', in Solis, op. cit., pp. 111-17; La Republica, 24 April 1975, pp. I and 13. 63. La Nacion, 9 May 1975,p. 2A. 64. Roman Arrieta, ' Distrito de Riego de Moracia: Mi Posicion Oficial' (II March 1978).Personal Archive of Javier Solis. 65. This would become evident when he was appointed Archbishop. 66. CODESA was created in 1972 during the Figueres administration (1970-74), but did not really take off until 1975. During the Oduber government, a number of enterprises were 'set up as subsidiaries of CODESA. See Carlos Araya Pochet, 'Crisis e Historia Economica y Social en Costa Rica: 1970-1982', in Jorge Rovira Mas ed., Costa Rica Hoy: La Crisis y sus Perspectivas (San Jose, 1984) pp. 27-8. 67. Helio Fallas Venegas, 'Crisis Economica y Transformacion Social en Costa Rica', in Rovira Mas, ed., op. cit., pp. 68-74. 68. Eugenio Rivera Urrutia, 'EI Fondo Monetario Internacional y la Politica de Estabilizacion en Costa Rica: 1978-1982', in Rovira Mas, ed., op. cit., pp. 179-83. 69. In the words of Mons. Bolanos, •. .. some say Arrieta is more verdethan the PLN banner' - which is, of course, green. Interview with Mons. Enrique Bolanos (retired Bishop of Alajuela), 6 August 1985,Heredia. 70. Interview with Mons. Bolanos, op. cit. 71. Mons . Enrique Bolanos Quesada, 'Mensaje Pastoral' (San Jose, 24 January 1979)pp. 7-9. 72. In an interview with the author, Mons. Bolanos recalled that pastoral activities in the Archdiocese were in complete disarray when he took over as Apostolic Administrator. Interview with Mons. Bolanos, op. cit. 73. Miguel Picado , La Palabra Social . . ., p. 22. 74. The timing of the pastoral is not inconsequential. It came exactly one 202 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

month after the Nicaraguan hierarchy's pastoral letter, 'Cornprorniso Cristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva' - its most progressive statement to date. 75. Conferencia Episcopal de Costa Rica (CECOR), 'Evangelizacion y Realidad Social de Costa Rica' (San Jose, 17December 1979)p. 8. 76. Ibid., p. 9. 77. Ibid., p. 13. 78. Ibid., p. 21. 79. ibid. 80. Ibid., p. 13. 81. La Nacion, 23 December 1979, p. 14A. 82. La Nacion, 8 January 1980, p. 15A. 83. La Nacion, 18January 1980, p. 15A. 84. La Nacion, 15January 1980, p. 6A. 85. La Nacion, 20 January 1980, p. 3B. 86. Eco Catolico, 20 January 1980. 87. La Nacion, 29 January 1980, p. 9A . 88. La Nacion, 31 January 1980, p. lOA. 89. La Nacion, 23 August 1980, p. 4A. 90. 'Iglesia y Momento Actual: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense Sobre la Actual Situacion del Pais y la Campana Electoral', in Picado. La Palabra Social . .., pp. 183-94. 91. Ibid.,p.187. 92. CECOR , 'Unidos en la Esperanza: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense Sobre la Critica Situacion que Vive el Pais' (San Jose, I December 1981). 93. Ibid., p. 8. 94. 'Alocucion de Mons . Roman Arrieta, Arzobispo de San Jose, con Motive de la Eleccion de Don Luis Alberto Monge, como Presidente de la Republica', Mensajero del Clero , no. 8 (December 1982)pp. 4-5 . 95. 'Carta Circular al Clero de Costa Rica Sobre eI Programa Nacional de Distribuci6n de Alimentos', Mensajero del Clero, no. 8 (December 1982) p.22 . 96. Lowell Gudmundson, 'EI Conflicto Entre Estabilidad y Neutralidad en Costa Rica', Foro Internacional, vol. XXVI, no. I (July-September 1985) pp.37-54. 97. See Mensajero del Clero, nos. 8-16 (December 1982-January 1986). 98. SeeBibliography for list ofinterviews with Costa Rican Bishops. 99. Since 1978, the growth of fundamentalist sects has been exponential. Between 1978and 1983 these sects claimed to have gained close to 30,000 newadherents. See Senderos (May-September 1984)p. 57. 100. Interview with Mons . Hector Morera (Bishop of Tilaran), 8 July 1985, Tilaran .

CHAPTER SEVEN

I. Solis, op. cit., p. 151 . 2. Eco Catolico, 7 May 1967. 3. Eco Catolico, 16July 1967. NOles 203

4. Interview with Javier Solis, (former Catholic priest), 5 August 1985, San Jose. 5. Eeo Catolico, 20 August 1967, 10December 1967. 6. £Co Catolico, 6 October 1967,3 November 1968. 7. Eeo Catolico , 17 November 1968, I and 15December 1968, I June 1969. 8. Solis, op . cit., pp. 121 -5. 9. La Nadon, 13and 20 August 1968. 10. Eeo Catolico, 25 August 1968. 11. La Nadon, 24 August 1968. 12. La Nadon, 27 August 1968. 13. La Nadon, 3 September 1968. 14. Eeo Catolico, 23 November 1969. Echandi had accused the PLN candidate, Jose Figueres, ofbeing a communist. 15. Solis, op. cit., p. 157. 16. Eeo Catolico, 28 December 1969. 17. Although an article in La Republica (11 December 1969) claimed that Mons. Rodriguez had denounced the TSE's decision during a clergy meeting, Rodriguez denied ever having made such a statement. In fact. during the clergy meeting, Rodriguez sustained that he would not support either side in the conflict, as he did not wish to 'trigger a political battle.' Mensajero del Clero, nos.9-10 (September-October 1969)p. 161 . 18. Solis, op. cit., pp. 157-8. 19. La Republica, 15 February 1970. 20. Eeo Catolico, 31 May 1970. 21. Eeo Catolico , 25 July 1971. 22. Eeo Catolico, 19July 1970, p. 6. 23. Backer, op. cit., pp. 209-10; La Nadon, 30October 1968. 24. Solis, op. cit., p. 93. 25. Eeo Catolico , 20 Apri11969, p. 10. 26. Mensajero del Clero, nos. 3-4 (March-April 1969)pp. 45-6. 27. Solis, op. cit., p. 91. 28. Ibid., pp. 58-61. 29. fbid., pp. 47-57 . 30. Universidad, 15February 1971. 31. 'Carta del Presidente de la CECOR a Mons . Leonidas Proafio' (Tilaran, 30.12.70). Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana. 32. Mora studied theology in Louvain between 1960 and 1965. In the late 1960s he worked with the Ju ventud Universitaria Catolica (JUC), which took on an increasingly radical position during this period. A number of its members participated in demonstrations against ALCOA in April 1970. Interview with Arnoldo Mora (former Catholic priest), 22 July 1985,San Jose. 33. Interview with Arnoldo Mora, op. cit.; interview with Javier Solis. op. cit. 34. Grupo Ecumenico Exodo, 'Informe de Costa Rica', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, 1972). Archivo Personal de Arnoldo Mora . 35. CECOR, 'Declaracion de la CECOR Sobre el Encuentro de Chile "Cristianos para el Socialismo'" (August 1972). Archivo Personal de Javier Solis. 36. La Nadon, 30 September 1972, p. 8. 204 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua andCosta Rica

37. Interviewwith Javier Solis, op. cit. 38. Ibid. 39. In March 1974, the Episcopal Conference passed a resolution calling on those priests 'out of communion' with their bishops to normalize their situation. Those who refused would be subject to sanctions according to canon law. CECOR, 'Acuerdo Sobre Disciplina Eclesiastica' (San Jose, I March 1974). Archivo Personal de Javier Solis. 40. Solis, op. cit., pp. 71-4. 41. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 282. 42. Interviewwith Javier Solis, op. cit. 43. Arnoldo Mora, for example, was one of the founding members of the Partido Socialista Costarricense (PSC), participating in the PSC's electoral campaign of 1973. 44. Interviewwith Arnoldo Mora, op. cit. 45. Interview with Javier Solis, op. cit.; interview with Arnoldo Mora, op. cit. 46. A survey of seminarians conducted in January 1970 reflected the deficient nature of their preparation. Only 5 per cent of the students thought they were receiving a formacion integral, and over half (57 per cent) maintained that their training did not prepare them to confront the 'problems of the future .' The lack of confidence on the part of the students probably arose from their almost cloistered existence at the Seminary, which isolated them from the 'outside world.' Consejo Estudiantil, 'Evaluacion del Seminario Central de Costa Rica' (San Jose, January 1970). 47. Interview with Juan Merino OP (Director of ITAC) , 24 April 1985, San Jose. 48. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 284. It is no small coincidence that many of the most progressive secular clergy in Costa Rica today completed their first four years of theological studies while ITAC was stilla part of the Seminary. 49. Pueblo, 28 August-4 September 1978, no. 295, p. 4; 30 October-6 November, no. 303, p. 4. 50. CECOR, 'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal Sobre la Huelga en el ITAC' (Tilanln , 25 August 1978). 51. Interviewwith Juan Merino OP, op. cit. 52. Interview with Francisco Ulloa (Rector of the Seminario Central), II April 1985,San Jose. 53. Confidential interviews with three students at ITAC, 26 April 1985, San Jose. 54. Confidential interviews with three students at the Seminario Central, 16 April 1985,San Jose. 55. For a good discussion of apostolic movements in Costa Rica, see Mensajero del Clero,no. II (September 1983). 56. Interview with Orlando Navarro (former Parroco of San Gabriel de Aserri), 12April 1985. 57. Andres Opazo, op. cit., chapter 2, pp. 36-42 . 58. Interviewwith Lorenzo McCulloch MM (priest in Limon) , 12June 1985, Limon: interviews with Eduardo Ramirez and Luis Alberto Herrera (priests in Guapiles), 13 June 1985, Guapiles; interv iew with Mons. Notes 205

Alfonso Coto (Bishop of Limon), 10June 1985, Limon. 59. Interviews with Luis Arocena and Santiago Tortosa (priests in Chacarita), 22 March 1985, Chacarita. See also Andres Opazo, op. cit., chapter 2, pp. 43-90. 60. Interview with Gerardo Brenes (Director of Caritasi, 9 July 1985, San Jose. 61. Interview with Orlando Navarro (Director of CECODERS), I.2 April 1985,San Jose. 62. Quinto Sinodo Arquidiocesano, 'Decretos Sinodales' (San Jose, 2 August 1985)pp. 66-8 . 63. SEPROLA, 'Informacion General ', unpublished mimeo (San Jose, 1985). 64. Interview with Mons . Arrieta , op. cit. 65. La Nacion, 21 July 1985,p. 14A. 66. Ibid. 67. La Nacion , 27 July 1985, p. 16A. 68. La Nacion, 30July 1985,p. 14A. 69. La Nacion, 13August 1985,p. 16A. 70. Claudio Solano , 'Carta a Mons . Arrieta' (Curridibat, 8July 1985). 71. Interview with Claudio Solano, op. cit. 72. Because the Anuario only lists secular priests for the Archdiocese of San Jose, the figure is a projected estimate based upon data available from 1971. 73. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 270. 74. Picado, 'Para una Historia . . . " Senderos, Afio 3, no. 9 (September December 1980)pp. 172-3. 75. Richard and Melendez, op. cit., p. 271 .

CHAPTER EIGHT

1. Whereas in Costa Rica the willingness of the Calderon Guardia government to implement reforms facilitated collaboration between Church and State , in Nicaragua Somoza's intransigence ultimately resulted in confrontation. Bibliography

GENERAL

Nicaragua, I am convinced, must be one of the most difficultcountries in Latin America to conduct research in. A country at war cannot place much priority on the development of libraries and archives, let alone upkeep. Moreover, numerous documents and archives were destroyed during the 1972 earthquake. In short , facilities are very inadequate and collections incomplete. During the research for this book it was occasionally necessary to rely on oral histories to fill in gaps on certain points (such as the preparations for the 1973Encuentro Pastoral and the activities ofCEPA). The best collections of Church documents can be found at the Instituto Historico Centroamericano and at the Centro Antonio Valdivieso - the Conferencia Episcopal also has a fairly complete collection of pastoral letters after 1972. For newspapers and journals, the Instituto Historico and the Banco Central are the best sources. Costa Rica, on the other hand, has excellent research facilities. The Curia Metropolitana has an extensive library of Church documents. Mensajero del Clero, a periodic Church publication , is also a good source. Finally, the Biblioteca Nacional and the library of the Universidad de Costa Rica have very good collections of newspapers and journals.

INTERVIEWS

Bishops

Arrieta Villalobos, Roman, Mons. Archbishop of San Jose. 31 July 1985. San Jose.

207 208 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Barni, Julian, Mons . Bishop ofLeon . 23 August 1983. Leon. Barquero, Jose Rafael, Mons. Bishop of Alajuela. 18 July 1985. Alajuela. Bolanos Quesada, Enrique, Mons. Retired Bishop of Alajuela. 6 August 1985.Heredia . Boscos Vivas, Mons . Auxiliary Bishop of Managua. 5 August 1983. Managua. Coto Monge, Alfonso, Mons. Bishop ofLimon. 10June 1985. Limon. Morera, Hector, Mons . Bishop of'Tilaran. 8 July 1985.Tilaran. Obando y Bravo, Miguel, Mons. Archbishop of Managua. 16 August 1983. Managua. Santi, Carlos, Mons. Bishop ofMatagalpa. 21 July 1983. Matagalpa. Schlaeffer, Salvador, Mons . Bishop of Zelaya. 2 August 1983 and 16 November 1984. Managua. Trejos Picado , Ignacio, Mons . Bishop of San Isidro de El General. 29 May 1985.San Isidro de EI General. Troyo Calderon, Antonio, Mons. Auxiliary Bishop of San Jose. 23 April 1985.San Jose. Vega, Pablo Antonio, Mons. Bishop of Juigalpa. 14-15 July 1983 (Juigalpa) and 18December 1984(Managua). Vilichez, Pedro, Mons . Bishop ofJinotega. 25 October 1984.Jinotega.

OtherInterviews

Argiiello, Frederico, Mons. Parroco of Diriamba. 28 December 1984. Diriamba. Arocena, Luis. Spanish Priest in Chacarita. 22 March 1985. Chacarita. Barriales OP, Gregorio. Parish Priest in Rivas. 7 January 1985. Rivas. Bent, Norman. Moravian Pastor. 18August 1983. Managua. Brenes, Gerardo. Director ofCaritas. 9 July 1985. San Jose . Carballo, Bismark, Mons. Director of Radio Catolica. 3 August 1983. Managua. Cardenal , Ernesto. Minister of Culture. 15January 1985. Managua. Cardenal SJ, Fernando.Minister of Education. 8 February 1985. Managua. Cereda MSC, Rosalia . Former Secretary of CONFER. 27 November 1984. Managua. Coursol, Enrique. Parish Priest in Totogalpa. 2 December 1984. Totogalpa. Espinoza Jiron, Rene. Director ofCaritas. 4 August 1983. Managua. Gatti OFM, Domingo. Parish Priest in Juigalpa. 17-18 May 1985. Juigalpa. Bibliography 209

Guijo SDB, Jose Manuel. President of CONFER. 18 January 1985. Managua. Gundrum OFM Cap., Alfredo. Capuchin Father. 7 December 1984. EI Jicaro. Herrera, Luis Alberto. Parish Priest in Guapiles, 13 June 1985. Guapiles, Leibl , Justinian. Director ofCEPA. 4 August 1983. Managua. Martinez SJ, Valentin. Parish Priest in Ciudad Sandino . 12 December 1984. Ciudad Sandino. Maryknoll Sisters. 26 November 1984 (Ciudad Sandino), 2 December 1984 (Ocotal), and I January 1985(Leon). McCulloch MM, Lorenzo. Maryknoll Priest in Limon. 12 June 1985. Limon. Merino OP, Juan. Director oflTAC. 24 April 1985. San Jose . Mora, Arnoldo. Former Catholic Priest. 22 July 1985.San Jose. Navarro, Orlando. Director of CECODERS. 12 April 1985. San Jose. Niehaus OFM Cap., Teodoro. Capuchin Father. 26 July 1983. Managua. Ortega SJ, Jose Luis. Parish Priest in Ocotal. I December 1984.Ocotal. Owczarek, Rita. Maryknoll Sister. 26 November 1984. Ciudad Sandino. Pardina MSC, Ramon. Parish Priest in San Juan del Sur. 10 January 1985. San Juan del Sur. Ramirez, Eduardo. Parish Priest in Guapiles. 13June 1985.Guapiles, Rivas, Roberto. Director ofCOPROSA. 13January 1985. Managua. Ruskamp OFM Cap., Florian. Capuchin Father. 28 January 1985. Managua. Solano, Claudio. Director ofESJ23. 22 July 1985. Curridabat. Solis, Javier. Former Catholic Priest. 5 August 1985.San Jose . Students at the ITAC. 26 April 1985. San Jose . Students at the Seminario Central. 16April 1985. San Jose. Torranza SJ, Augustin. Parish Priest in Ocotal. I December 1984. Ocotal. Tortusa, Santiago. Spanish Priest in Chacarita. 22 March 1985. Chacarita. Ulloa, Francisco. Rector of the Seminario Central. II April 1985. San Jose. Wagner OFM Cap., Bernardo. Capuchin Father. 20 November 1984. Managua. Wihbey, Ani . Central de Servicios Multiples. November-December 1984. Managua. 210 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

ARCHIVES

Archivo de la Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua. Managua. Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana. San Jose. Archivo Nacional de Nicaragua. Managua. Personal Archive ofArnoldo Mora. San Jose. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis. San Jose .

CHURCH DOCUMENTS AND PUBLICAnONS

Arrieta Villalobos, Roman 'Ante el Sesquicentenario de Nuestra Independencia', 15 September 1971. Personal Archive of Javier Solis. -Las Tierras Irrigadas por el Proyecto del Arenal: A Quienes Benificiaran?', 31 March 1975. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis. -'Mons. Arrieta a la Conciencia del Pais', 27 April 1975. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis. -'Distrito de Riego de Moracia: Mi Posicion Oficial', II March 1978. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis. 'Alocucion de Mons. Roman Arrieta, Arzobispo de San Jose, con Motivo de la Eleccion de don Luis Alberto Monge, como Presidente de la Republica', Mensajero del Clero , no. 8, December 1982, pp. 4-5. Bolanos Quesada, Enrique 'Mensaje Pastoral', San Jose, 24 January 1979. Calderon y Padilla, Octavio Jose 'Sexta Carta Pastoral', Matagalpa, 15 August 1959. 'Carta Circular al Clero de Costa Rica Sobre el Programa Nacional de Distribucion de Alimentos', Mensajero del Clero, no . 8, December 1982, pp. 21-2. 'Carta del Presidente de la CECOR a Mons. Leonidas Proafio', Tilaran, 30 December 1970. Archivo de la Curia Metropolitana. 'Carta Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria con Motivo de su Toma de Posesion de la Sede Metropolitana de San Jose' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982) . 'Carta Pastoral Sobre el Justo Salario' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). 'Cartas Cruzadas Entre el Presidente Rafael Calderon Guardia y los Obispos de Costa Rica' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). CONFER 'Estatutos de la Conferencia Nacional de Superiores Mayores de Nicaragua', Managua, 21 November 1984. Bibliography 211

- 'Observaciones de la Sagrada Congregacion de Religiosos e Institutos Seculares (SCRIS) al Proyecto de Estatutos de CONFER', undated memo, Managua. Conferencia Episcopal de Costa Rica (CECOR), 'Declaracion de la CECOR Sobre el Encuentro de Chile "Cristianos para el Social isrno'", August 1972.Personal Archiveof Javier Solis. -Acuerdo Sobre Disciplina Eclesiastica', San Jose, I March 1974. Personal Archive ofJavier Solis. -'Comunicado de la Conferencia Episcopal Sobre la Huelga en el ITAC', Tilaran, 25 August 1978. - 'Evangelizacion y Realidad Social de Costa Rica,' San Jose, 17 December 1979. - 'Iglesia y Momento Actual : Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarricense Sobre la Actual Situacion del Pais y la Campana Electoral', in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de Los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). -'Unidos en la Esperanza: Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Costarric ense Sobre la Critica Situacion que Vive el Pais', San Jose, I December 1981. Conferencia Episcopal de Nicaragua (CEN) 'Sobre el Deber del Testimonio y de la Accion Cristiana en el Orden Politico', Managua , 29 June 1971. -'Sobre los Principios que Rigen la Actividad Politica de Toda la Iglesia Como Tal', Managua, 19 March 1972. -'Declaracion de la CEN Reunida en Sesion Extraordinaria', Managua, 27 May 1974. -'EI Hombre, la Iglesia y la Sociedad', Granada, 6 August 1974. -'Mensaje de la CEN: Renovando la Esperanza Cristiana al Iniciarse el Afio 1977', Managua, 8 January 1977. -'Mensaje al Pueblo de Dios al Iniciarse el Afio 1978', Managua, 6 January 1978. -'CEN a los Hombres de Buena Voluntad', Encuentro , no. 14, July-December 1978, pp. 108-11. -'Mensaje al Pueblo Nicaragiiense: Momento Insurreccional', Managua, 2 June 1979. - 'Compromise Cristiano para una Nicaragua Nueva', Managua, 17November 1979. - 'Comunicado Pastoral del CEN', Managua, 13May 1980. - 'Respuesta de la CEN', Managua, 17October 1980. -'Jesucristo y la Unidad de su Iglesia en Nicaragua', Managua, 22 October 1980. - 'Mensaje de la CEN', Managua, 18February 1982. 212 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

-'Consideraciones Generales de la CEN Sobre e1 Servicio Militar', Managua, 29August 1983. - 'Carta Pastoral del Episcopado Nicaragiiense Sobre la Reconcili acion', Managua, 22 April 1984. -'Comunicado de la CEN', Managua, 22 March 1985. Consejo Episcopal Latinoamericano (CELAM) 'La Iglesia en la Actual Transforrnacion de America Latina a la Luz del Concilio', Conclu siones(Bogota: CELAM, 1968). Consejo Estudiantil 'Evaluacion del Seminario Central de Costa Rica', San Jose, January 1970. Personal Archive of Javier Solis. 'Declaracion del Delegado de los Jesuitas con su Consulta', Barricada, 9 May 1984. 'Declaraciones de los Prelados de las Provincias Eclesiasticas de Nicaragua, Costa Rica y Panama, a sus Diocesanos, Sobre el Comunismo', Mensajero del Clero, no. 8, August 1935, pp. 981 4. 'Discurso de Mons. Sanabria en la Convencion de la CCTRN Celebrada ell de Mayo de 1945', in Miguel Picado ed., La Palahra Social de los Ohispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Episcopado Costarricense 'Carta Pastoral Colectiva con Motivo de la Consagraci6n de la Republica al Sagrado Corazon de Jesus', San Jose, 30September 1953. Episcopado de Centro America y Panama 'Primer Carta 'Pastoral del Episcopado de Centro America y Panama" San Jose, 27 May 1956. Gonzalez y Robleto, Vicente Alejandro 'Carta Pastoral Eclesiastica', Managua, 3 August 1959. Lopez Ardon, Ruben 'Instruccion Diocesana "Eminente Vocacion" Sobre los Delegados de la Palabra', Esteli, 24 September 1984. National Conference of Catholic Bishops 'Puebla: Evangelization at Present and in the Future of Latin America', Conclusions, Official EnglishTranslation, Washington D.C., 1979. Odio Herrera, Ruben 'Primera Carta Pastoral con Motivo de su Consagraci6n y Toma de Posesion del Arzobispado', San Jose, 12 December 1952. 'Presentacion del Program a Pastoral de Mons. Sanabria como Obispo de la Diocesis de Alajuela' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Primer Encuentro Pastoral en Managua 'De Cara al Futuro de la Iglesiaen Nicaragua', Documentos, Managua, 1969. 'Respuesta de Mons. Sanabria Arzobispo de San Jose a don Manuel Mora' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Bibliography 213

Quinto Sinodo Arquidiocesano 'Decretos Sinodales', San Jose, 2 August 1985: Rodriguez Quiros, Carlos Humberto 'Cornunicacion', San Jose, 29 March 1963. -'Invitacion para el Proximo Primero de Mayo, Dia del Trabajo, en la Catedral de San Jose', San Jose, 30 April 1970. 'Sagrada Congregacion para el Clero'. Letter dated 14July 1982, Rome. SEPROLA 'Informacion General', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, 1985. Solano, Claudio 'Carta a Mons. Arrieta', Curridabat, 8 July 1985. 'T rigesima Carta Pastoral de Mons. Bernardo Augusto Thiel' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Vega, Pablo Antonio 'Nuestro Aporte de Iglesia a la Humanizacion de la Historia: Una Invitacion a la Reflexion Cristiana Ante el Momento Nicaragiiense', Managua, 24 October 1984.

BOOKS, ARTICLES AND OTHER DOCUMENTS

Aguilar Bugarelli, Oscar Costa Rica y sus Hechos Politicos de 1948 (San Jose: Imprenta Lehman, 1969). Alegria, Claribel and Flakoll, D.J. Nicaragua: La Revolucion Sandinista (Mexico, D.F.: Serie Popular Era, 1982). Ameringer, Charles Don Pepe: A Political Biography ofJose Figueres of Costa Rica (Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1978). - Democracy in Costa Rica (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1982). Amnesty International 'The Republic of Nicaragua: An Amnesty International Report (including the finds ofa mission to Nicaragua, 10-15 May 1976)', London 1977. Arellano, Jorge Eduardo Breve Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua (1523-1979) (Managua, 1979). Araya Pochet, Carlos 'Crisis e Historia Economica y Social en Costa Rica' in Jorge Rovira Mas ed., Costa Rica Hoy: La Crisis y Sus Perspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984). Arrieta Quesada, Santiago £1 Pensamiento Politico Social de Monseiior Sanabria (San Jose: EDUCA, 1982). Backer, James La Iglesia y el Sindicalismo en Costa Rica (San Jose: Editorial Costa Rica, 1978). Beals, Carleton Banana Gold(Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott, 1932). Bell, John Patrick Crisis in Costa Rica: The 1948 Revolution (Austin: University ofTexas Press, 1971). 214 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Bendafia, Alejandro 'Crisis in Nicaragua'. NACLA Report on the Americas, November-December 1978. Berryman, Phillip 'What Happened at Puebla?' in Daniel Levine ed., Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980). - The Religious Roots of Rebellion : Christians in Central American Revolutions (London: SCM Press Ltd ., 1984). Black, George Triumph of the People: The Sandinist Revolution in Nicaragua (London: Zed Press, 1981). Blanco, Gustavo and Navarro, Orlando EI Solidarismo: Pensamiento y Dinamico Social de un Movimiento Obrero-Patronal (San Jose : Editorial Costa Rica, 1984). Blanco Segura, Ricardo Historia Eclesiastica de Costa Rica: 1502-1850 (San Jose: EUED, 1983). -1884: EI Estado, La Iglesia y las Reformas Liberales (San Jose: Editorial Costa Rica, 1984). Boff, Leonardo Jesus Christ Liberator: A Critical Christology of Our Time (New York : Orbis Books, 1978). - Iglesia: Carisma y Poder (Santander: Editorial Sal Terrae, 1982). Booth, John A. The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1982). Borge, Tomas EI Axioma de la Esperanza (Bilbao : DOD, 1984). Bruneau, Thomas The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Catholic Church (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974). - The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982). Cabestrero, Te6fi1o Ministros de Dios Ministros del Pueblo (Bilbao : DDB,1983). - Revolucionarios por el Evangelio : Testimonio de 15 Cristianos en el Gobierno Revolucionario de Nicaragua (Bilbao : DDB, 1983). - Blood ofthe Innocent (London: CIIR, 1985). Caceres, Jorge, et al. Iglesia, Politica y Profecia : Juan Pablo II en Centroamerica (San Jose: EDUCA, 1983). Camacho, Daniel 'Par que Periste el Juego Democratico en Costa Rica?' in Chester Zelaya ed., Democracia en Costa Rica? (San Jose: EUED, 1983), pp. 95-138. Cardenal, Ernesto Nostalgia del Futuro (Managua, 1982). -Evangelio en Solentiname, 4 vols (Managua: Editorial Nueva Nicaragua, 1983). Cardenal, Fernando 'Carta a Mis Amigos', Barricada, II December 1984. 'Carta del Jefe del Partido Comunista Costarricense don Manuel Mora Bibliography 215

a Mons. Victor Sanabria Arzobispo de San Jose' in Miguel Picado ed., La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Centro de Estudios y Publicaciones (CEP) Nicaragua : La Hora de los Desafios(Lima , 1981). Centro .ruvenil 'Don Bosco' Juan Pablo II: Viaje Pastoral a Centro america, Discursos, HomiHas y Mensajes (Managua, 1983). Cerdas, Rodolfo 'Costa Rica: Problemas Actuales de una Revolucion Democratica' in Chester Zelaya ed., Democracia en Costa Rica? (San Jose: EUED, 1982), pp . 139-81. Cerutti, Franco Los Jesuitas en Nicaragua en el Siglo XIX (San Jose: Libro Libre, 1984). Chaves , Jorge Arturo 'La Iglesia Catolica y el Proceso de Produccion Material en Costa' Rica', Praxis, nos. 5-6, July-December 1977, pp. 81-114. Chavez Nunez, Donaldo Una Ventana Abierta: Vision Retrospectiva de una Vida (Managua: Editorial Union, 1974). Crahan, Margaret 'Salvation Through Christ or Marx: Religion in Revolutionary Cuba', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 21 , no. I, February 1979,pp. 156-84. Cuadra, Pablo Antonio ' Breve Historia de la Iglesia in Nicaragua' in Richard Pattee ed., El Catolicismo Contemporaneo de Hispano america (Buenos Aires: Editorial Fides, 1948). - 'Construir el Futuro: Obligacion Cristiana', Revista Conservadora, vol. 139, April 1972, pp. 27-8. de Kadt, Emanuel Catholic Radicals in Brazil (London: Oxford University Press, 1970). Della Cava, Ralph 'Catholicism and Society in Twentieth Century Brazil', Latin American Research Review, vol. XI, no. 2, 1976, pp. 7-50 . Delgado, Jaime EI Partido Liberacion Nacional : Analisis de su Discurso Politico-Ideologico (Heredia: Editorial de la Universidad Nacional, 1983). Departamento Ecumenico de Investigaciones (DEI) Apuntes para una Teologla Nicaragiiense (San Jose, 1981). -Sacerdotes en el Gobierno Nicaragiiense: Poder 0 Servicio? (San Jose, 1981). Direccion de Divulgacion y Prensa de la JGRN 'Respuesta a la Conferencia Episcopal', Managua, 22 February 1982. Dodson, Michael 'Church and Revolution in Nicaragua: The Issue of Democratization'. Paper Presented at Annual Meeting of Society for Latin American Studies, University ofCambridge, 13-15April 1984. 216 The Catholic Church andPolitics in Nicaragua andCosta Rica

Dodson, Michael and Montgomery, Tommie Sue 'The Churches in the Nicaraguan Revolution' in Thomas Walker ed., Nicaragua in Revolution (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1981). Dussel, Enrique A History ofthe Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation (1492-1979) (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1981). English, Burt Liberacion Nacional in Costa Rica: The Development of a Political Party in a Transitional Society (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1971). Ezcurra, Ana Maria Agresion Ideologica Contra la Revolucion Sandinista (Mexico,D.F.: Ediciones Nuevomar, 1983). -El Vaticano y la Administracion Reagan: Convergencias en Centro america (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones Nuevomar, 1984). Fagen, Richard 'The Nicaraguan Revolution', Working Papers no. 78, Washington D.C.: Latin American Program of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Smithstonian Institution, 1970. Fallas Venegas, Helio 'Crisis Economica y Transformacion Social en Costa Rica' in Jorge Rovira Mas ed., Costa Rica Hoy : La Crisis y Sus Perspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984). Fernandez Vasquez, Rodrigo 'Costa Rica: Interpretacion Historica Sobre Reforma Social y Accion Eclesiastica: 1940-1982', Estudios Sociales Centroamericanos, no . 33, September-December 1982. Foreign Relations of the United States. Department of the State, vol III, Washington D.C., 1928. Foroohar, Manzar 'The Catholic Church and Socio-Political Conflict in Nicaragua, 1968-1979', PhD Dissertation. UCLA, 1984. Girardi, Giulio Fe en la Revolucion, Revolucion en la Cultura (Managua: Editorial Nueva Nicaragua, 1983). Grupo Ecumenico Exodo 'Inforrne de Costa Rica', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, 1972. Personal Archive ofArnoldo Mora. Gudmundson, Lowell 'EI Conflicto Entre Estabilidad y Neutralidad en Costa Rica', Foro Internacional, vol. XXVI, no. 1, July-September 1985, pp . 37-54. Gutierrez, Gustavo A Theology ofLiberation (New York: Orbis Books, 1973). -The Power ofthe Poor in History (London: SCM Press Ltd ., 1983). Gutierrez D., Matilde, et al. 'Investigaciones para la Historia de la Iglesia en Nicaragua', unpublished monograph, Managua, 1975. Hebblethwaite, Peter The Runaway Church (London: Collins, 1975). Hynds, Pat 'The Catholic Church in Nicaragua', Central American Update, Special Report, November 1982. Bibliography 217

IEPALA EI Papa en Nicaragua: Analisis de Su Visita (Madrid: IEPALA Editorial, 1983). Instituto Historico Centroamericano Fe Cristiana y Revolucion Sandin ista en Nicaragua (San Jose: 1980). Jerez, Cesar The Church and the Nicaraguan Revolution(London: CIIR Justice Papers, 1984). Jung, Harold 'The Fall of Somoza: Behind the Nicaraguan Revolu tion" New Left Review, vol. 117, September-October 1979, pp. 69-89. Lernoux, Penny Cry of the People (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1982). Levine, Daniel 'Church Elites in Venezuela and Colombia: Context, Background and Beliefs', Latin American Research Review, vol. XIV, no . I, 1979, pp . 51-79. - Religion and Politics in Latin America: The Catholic Church in Venezuela and Colombia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981 ). -'Continuities in Colombia', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, November 1985, pp. 295-315 . Levine, Daniel and Wilde, Alexander 'The Catholic Church, "Politics" and Violence : The Colombian Case', Review ofPolitics, vol. 39, no. 2, April 1977, pp . 220-49. Lopez, Amando and Arrien, Juan 'EI Papel de la Iglesia en la Coyuntura Nacional', Encuentro, no. 14, June-December 1978, pp. 125-38. Lopez C, Julio, et al., La Caida del Somocismo y la LuchaSandinista en Nicaragua (San Jose : EDUCA, 1980). Maryknoll Sisters 'Ciudad Sandino Evaluation', unpublished/undated mimeo, Managua. Mecham, J. Lloyd Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill: University ofNorth Carolina Press, 1966). Medhurst, Ken 'The Latin American Church', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, November 1985,pp. 419-32. Meyer, Jean The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People Between Church and State (1926-1929) (Cambridge: Cambridge Latin American Studies no. 24, 1976). Millet, Richard Guardians of the Dynasty: A History of the U.S. Created Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua and the Somoza Family (New York: Orbis Books, 1977). Molina, Uriel 'EI Sendero de una Experiencia', Nicarauac, no. 5, April-June 1981, pp. 17-37. Nunez, Benjamin 'EI Movimiento Sindical Rerum Novarum: Un 218 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Ensayo de Aplicacion de la Doctrina Social de la Iglesia', Senderos, Afio4, no. 10, January-April 1981. O'Dea, Thomas The Catholic Crisis (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968). Opazo Bernales, Andres 'La Iglesia Costarricense y el Orden Social Sacralizado', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, 1984. Ortega Saavedra, Humberto Cincuenta Alios de Lucha Sandinista (Managua: Coleccion Las Segovias, 1980). Ortiz, Roxanne Dunbar 'Covert Action and Indigenous Groups: the Miskitu Case', Covert Action Information Bulletin, no. 18, Winter 1983, pp. 21-4. Pax Christi Derechos Humanos: Informe de la Miston (Nicaragua) (Managua: Instituto Juan XXIII, 1981). Picado, Miguel 'Para una Historia de la Iglesia en Costa Rica', Senderos, nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6 (1979), pp. 4-31, 109-28, 227-45 , 333-60; no. 9 (1980),pp. 165-80. -ed. La Palabra Social de los Obispos Costarricenses (San Jose: DEI,1982). -'Monsenor Sanabria: Compromiso Social y Pensamiento Teo logico', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, 1985. Piedra, Arturo 'Origenes y Efectos del Protestantismo en Costa Rica', Senderos, no. 20, May-September 1984,pp. 3-28. Pike, Frederick 'The Catholic Church in Central America', Review of Politics, vol. 21, no. I, January 1959,pp. 83-113. Poblete, Renato 'From Medellin to Puebla' in Daniel Levine ed., Churches and Politics in Latin America (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980). Pochet, Rosa Maria and Martinez, Abelino 'Nicaragua: Iglesia Manipulacion Politica 0 Profecia?', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, February 1985. Portelli, Hughes Gramsci y la Cuestion Religiosa: Una Sociologia Marxista de la Religion (Barcelona: Editorial Laia, 1977). Pring-Mill, Robert 'Profile: Ernesto Cardenal', Index on Censorship, vol. 8, no. 3, May-June 1979,pp. 49-53. Richard, Pablo La Iglesia Latino-americana Entre el Temor y la Esperanza: Apuntes Teologicos para la Decada de los Alios 80 (San Jose: DEI, 1980). -'La Iglesia que Nace en America Central por la Fuerza de Dios', unpublished mimeo, San Jose, March 1984. Richard, Pablo and Melendez, Guillermo eds. La Iglesia de los Pobres en America Central (San Jose: DEI, 1982). Rivera Urrutia, Eugenio 'El Fondo Monetario Internacional y las Politicas de Estabilizacion en Costa Rica: 1978-1982' in Jorge Bibliograph y 219

Rovira Mas ed., Costa Rica Hoy: La Crisis y Sus Perspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984). Rodriguez Garcia, Manuel Gaspar Vive (San Jose: Artes Graficas de Centroamerica, 1981). Rodriguez Vega, Eugenio Biografla de Costa Rica (San Jose: Editorial Costa Rica, 1982). Rodriguez Zamora, Jose Miguel 'Aspectos Ideologicos y Estructurales de la Relacion Entre la Iglesia Catolica de Costa Rica y el Sistema Politico Nacional', thesis , Universidad de Costa Rica, 1976. - 'Politica y Religion: La Funcion Politica de la Iglesia Catolica en Costa Rica', Revista de Ciencias Sociales, no. 13, April 1977, pp. 77-101. Rovira Mas, Jorge Estado y Politica Economica en Costa Rica : 1948-1970 (San Jose: Editorial Porvenir, 1983). -ed. Costa Rica Hoy: La Crisis y Sus Perspectivas (San Jose: EUED, 1984). Salazar, Jorge Mario Politica y Reforma en Costa Rica: 1914-1958 (San Jose: Editorial Porvenir, 1982). Samandu, Luis and Jansen, Ruud 'Nicaragua: Dictadura Somocista, Movimiento Popular e Iglesia, 1968-1979', Estudios Sociales Centro americanos, vol. 33, September-December 1982, pp. 189-219. Sanabria, Victor Bernardo Augusto Thiel (San Jose: ECR , 1982). Sanders, Thomas 'The Church in Latin America', Foreign Affairs, vol. 48, no. 2, January 1970, pp. 285-99. -'The Politics of Catholicism in Latin America', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 24, no. 2, May 1982, pp.241-58. Schifter, Jacobo La Fase Oculta de la Guerra Civil en Costa Rica (San Jose: EDUCA, 1981). -'La Democracia en Costa Rica como Producto de la Neutraliz acion de Clases' in Chester Zelaya ed., Democracia en Costa Rica ? (San Jose: EUED, 1982), pp. 183-258. Segundo, Juan Luis The Liberation of Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 1976). Seligson, Mitchell El Campesino y el Capitalismo Agrario de Costa Rica (San Jose: ECR, 1984). Selser, Gregorio Sandino (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981). Serra, Luis 'Ideologia, Religion y Lucha de Clases en la Revolucion' in Richard Harris and Carlos M. Vilas eds., La Revolucion en Nicaragua (Mexico, D .F.: Ediciones Era, 1985). Smith, Brian 'Religion and Social Change: Classical Theories and New Formulations in the Context of Recent Developments in Latin 220 The Catholic Church and Politics in Nicaragua and Costa Rica

Arnerica" Latin American Research Review, vol. X, no . 2, 1975, pp . 3-34. - The Church and Politics in Chile (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982). Smutko, Gregorio 'Informes: Implicaciones Politicas de los Programas de Acci6n Social de la Iglesia Catolica en Centroarnerica', Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacion, nos. 2-3, January-June 1980, pp. 9-38. -'Cristianos de la Costa Atlantica en la Revolucion', Nicarauac, no . 5, April-June 1981, pp . 49-65. Solis, Javier La Herencia de Sanabria: Analisis Politico de la Iglesia Costarricense (San Jose: DEI, 1983). Torres, Anabel, et al. 'Lucha Ideologica en el Campo Religioso y su Significado Politico', unpublished mimeo, Managua, 1981. Ullman, Robert 'At War with Nicaragua', Foreign Affairs, vol. 62, no . I, Fall 1983, pp. 39-58. Urtecho, Jose Coronel 'Comentarios Sobre la Pastoral', Revista Conservadora, vol. 139, April 1972, p. 25. Vallier, Ivan Catholicism . Social Control. and Modernization in Latin America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall, 1970). -'Extraction, Insulation and Re-entry: Toward a Theory of Religious Change', in Henry Landsberger ed ., The Church and Social Change in Latin America (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1970). Vega Carballo, Jose Luis Hacia una Interpretacion del Desarrollo Costarricense: Ensayo Sociologico (San Jose: Editorial Porvenir, 1983). Vigil, Miguel Ernesto 'Sospechoso Interes del CELAM Sobre la Iglesia de Nicaragua', EI Nuevo Diario, 21-2 September 1980. Volio, Marina Jorge Volio y el Partido Reformista (San Jose: EUED, 1983). Walker, Thomas The Christian Democratic Movement in Nicaragua (Tucson: University ofArizona Press, 1970). - Nicaragua: The LandofSandino (Boulder: Westview Press, 1982). Wheelock Roman, Jaime Nicaragua: Imperialismo y Dictadura (La Habana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1980). Williams, Philip 'The Catholic Hierarchy in the Nicaraguan Revolu tion', Journal ofLatin American Studies, vol. 17, part 2, November 1985,pp. 341-69. Zelaya, Chester, et al. Democracia en Costa Rica?: Cinco Opiniones Polemicas (San Jose: EUED, 1982). Zufiiga, Edgar Historia Eclesiastica de Nicaragua: La Cristiandad Colonial (/524-1821) (Managua: Editorial Union, 1981). Bibliography 221

BULLETINS AND JOURNALS Amanecer (Managua) Boletin del Archivo General de la Nadon (Managua) CELAM(Bogota) Central America Report (Guatemala) Cristo Campesino (Managua) Encuentro (Managua) Envio (Managua) Guardia Nacional (Managua) LADOC (Washington D.C.) Mensajero del Clero (San Jose) Newsweek (New York) Praxis (Heredia) Respuesta (San Jose) Revista Conservadora (Managua) Revista de Ciencias Sociales (San Jose) Revista de la Academia de Geografia e Historia (Managua) Senderos (San Jose) SID iServicios de Informacion y Documentacion - Managua) Testimonio (Managua) UPDATE(Washington D.C.)

NEWSPAPERS Barricada (Managua) Eco Catolico (San Jose) El Nuevo Diario(Managua) La Nacion (San Jose) La Prensa (Managua) La Republica (San Jose) New York Times Novedades (Managua) Pueblo (San Jose) The Guardian The Times Universidad (San Jose) Index

accioncatolica ASEs, 131, 132, 162 in Nicaragua, 20--1, 177 Asociacion de Empresarios Pro-Justicia in Costa Rica, 104, 106, 109, 114-16, Social y Paz (AE), 131 123,129,130,177-8 ATC,51-2 Accion Democrata, 116-17 ACLEN,61,68 BANAMERICA, 23 ADEM,I54 BANIC,23 Agiiero, Fernando, 24, 27, 35 Barni, Mons. Julian, 25, 26 Aguilar, Father Walter, 152 Barricada, 85 Aguirre Garcia, Father Eduardo, 130 Barrio Riguero Alfaro , Father Armando, 125, 148, 150 university community, 47 Alliance for Progress, 1-2,39 Barrios, Justo Rufino, 100, 101 ANFE,I49 Batalla OP, Manolo, 59 Anglican Church , 21 bishops' (Costa Rican) att itudes anti-clericalism on communism, 144-5 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, on the condition of the working class, 101,171 144 in Costa Rica, 99,100 ,101 on the economic crisis, 143 in Nicaragua, 14, 16, 19 on the land question, 143-4 apostolic movements, 158 on Protestantism, 144-5 Apostol icNuncio Bloque de Oposicion, 117 in Nicaragua, 29, 70, 93-4 Bolanos, Mons. Enrique, 136-7 in Costa Rica, 119 Borge, Tomas, 79,80, 85,87 Aragon OP, Rafael, 59 Borge Castrillo, Mons . Carlos, 25 Arevalo, Juan Jose, 117-18 Brenes, Father Gerardo, 160, 163-4 Argiiello SJ, Alvaro, 61, 68 Bruneau, Thomas, 5, 7 Arocena, Father Luis, 159 Arrieta Villalobos, Mons. Roman, 132-4, CACM, 23, 39, 125 136,140,156,163,173 Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, 109 on agrarian reform, 133-4, 144 Calderon Guardia, Rafael Angel (Cal- appointment as Archbishop, 137 deron government), 108-9, 113, 117, and CECODERS, 162 118,172 collaboration with Monge government, and the Church, 110--11 141 -2 and the communists, 111 -12, 114 contrasted with Mons. Rodriguez, 132, and the Social Reforms, 109, 115, 116, 134 119 on social peace, 132, 133, 134, 141-2 Calderon y Padilla, Mons. Octa vio Jose, and Symposium on Theology of Libera 22,23,25,26 tion,IS3 Calero, Adolfo, 91

222 Index 223

Calles . Plutarco Elias (Calles govern Chacarita 'experiment'. 159. 160. 179 menn. lS Chacon. Father Alfredo. 129 Capuchins. 32. 55. 81 Chamorro, Emiliano, 20 and training of DPs. 48-9 Chamorro, Pedro Joaquin. 22. 30. 34 Carazo, Rodrigo (Carazo government). Chamorro, Violeta , 66. 77. 89 135-6.139-40 Chavez Nunez. Mons. Donaldo, 25. 26. 28 Carballo. Mons. Bismark. 83-4 Cherna Castillo raid. 30. 32 Cardenal, Father Ernesto, 43. 80. 81 Christendom. see models ofthe Church as government minister. 68-70 christian communities. see CESs Caritas de Costa Rica. 126. 141. 142 Christians for Socialism Conference. 129. transformation of. 160-1. 162-3. 166 153 Caritas de Nicaragua. 21. 91-2. 160 Church-State dialogue Carrillo. Braulio , 99 in Nicaragua. 74. 76. 88. 93-4 cartas cruzados, 112-13 clergy (Costa Rican ) Carter administration complacent attitude of. 166 and Nicaragua. 35. 37. 38 conservatism of. 164-6. 175 Castro Jimenez. Mons. Rafael Oton, 104- clergy's (Nicaraguan) attitudes 5.106.107.110.114.123 on involvement in politics. 69-70. 72. 73. catecumenados. Yl -S 74-5. 76 Catholic Relief Services (CRS). 91. 160 on the revolutionary process. 68-77 Catholic social doctrine. 9. 20. 106. 115. on US aggressions. 69. 71. 72-7. 74. 84 127.137.163 COCCo 130. 150. 151 ANFEand.149 CODESA.135 CECODERSand.161 Codigo de Trabajo , 109. 114 Costa Rican bishops on. 104. 110. 123. reform of. 148 125 Com ision Coordinadora de Dialogo Nacio ESJ23 and. 130-1 nal, 33. 34 impact in Costa Rica and Nicaragua Comite de Reflexion Patrioticu, 37 contrasted. 177-8 communism. 108. 110.140. 150 CCTRN. 115-16. 118. 120. 123. 178 fears of in Costa Rica. 105-6. 121. CDN.90.91 122-3. 127. 128. 129-30. 132. 134. CDSs. 56. 71 144-5.148.173.178 CEBs.3 fears of in Nicaragua. 20-1. 173. 178 and the ATC. 52 Sanabria on. I 13 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Communist Party (Costa Rica). 105. 111 - 179 12.123.154 in Costa Rica. 158-60. 176 and the banana strike. 108. 172 and the FSLN. 47. 49. 80 and Calderon Guardia. 111 -12 and human rights abuses. 45. 81 and the Catholic Church. 112-14 identity crisis of. 56-8 registration of. 149. 150 and the final insurrection. 45. 46 concientizacion, 48-9. 56. 57 in Nicaragua. 29. 43. 51. 52-3. 54.166-7. Concordato (Costa Rica). 99-100. 101. 119 179 Concordato(Nicaragua). 15-16. 17 and protests against removals of priests. CONFER. 61-2. 71 59 Congreso de Pastoral Rural. 49 CECODERS. 160. 161-3 conquistadores CELAM. 58. 60. 62. 162. 163 in Costa Rica. 97 Central American Federation. 14. 15.99 in Nicaragua. 14 Central de Servicios Multiples. 71 Conservatives (Costa Rica). 99 Central de Sindicatos Costarricenses Conservatives (Nicaragua). 17. 18. 24. 35. Rerum Novarum, 115 104.172. 179 Centro Antonio Valdivieso (CA V). 73 and the Catholic Church . 17. 19-20 CEPA.48.49-52. 176. 179 and the Kupia-Kumi pact. 27 CEPN.116 contra. 67.71. 85. R9. 93. 180 CGTC, 151 lay leaders victimized by. 54-5. 71 224 Index

Nicaraguan bishops on negotiations FAO, 35, 36. 37 with. 84. 86. 90 FECCAS.51 COPROSA.91-2 Fernandez.Prospero, 101 Coronel Urtecho, Jose, 28 Figueres Ferrer.Jose, 117-18. 124 Cortes, Leon, 116--17 Fonseca, Carlos. 79,80 COSEP, 37, 91 Fonseca, Father Silvio , 59 Costa Rican Civil War, 117-19 Freire, Paulo, 48 Coto, Mons. Alfonso. 158-9 FSLN. II, 25. 34. 39.41, 54. 65. 92. 174 Council ofState, 61. 66. 68 and CEBs, 47. 80 Cristero Rebellion, 18 and the Chema Castillo raid, 30 Cristo Campesino, 50-I collaboration with progressive Christ- Cruz, Arturo, 90 ians, 49.53.69,79-82 CTCR. 115, 116 and dialogue with the contra. 90. 91 Cuadra. Pablo Antonio, 28-9 and dialogue with Somoza, 33 Cuban Revolution, 1-2. 178 Document on Religion of. 82-3. 86 cursillos de concientizacion, 44-5, 46, 49. and Marxism. 81. 83. 88 176 and the MCR. 47.80-1 cursosdeformacion, 160-1 and the military service law. 90 Minimum Programme of. 36 de Alvarado. Father Pedro. 98 and the Miskitos, 89 de la Jara, Father Jose, 43. 44 and moderate opposition groups. 35. 37. Delegates ofthe Word, seeDPs 66 D'Escoto, Father Miguel , 68. 70. 81 and the Nicaraguan bishops ; 38. 74. 75. DialogoNacional, 33-4 76.83-8.91. 93-4 District of Arenal October offensive of. 33 agrarian reform project in. 133-4 origins of. 79 Dominicans.59,158 and the papal visit. 87-8 DPs (Delegados de la Palabra) in power. 66--7. 68 and the ATC. 51-2 and the Reagan administration . 67-8 and the Capuchins. 48-9 and religious celebrations. 86--7 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. and the State of Emergency Law. 67. 68 179 and the terceristas. 33 in Costa Rica, 158 fundamentalist sects. 55 in Nicaragua. 53. 54. 56. 60 Garantias Sociales, 109. 110 earthquake (Nicaragua), 29-30. 46 Garcia. Edgardo, 52 Echandi, Mario, 149, 150 Garcia SJ. Noel. 24 Em Catolico, 140. 147-50 G arcia Jerez. Mon s., 14 Ejercitode Liberacion Nacional, 118 G arcia Laviana, Father Gaspar, 8 1. 87 encomenderos Garcia S.. Mons. Antonio. 28 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Genie, Colonel Samuel. 25 170 Gibbons. Cardinal James. 17 in Costa Rica. 98 Giglio, Mons. Paolo, 93-4 in Nicaragua. 14 Goebels, Mons.•85 encomiendasystem Gonzalez y Robleto, Mons. Vicente contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. AI~andro.21-2.26.51 170 Grande SJ. Rutilio, 51. 178 in Costa Rica. 97 granjas abiertas, 82 in Nicaragua. 14 grassroots initiatives Equipode Pastoral Rural. 49-50 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. ESJ23 (Escuela Social Juan XXIII), 130-1. 174-7 152,161 .162,163-4 in Costa Rica. 157-62. 176 Exodo, seeGrupo Ecumenico Exodo in Nicaragua. 43-58. 62. 166--7. 175. 176 and Parallel Magisterium, 53. 57. 58. 62. Family ofGod cursillos, 43. 44 94. 175. 176--7 Index 225

political implications of, 53, 58, 60, 62. La Purlsima , 86-7 94.175-6 La Tribuna. 113 see also CEBs. CEPA, and DPs Lepiz, Oscar. 129 Griteria, 86 Ley Fundamental. 99 Grupo Ecumenico Exodo, 153-5.167, 179 Lezcano y Ortega, Mons ., 19 grupos de base (Costa Rica) . 16{}-1 , 162 Liberal-Conservative rivalr y Guandique, Felix Esteban. 33 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Guardia. Tomas, 100. 101 171 in Nicaragua . 14-16. 18.20 health promotores, 61. 71 liberalism Hermandades de Trabajo, 129 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Hidalgo. Mons. Alfredo, 119 171 Holy See, see Vatican in Costa Rica, 100. 101. 113 Huelga de Brazos Caidos, 117. 118 in Nicaragua. 15, 19-20 mCA.77 Liberal Reforms. 101-2. 103.110.165 IMAS, 126 Liberals (Costa Rica). 99. 101. 103-4. 108. IMF,I42 172 Independence movement Liberals (Nicaragua). 14-15.27, 106, 172 'contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. and the Church. 15. 16-17. 18. 19-20 171 liberation theology. see Theology of Lib in Costa Rica. 98 eration in Nicaragua, 14 Liga Espiritual Obrera (LEO) . 114-15 . Indians 120.129 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Limogni Della Cioppa, Mons . Paolino. 170 151 in Costa Rica , 97, 98 literacy campaign, 66, 75. 77 Miskitos, 21, 82. 89 participation of Catholics in, 61. 7{}-1 in Nicaragua. 13-14, 16 Llorente y Lafuente, Mons.. 99. 100, 104 Instituto de Defensa del Cafe. 108 Lopez Perez, Rigoberto, 19 lnstituto de Occidente , 16 Lopez Trujillo. Mons . Alfonso . 60 Instituto Nacional, 101 Loria Garita, Father Guillermo. 130 IN DE. 33 Las Doce, 33, 35, 37 internal political opposition (N icaragua). 66--7.68 Madrigal. Father, 55-6 conservative clergy's identification with , Malavassi, Guillermo. 139 70.73.77,88-91.92-3 Marten, Albert, 130-1 IRD.92 Marxism, 138 ITAC. 155-7. 165 andCEPA.50 ITCO, 126 Costa Rican bishops ' attitude on, 153-4 Jesuits. 16.45.46,51.55. 100. 101, 171. and the FSLN. 81. 83. 88 179 La Nacion on, 162-3 JOC. 114-1-5, 120. 123, 129, 130. 152, 154 and liberation theology, 2, 94 Jocistas, see JOC Nicaraguan bishops' attitude on, 76 Juventud Sandinista, 68 Maryknoll sisters, 45-7 , 71 Mater et Magistra, I Kupia-Kumi pact. 27, 28. 29 Mayorga. Silvio. 79 MCR. 47. 8{}-! Labour Code (Nicaragua). III MDN. 35. 66 Labour Day demonstrations (Costa Rica). Medellin Conference, 2, 23 130.151-2 impact on Costa Rican Church. 121. Lacayo Farfan. Enrique, 22 128.137.148.153,156.164.178-9 La Nacion, 134, 139, 149. 150. 154 impact on Nicaraguan Church. 24. 29, and Caritas, 162-3. 164 39-40.43.44.178-9 La Prensa, 25. 30, 33, 34, 91 Mejia, Father Francisco. 25 La Republica, 134. ISO. 154 Mena, General Luis. 17 226 Index

~igueISJ,Pedro,45,46 and the Pefia incident, 85-6 military service law, 54,90 and removals ofpriests, 59 misa obrera, 128, 151, 178 and Somoza, 33, 36, 37 models of the Church, 8-10 Odio Herrera, Mons. Ruben. 122, 123-4, colonial Christendom, 9, 14, 170 125 conservative Christendom, 3, 9, 23, 40, Oduber, Daniel (Oduber government). 119,125,134,171 133, 134, 135 reformist Christendom, 3-1, 10, 119-20, OPEN 3,45-7,51 125,134, 172-3 Opus Dei, 150 grassroots, 3, 5, 10,43,52-3,62,72 Orlich, Francisco, 125-6, 127 moderate opposition groups (Nicaragua), Ortega, Daniel, 75, 81, 86, 87, 93 30-1 ,66,71 Owczarek, Rita, 45-6 bishops' collaboration with, 31, 33-4, 35,36-7,38,40-1 Pacem in Terris, I Molina, Father Uriel, 26,47-8.80 Pacto de la Embajada de Mexico, 119 Moncada, Jose Maria, 18, 20, 172 Parallel Magisterium , 53, 59 Monestel , Mons., 107 Parrales, Edgar, 68, 70 Monge, Luis Alberto (Monge govern- Partido Democrata, I 16-17 ment), 141, 142 Partido Nacional, 102 Mora.Arnoldo, 153,155 Partido Reformista, 106-7, 108 Mora, Juan Rafael, 100 Partido Union Nacional, 117 Mora, Manuel, III, 112-14, 115, 118 Pastora, Eden, 91 Moravian Church, 21, 89 Patronato Real, 13 Morazan, Francisco, 14 PDP, 154 Morera, Mons. Hector, 159 Pefia, Father Amado, 85 ~SC, 130-2, 144, 161-2 Pereira, Mons. Simeon, 17 Mufioz, Carlos, 152 Picado, Teodoro (Picado government), 114,116,117-18 National Council ofChurches, 92 Plan de Ayuda, 60 National Guard, 19,25,32,37,39,46,52, Plasmaferesis, 34 81 PLI,22,24 National Palace attack, 36 PLN (Costa Rica), 124, 132. 133, 135 national pastoral plan (Nicaragua), 43-1 PLN (Nicaragua), 37 National Seminary (Nicaragua), 60 political disengagement, 6-8, 31, 76, 88-9 Navarro, Father Orlando, 158,161,163-4 Pope John XXIII, I neo-Christendom,IO Pope John Paul II, 70, 82, 87 see also models of the Church, reformist Pope Leo XIII, 102 Christendom Pope Paul VI, 2.133 New Laws, 14,97,170 Pope Pius XI, 178 Novedades, 29, 32, 36 Popular Church, 58, 62, 72 Nunez, Father Benjamin, 115-16, 118, Populorum Progressio, 2. 23, 133 120,123,151 Portico, 148, 152, 154 priests in government conflict, 68-70, 76, OAS,37,68 89 Obando y Bravo , Mons. Miguel, 25, 32, Primer Encuentro Pastoral, 23-4, 43, 44, 57,87,88,94 178 appointment as Archbishop, 26-7 Primera Asemblea del Sector Privado, 30 on armed resistance, 34 Primera ConferenciadelEpiscopado Centro- and the Carballo incident, 84 americano, 20-I andCEPA,51 Proafio, Mons. Leonidas, 153 in defence ofMolina, 48 PRODEMCA,93 and the earthquake, 29 pro-democracy movement, III and the Kupia-Kumi pact, 27 Programa Nacional de Distribucion de in opposition to the Sandinista govern Alimentos. 142 ment, 78, 79,91-2,93 Protestantism Index 227

in Costa Rica. 99. 122-3. 144-5. 173 124.125 in Nicaragua. II. 17.20.21.173 and social reform, 109-10 Provecto de Danca Privada, 148 Sanders, Thomas. 7 PSC (Nicaragua). 24. 35 Sandinistas, see FSLN PSD (Costa Rica). 116-17. 118 Sandino, Augusto C, 18,79 Puebla Conference. 60. 136. 137 Sanjines SJ, Jose Antonio. 81 Pueblo . 147. 154, 155 San Pablo Apostol parish. 44-5, 46.57 PVP. 112-13, 114, 119 Schmitz, Mons . Pablo. 75 sede vacante, 26, 100. 102. 136. 137 Quadragesimo Anno. 20,106,109,110,177 Seminario Central. 155-7, 165. 175 SEPROLA. 162 Radio Catolica, 21, 93 social assistance organisms Rascosqui, Dona Isabel, 51 contrasted in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Reagan administration, 67-8. 88, 90, 91 166, 175 reformist project (Costa Rica), 124-5, 126, see also Curitas de Costa Rica and 133.134,140,142,143,166 Caritas de Nicaragua Registro Electoral, 117, 118 social Christian philosophy, 107. 109. I!O religion and politics, 6-8 Social Reforms, 107, 108. 109. 113. 114. see also political disengagement 116,124 religious education Catholic Church and. 110-11, 119-20 in Costa Rica, 98,100,101,110,126,165 communists and . 111-12 in Nicaragua, 13. 17, 18,30 Social Security Law. 109. 110 removals of priests Solano Cerdas, Father Claudio. 130-1. in Costa Rica, 152 144,161 ,163-4 in Nicaragua. 58-9 Solentiname, 43, 52 Rerum Novarum, 20, 102, 104, 109, 110. solidarismo, 130--2, 139, 161-2 177 see also MSC Respuesta.154 Solis, Javier, 148. 150. 152. 153. 154. 155. Reyes y Valladares. Mons. Canuto, 18 179 Robelo, Alfonso, 33, 35, 66. 77. 89 Somoza-Agiiero pact. see Kupia-Kumi Rodriguez, Jose Joaquin, 103 pact Rodriguez Quiros, Mons. Carlos Hum- Somoza Debayle , Anastasio, 22. 24. 41. berto, 125. 126. 136, 137 95,173 and Church-State relations, 127 and the Church, 23, 28. 33. 35. 37. 38, on communism, 128 39,40,53,85 contrasted with Mons. Arrieta, 132, 134 and the earthquake, 29-30 and the Liga , 114. 115 illness of, 33 and the 1970elections, 150 and the Kupia-Kumi pact, 27, 28, 29 progressive sector's conflict with, 152. and negotiations with the opposition. 154,155,167 33-4,37 social pastoral under, 129-30, 131-2 and the private sector, 29-31 and workers, 128-9 re-election of, 31 Romero, Mons. Oscar,87 Somoza Debayle, Luis, 22, 24 Royo Linares, Father Fernando, 151 Somoza family dictatorship, 25. 39, 44, 126,173 Sacred Congregation for Clergy, 61 and the Catholic hierarchy, 18-22,27-9. Sacred Congregation for Religious, 61 31,36,40 Salazar, Father Jose Vicente, 115, 123 CEPA's opposition to, 50 Salazar Espinoza, Mons. Manuel, 33 and the Labour Code, III Sanabria Martinez, Mons. Victor, 119-20, and the private sector. 29-31 172, 178 see also Somoza Debayle, Anastasio and and accion catolica, 115, 178 Somoza Garcia, Anastasio and the Civil War, 118-19 Somoza Garcia, Anastasio. 18-20,22. 24, and the communists, 112-14 111,117-18.172 contrasted with Mons. Odio, 122, 123, Standard Fruit Co., 139-40, 158 228 Index

State of Emergency Law, 67, 68, 85 Valdivieso, Fray Antonio, 14, 170 Stork Werth, Mons. Juan , 104 Vallier, Ivan , 6-7 student movements (Nicaragua), 25-6, 39 Vatican, 58 Synod and accion catolica, 106, 114, 177 Fifth Archdiocesan, 161, 162 and appointment of Mons. Ar rieta, 137 and appointment of Mons. Obando, 26 Theology of Liberat ion, 2-3, 94, 156, 157, and counteroffensive against progressive 163 sector. 60-2 Symposium on, 152-3 relations with Costa Rica, 99-100 Thiel, Mons. Bernardo, 101, 102-3. 104. relations with Nicaragua, 15, 18,93-4 171 Vatican II Council, I. 2, 10,23,39 Tinoco dictatorship, 106 impact on Costa Rican Church, 121, Tirado, Victor, 81 128,148,153,156,173,178 Tortosa, Father Santiago, 159 impact on Nicaraguan Church, 24, 40, Trejos, Jose Gregorio, 103 44,56,79.173,178 Trejos, Jose Joaquin, 127 Vega, Mons. Pablo, 33, 37, 85, 94 Trejos Picado, Mons . Ignacio, 140, 149, in opposition to the Sandinista govern lSI, 154,158 ment , 91, 92-3 Tribunal Electoral, 117. 118 Vicaria de Pastoral Social, 161, 162, 163, triumvirate pact, see Kupia-Kumi pact 164 Truman administration, 117-18 Vicentian Fathers, 155, 156, 157, 165 TSE ,149-50 Vilchez, Mons. Pedro. 75 Vivas Robelo, Mons. Bosco, 37, 78 UCA,25,47 Volio, Jorge, 106-7, 108, 109 UDEL, 30,33, 35 Ulate,Otilio, 117, 118, 124 Ulloa y Larrios, Mons ., 16, 17 Walker, William , IS Union Catolica del Clero, 102-4, 179 World Council ofChurches, 92 United Fruit Co.• 130 United States Yglesias, Rafael, 103, 104 aggressions against Nicaragua, 67-8 , 69, 71,72-3,74.84-5,88 intervention in Nicaragua, 17-18, 79, Zamora, Mons. Antonio, 101 104,106 Zaragoza. Beatrice, 45 UNO, 24 Zavala, Joaquin, 16 USAID,91 Zelaya . Jose Santos, 16-17, 18, 171-2 Vacarro, Father Antonio, 59 Zeledon , Benjamin, 17