© National Crime Research Centre, United States International University-Africa and REINVENT Programme, Masculinity and Intimate Partner Violence 2020. Fieldwork photos © Kennedy Mkutu ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project was as a result of various stakeholders who provided invaluable support that ensured the success of the study. Our gratitude goes to the state and non-state institutions and staff members, members of public, who participated in the interviews during the research making it possible to obtain the needed data and information. We acknowledge and are thankful for sponsorship of the study by Jamii Thabiti/REINVENT, a programme of UKAID managed by Coffey International, and for the guidance and hard work of Jacqueline Mbogo, Chief of Party and Jacinta Makokha, Technical Lead for Violence Against Women and Girls Mitigation. Thanks to all National Crime Research Centre researchers and others who participated in this study including: Gladys Soi, Kenneth Bundi, Vincent Opondo, Mark Shiundu, John Kariuki, Geofrey Kiprop, Joash Rono, Dickson Gitonga, Phyllis Muriuki and Sebastian Katungati and to Obondo Kajumbi of Kenya School of Government and Evelyne Atieno Owino. Thanks also to Gerard Wandera, Director of the National Crime Research Centre and to the Governing Council and Research and Development Committee of the Council for their oversight. Lastly, thanks to our reviewers, Sabine Palmreuther, Perry Stanislas and Jacqueline Mbogo for their valuable comments. i TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv INTRODUCTION 1 Global State of Intimate Partner Violence and Interventions 1 The Kenyan Context 3 Aims and Objectives 5 Study Sites 6 METHODS 8 FINDINGS 10 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Survey Respondents 10 Attitudes and Perceptions about Masculinity and Changing Gender Norms 11 Attitudes and Perceptions about Intimate Partner Violence 16 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 27 Summary and Discussion 27 Recommendations 33 REFERENCES 35 APPENDICES 37 Appendix 1: Key to Interviews and Focus Group Discussion Codes for In-Text Sources. 37 Appendix 2: Areas Sampled for Survey 39 ii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS FGD Focus Group Discussion FIDA Federation of Kenya Women Lawyers GBV Gender Based Violence IPV Intimate Partner Violence HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences SLDF Sabaot Land Defense Force iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Kenya has recently witnessed a surge of phenomenon of increased violence relating intimate partner killings; 11 women were to female empowerment, where men are killed by a current or ex-partner in February not engaged or assisted. (Flood 2015, Barker 2019. Over 2019, 44 women and 3 men et al 2007, Gibbs et al 2015). killed by a current or ex-partner.1 Prior to these alarming statistics, it was already A recent study by NCRC (2018) similarly recognized that intimate partner violence found that violence against women in (IPV) is common and normalized, affecting 4 general, and domestic violence in particular, out of 10 women in Kenya (Kenya National is intricately linked to real or perceived Bureau of Statistics, 2014). The Government fulfilment of masculine identities amidst of Kenya, civil society activists and economic pressures. However, one researchers agree that this is a pressing limitation of this study was that it human rights, health, and development interviewed mainly women respondents. issue and have accordingly prioritized Further, while patriarchal cultures have research for women experiencing violence been well studied, there is less and preventative and redressive measures. understanding of attitudes about masculinity and IPV within the changing Worldwide, IPV affects around a third of Kenya context of modernization, women (WHO n.d.) and leads to a range of urbanization and women’s empowerment. physical, sexual, reproductive and mental problems. A number of contributory factors The study aimed to examine IPV and its links have been identified at individual, family, to masculine identities in the current Kenya community and wider society levels and context and to explore possibilities for have shaped interventions. These include intervention. Specifically the study sought beliefs about male entitlement and gender to: 1) Understand men’s perceptions about inequality and the perpetuation of norms on masculinity and male roles and behaviors, the acceptability of violence to enforce male within the changing cultural context in dominance (WHO/LSHTM, 2010). The Kenya; 2) Find out what men think about IPV International Men and Gender Equality as it relates to masculinity, male roles and Survey (IMAGES) in 2010 identified how behavior in changing cultural context and 3) economic and work stress can lead to Recommend opportunities for support and gender-based violence through feelings of prevention of IPV. The report Is intended to low self-esteem and inadequacy and the inform the Office of the President and to need to reassert dominance to preserve influence government policy and practice, as status (International Centre for Research on well as civil society and faith-based Women, 2010). In line with this, several organizations. studies have also identified the 1 “Counting Dead Women Kenya” Facebook site compiled from media sources. iv The study was carried out in Bungoma, it was clear that men could be angered by Kwale, Mombasa, and Nakuru counties, certain disrespectful attitudes of women between May and June 2019. It comprised a which they believed to be related to societal questionnaire issued to 674 respondents, change and empowerment. Overall men did twenty-nine focused group discussions and not disagree with women disputing with twenty-seven key informant interviews with them in private, though in public this was workers in government, criminal justice, considered unacceptable by most. Other security, health, civil society and faith-based behaviours which met with overall sectors, followed by quantitative and disapproval were refusal of sex, refusal to qualitative analysis. have children/more children, neglect of household duties and having another Findings partner. Several men expressed concern about the changing tide of society, and The survey sample was representative of the opposed feminism, materialism and Kenya population in terms of age individualism which are to some extent alien distribution, but on the whole the to African culture and Christian and Muslim respondents were better educated, with a religion. The influence of social media and higher percentage having reached TV was a common concern. secondary education and above, than the general population. There were also a higher Most men strongly disagreed with violent percentage of Muslims than that of the behaviours against women such as: insulting whole population in Kenya, reflecting the or calling names; threatening or scaring; coastal counties included in the study. slapping or pinching; pushing or shoving; forced sex; choking, burning or cutting; and Questionnaire respondents agreed with the hitting or kicking. However 20% of men felt importance of a number of “marks of that sometimes violence was the only manhood,” covering physical characteristics, option. Several men in FGDs in all counties money and status, responsibility, leadership were in favour of light physical “discipline” and sexuality. Interviewees and focus group through slapping, which they deemed discussion (FGD) respondents identified necessary to maintain the respect of a masculine identity and male roles mainly in woman. Several consequences of IPV were terms of leadership of the family, taking identified, and most men agreed with responsibility for the family, protection and statements such as “change is necessary in provision. These are in part dependent upon our society through a multi-agency socialization and African tradition, but also approach” and that “violent men would like find a significant basis in different religious help to change.” However, they also agreed beliefs. with a statement that “media/society is hard on men” and that “a lot of help is being given These perceived roles are being challenged to women but not to men” (77%). in a number of ways. The most commonly voiced challenge to masculine identity and Men gave a wealth of views on the causes, roles operating at both relationship and both direct and indirect of IPV including societal level is women’s economic and childhood emotional trauma, psychological social empowerment. There was a general factors, the breakdown of societal norms approval of women running businesses and institutions particularly those (although quite a number thought that men supporting marriage, substance abuse and should retain control over the finances) but the influence of technology. The v undermining of a man’s self-esteem and Therefore, this report recommends a masculine identity at relationship and balanced approach which discourages societal levels was an important factor and violent expressions of masculinity but behaviours of women which were supports the place of men in the home and disrespectful, humiliating, hurtful or sexually society and the family structure in general, unfaithful were particularly likely to cause since the family remains the point of nurture violence. The “sponsor” relationship and and guidance for children. men working away were mentioned as specific contexts for female infidelity and This work reveals that other external resulting violence. The persistence of male pressures such as poverty and polygamy, albeit now without formal unemployment