92 | 1990 2017 revolution. Soviet Unioninademocraticandpeaceful Mongolia securesitsindependencefromthe 1990 (now MPP)inparliamentaryelections. The DemocratsdefeattheformerMPRP 2012 state ofemergency. out, andMongoliadeclaresitsfirst-ever Three hundredareinjuredwhenriotsbreak Democrats protestallegedvoterigging. After anotherMPRPelectoralvictory, 2008 minister twomonthslater. impasse, Narantsatsraltbecomesprime assassinated inhishome.Afterapolitical Elbegdorj’s nominatedsuccessor,Zorig,is 1998 in peacefulparliamentaryelections. MPP returnstopowerwithasupermajority 2016

landslide victoryinparliamentaryelections. The MPRP,ledbyEnkhbayar,winsa 2000 forced toresign. in protest,andElbegdorjhiscabinetare MPRP oppositionwalksoutofparliament bank ownedbyfellowDemocrats.The owned ReconstructionBanktoaprivate Prime MinisterElbegdorjsellsthestate- 1998 elections. of theDemocraticPartywinspresidential Following acontentiouscampaign, Battulga 2017 sentenced tosevenyearsinprison. Enkhbayar isconvictedofcorruptionand During theDemocrats’ rule, formerpresident 2012 incumbent Enkhbayartobecomepresident. Elbegdorj, aDemocrat,defeatsMPRP 2009

* Rankingsarebasedonthelast15yearsandrelativetootherAsiancountries. Mongolia rate ofanyAsiancity. a steep five points lower than the previous year. in 2015 2.3 percent of rate annual growth its with declining, been has economy golia’s Mon as especially grow, to continue companies mining foreign-backed large, the and government the with frustrations people’s peaceful, mostly are protests the Although protests. environmental and anti-mining intermittent experienced has country the governmenteconomicdevelopmentits launched strategyminingon based1990s, the in sincethe Party.Ever Democratic resulting inavictoryforKhaltmaaBattulgaof the 2017 presidential elections were contentious, the elections and run-off went smoothly, in 2012 elections the campaignsleading uptothe and 2016 Although were peaceful. in 2009 of the2008elections a repeat and 2013 violence, presidential and legislative of fears building. Despite Palace Cultural Central Revolutionary Partyandthe People’s ruling Mongolian the of headquarters the including property, to injuries, anddamage postelection protest by opposition parties turned violent, resulting in five deaths, many elections highlightedtensions betweentheruling and opposition parties, andapeaceful 2008 legislative The instability. political some triggered support Soviet of withdrawal the after economy the of collapse the and peaceful, democratic 1990 was Revolution of Mongolian While the tumultuous. and somewhat unsteady a marketeconomy hasbeen little large-scale violence in Mongolia, although the transition from a centrally planned to has been Union, there Soviet the of state as asatellite status from its emerged it Since At a glance a At Overview Absent Separatism andautonomy Absent Transnational terrorism Low National politicalconflict Absent National civilwar 1 has the highest homicide highest the Ulaanbaatar has Urban crimeandviolence Medium Local resource conflict Low Local politicalandelectoralconflict Medium Low Communal/ideological conflict High -

93 | Mongolia 94 | Mongolia in Mongolia’s history, a five-day state of emergency was declared by then president Nambaryn president then by declared was emergency of state five-day a history, Mongolia’s in headquarters. party the at fire a in poisoning monoxide carbon of died activist MPRP one and police, by killed were in theearly1990s. apeacefuldemocraticrevolution late1980s,Mongoliaexperienced inEuropethe regimes its independence, the country came under Soviet control. After the breakup of communist forces.establishingafterShortlyChinese FebruaryIn 1921, troopsdefeated his and Ungern the preliminary results of the elections were announced. were elections ofthe results preliminary the after streets in the had gathered Riots brokeoutinUlaanbaatar, several thousandpeople where MPRP. riggingbythe vote againstalleged protests Partyled Democratic The inparliament. seats onJune29, mentary elections 2008. The MPRP achieved amajor victory, securing 46ofthe76 to powerinalandslidevictorytheyear2000. returned Enkhbayar, Nambaryn by led MPRP, The 1998. December in minister prime as office took Ulaanbaatar, of mayor weak politically but well-liked the Narantsatsralt, Janlavyn until months, two for another party, lingered opposition the of a member president, and the coalition Democratic the between impasse murder. Apolitical Zorig’s unsolved motivations behind ical to deathin his homebytwounknown stabbed assailants. to nominateZorig asthenewprimeminister, agreed he was the Democraticcoalitionleaders 2, 1998, however,as October of night minister. Onthe forprime candidate a potential became 1998. Sanjaasürengiin Zorig, minister of infrastructureandamembertheDemocraticParty, in July resign to forced were and hiscabinet Elbegdorj As aresult, parliament inprotest. of out Revolutionary Party(MPRP), walked Mongolian People’s party, the opposition members ofthe owned ReconstructionBanktoGolomtBank,whichwasbyMongolianDemocrats, state- the sell to decision controversial the made Elbegdorj Tsakhiagiin Minister Prime When Mongolia During thesummer of2008, politicalcrisesagaingripped thecountry. Mongoliaheldparlia and weakened the ability of the government to effectively manage the country. the manage effectively to government the of ability the weakened and Mongolian undermined events political significant of number a rule, The politicallandscapeisvolatileinMongolia. In1998,underDemocraticParty National politicalconflict Mongolia. into troops his led Ungern-Sternberg von Roman General Lieutenant anti-Bolshevik the , of support the With Mongolia. into spread War Civil National civilwarhasnotbeenpresentinMongoliasince1264. National civilwar 5 Over 300 people were injured, one-third of them police. 4 In the ensuing violence, four individuals individuals four violence, ensuing Inthe 3 Media reported speculation of polit speculation Mediareported 2 National level In 1920, the Russian In1920,theRussian 6 For the first time - - half years). Despite the establishment of the Anti-Corruption Agency in 2006, corruption remains to sevenyearsin 2012 prison in tenced August to twoanda (his prisontermwaslaterreduced the DemocraticParty’s Enkhbayar rule, former president was convictedofcorruptionandsen Elbegdorj’s defeatofincumbentpresidentEnkhbayarinthe2009presidentialelections. During 2012 Democrat Tsakhiagiin to theDemocraticParty, lost the following parliamentary elections thorities hadviolatedseveralnationalandinternationalhumanrightslaws. that governmentau riots. AreportbyacoalitionofMongolianNGOsdetermined during the burning andlooting to related charges the of years; most and seven two between of sentences ofthearrestedreceivedprison arrested.Severalhundred peoplewere Enkhbayar. Morethan700 rights, below,formoreinformation). resources industries and the pollution they cause (see local conflict over resources and community mining andmineral of claims land the against protest frequently and environmentalactivists of Mongolianherders,andlocalherders livelihoods environmentand the to the is threatening remained underChinesecontrol. have beguncooperatingwiththeUnitedStatesoncounterterrorismissues. counterterrorism branch, Agency’s Intelligence General andthe Ministry ofJustice the police, the including officials, Mongolian laws. new instituted have and terrorism about awareness outside the country relatively easy access. As a consequence, government officials have increased borders, givingtravelersfrom has morethan6,000 of porous However, Mongolia kilometers president, defeatinghisMPPopponent,MiyeegomboEnkhbold. Party, became Democratic the of Battulga champion, Khaltmaa July. Aformermartialarts early When none of the candidates won a majority in the June elections, a run-offwas heldpeacefully in election. 2017 presidential the of ahead rose parties opposition and ruling the between Tensions independents. and parties smaller of expense the at parties main political two the favored change last-minute the that argued Critics system. majoritarian fully a to return to law election the MPP wonasupermajoritywith65seats. the Corruption PerceptionsIndex2016. in Mongolia,whichranked87 prevalent The MPRP, which reverted to its original name, the Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in2010, (MPP) Party People’s Mongolian the name, original its to reverted which MPRP, The Thecountrypeacefula had transfer powerof after2016 the parliamentary elections, inwhich There have been no active movements advocating separatism or autonomy in Mon Separatism andautonomy impacts. no direct terrorism has where a country considered is Index, Mongolia terrorist attacksor groups inthecountry. no reportsof have been in Mongolia,andthere Terrorism issue is notapressing Transnational terrorism countryside, particularly in southern Mongolia. Mining-driven economic growth economic Mining-driven Mongolia. southern in particularly countryside, the in companies foreign by run operations mining large-scale the and livelihoods Tensions relatedtoforeignershave risen duetoaclashbetweentraditionalpastoral Large-scale communalandideologicalconflicts territory, Mongol in 1921. a majorpartof Inner Mongolia, Mongolia of Republic People’s as the independence its declared Mongolia Outer of region the since golia 9 th out of 176 countries in Transparency International’s 176 countries of out 10 Prior to the2016 parliament amended elections, 11 According to the 2016 Accordingtothe Global Terrorism Subnational level 13 7 12 - - - 8

95 | Mongolia 96 | Mongolia all levels. changes in theelectoral system, discussed above, the elections were conducted peacefully at 2016, aimags and manipulationofland-use applicationinformationandtheabsenceofclear zoning laws. ofland. sales multiple and compensation, acquisition without in 2016269 ( cases brought totheCapital CityAdministrative Court increased from 156 casesin disputes 2011 to The numberofland occasional surveyerrors, to theincreaseinlanddisputes. have contributed who movedfrom rural areas. people by land forownership of allocation the A/726 restricting Resolution of adoption the to leading city, capital inthe land residential for demand hasincreased population urban growing The issue. areas surroundingUlaanbaatarareanemerging in residential land disputes countryside, during alanddisputebetweenlocalsandYanTeUul security guards. over andkilledbyanemployeeofYanTeUul,aChinese miningcompany.Theincidentoccurred run Dornogovi.province of was InApril2010, Mongolian herder a local southeastern in the case in Mongolia have been peaceful,havethey potentialturn the to violent, was as demonstrated in a are made. decisions further until at NoyonUul operate company cannot the therefore, Centerra Gold’sfourmininglicenses; to suspend Court decided the government and a Canadian mining company, Centerra Gold. In May 2017, the Primary mountainsinMongolia. of thesacred one NoyonUul, andabroad,toprotect athome activists herder and organizations, environmental workers, formerpoliticians, students, of group large a by campaign, organized an international River. Ongi the along for sites issued exploration andmininglicenses 37 of 36 out in suspending succeeded River Movement Ongi the For example, activities. cational and edu battles, drives, legal petition protests, of peaceful movements areorganizingaseries anti-mining grassroots The livelihoods. to threats accompanying and issues environmental and overuseofthecountry’slimitedwatersources. pollution as soil environmental problems,such serious create to continue industries resources in miningandmineral environmental concerns,others and redress recognize companies some ronmental, material, foundations ofthelivelihoodcountry’sherders.While and cultural the envi have threatened into newterritories,mining activities acrossMongolia’scountryside deficit. The mining sectorwas liberalizedwith thepassing ofthe Mineral Law in 1997. Expanding mining asawaytoovercomethe gold Program to promote the Gold Union, developed Soviet the of collapse the after crises economic worst of its government ofMongolia,facingone the when 1990s, the in started boom mining The foreign. and domestic both companies, medium-sized In addition to land conflicts between Mongolian herders and mining companies in the in companies mining and herders Mongolian between conflicts land to addition In mining-related to response in emerged have movements resistance local 2000, early Since 14 while the elections for the elections while (provinces) were held on the same day as the national parliamentary elections in June national parliamentaryelections same dayasthe on the held (provinces)were 16 sions between Mongolian herders and those involved in mining, including large and sions betweenMongolianherdersandthoseinvolvedinmining,includinglarge ten fueled has land andwater to over access mining industry.Competition the of Land conflict isagrowingproblemin Mongolia,particularlyduetotherecentrise Local conflictover resources andcommunityrights representative khurals(localparliaments)ofthecapitalcity(Ulaanbaatar)and for thecitizens’ in Mongolia.Themostrecentelections a major has notbeenissue violence national level.Localpolitical the at occurred mostly has violence Electoral Local politicalconflictandelectoralviolence figure 1 ). 21 Land disputes often arise due tooverlapping landownership, arise due often Landdisputes soums 18 20 (districts) were held thatOctober. (districts)wereheld Since 2014, the group has been organizing protests against against organizingprotests 2014,thegrouphasbeen Since Illegalencroachmentofplotboundaries,combinedwith 19 Although the anti-mining movements anti-mining the Although 22 They are also fueled by confusion byconfusion alsofueled are They 15 17 Despite last-minute Despite Another example is example Another Local level 23 - - - lence-prevention measurestoreducecrimeinurbanareas. local government to adopt effective urban development strategies that include appropriate vio national and important forthe migration fromruralareas. Itis inward halted temporarily has and 2015. 2014 show thatoverallincidentsofcrimeinthecapitalcityincreasedby4.3 between percent 2011 ( since declined in Ulaanbaatarhas homicides rate amongAsiancities. homicide that Ulaanbaatarhadthehighest noted Source: 26 2 As Mongolia’s urban population isgrowing,thecityadministrationofUlaanbaatar AsMongolia’surbanpopulation 2 8 2 2 3 Prepared from crimeandpopulation statisticsprovided bytheNationalStatisticsOffice(NSO) become a growing concern. The Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Urban crimeandviolence baatar, and otherprovincialcenters, Ulaan city, capital the in lives now population Mongolian the of two-thirds Over Figure 2. 2 Number oomicidecases Figure 1. 2 Numberandrateofhomicidecases inUlaanbaatar(2010–2016) LanddisputecasesattheCapitalCityAdministrativeCourt 2 Source: 22 and theNationalPoliceAgency(NPA) CapitalCityAdministrativeCourt 22 23 ate perpeople 23 24 and crime and violence in urbanareashave andcrimeviolence figure 2 figure 2 2 ), National Police Agency statistics Agency Police ), National 28 27 2 2 25 Although the rate of the Although 2 2 2 8 2 - -

97 | Mongolia 98 | Mongolia and holdperpetratorsaccountable. victims to support and protection provide to effectively more efforts their coordinate can they so that of governmentagencies roles andresponsibilities provisions prescribethe The amended amended to make domestic violence a criminal offense for the first time in the country’s history. 2016, Violence was 2004 a private,familymatter.InDecember the Law toCombatDomestic as are regarded they as incidents, discuss to reluctant victims areoften cases, violence domestic domestic violence in2016, domestic increase over2015.a 6.9 percent years ( few figure 3 figure 2 2 2 3 3 3 Domestic andgender-based violence the country. The number of domestic violence cases has increased sharply in the past the country.Thenumberofdomesticviolencecaseshasincreasedsharplyinpast domestic violence, rape, and human trafficking. Domestic violence is widespreadin including violence, gender-based of forms many face girls and women Mongolian ). The National Police Agency recorded 1,449 criminal cases associated with 1,449 recorded associated criminal cases Agency ). TheNationalPolice Source: Source: Figure 3. 2 2 Figure 4. Prepared from crimestatisticsprovided bytheNSOandNPA Prepared from crimestatisticsprovided bytheNSO andNPA NumberofdomesticviolencecasesinMongolia(2010–2016) 2 2 NumberofrapecasesinMongolia (2010–2016) 22 22 23 23 2 2 29 Despite the increase inreported the Despite 2 2 32 31 2 2 30

Germany, Turkey, States. Sweden, and theUnited Belgium, as well as Korea South and Malaysia, Macau, Japan, Kong, Hong China, in ficking traf sex and to labor inTurkey,Kazakhstan,Israel,Norway, andSweden forced to subjected judicial proceduresfurtherdiscouragevictimsfromreportingthesecrimes. and police as stressful norms aswell Social andcultural is particularlyunderreported. al rape Spous authorities. the to reported are cases rape a fractionof country, only in the illegal is rape previous year. ( areas are particularly vulnerable tosexualexploitationinUlaanbaatarandborder areas. Asurvey the country.Duetoincreasedurban migration, women andgirlsfromrural and pooreconomic in massageparlors, to commercialsexualexploitation hotels, bars, and karaoke jected clubs in themselves inhighlyvulnerablesituations. conditions, child abandonment, and domestic abuse. Many orphaned and runaway children find man trafficking and sexual exploitation of teenage girls and children include poverty, poor living prostitutes. work as to forced and deceived, coerced, kidnapped, girls were teenage where cases 2016 reported Department’s HumanRightsReport,NGOs State old. 16 years were they victims when became girls exploited sexually of 95.6 percent that found NSO International LaborOrganization(ILO)andthe the by conducted figure 4 Human trafficking is also a growing concern in Mongolia. Men, women, and children are children and women, Men, Mongolia. in concern a growing also is trafficking Human since 2013 has declined reported overall numberofrapecases Based onpolicerecords,the ). In 2016, the NPA received 290 reports of rape, a slight increase from 279 reports the reports from 279 increase rape, aslight of 290 reports NPA received ). In2016, the 33 One in two victims of rape or sexual violence isunder18yearsold. Oneintwovictimsofrapeorsexual 36 Mongolianwomenandgirlsarealsosub 38 Factors contributing to hu to contributing Factors 37 According to the U.S. the to According 35 34 Although - - - -

99 | Mongolia 100 | Mongolia 2 1 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Notes page=27&&page=blog golia, October20, 2016, Commission ofMon of theGeneralElection website 2016,” 19October onWednesday, held and district of sum “The Citizen’sRepresentative’sHuralelection 25&&page=blog 1,2016, July golia, Commission ofMon of theGeneralElection website “The FinalResultoftheParliamentaryelection,2016,” http://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2009/140884.htm (Washington, DC: U.S. DepartmentofState, 2010), view,” chapter 2 in U.S. Department of State, “ and Pacific Over Global-Terrorism-Index-2016.2.pdf nomicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/ Index2016 rorism (IEP), for EconomicsandPeace Institute ReportDetails.aspx?cid=19823 OSAC,2016), 2016 Crime and Safety Report Overseas SecurityAdvisoryCouncil(OSAC), liamentary-elections/ golian-peoples-party-routs-democratic-party-in-par July 1,2016, ocratic Party in Parliamentary Elections,” Party RoutsDem Bittner, “MongolianPeople’s Peter tions_index_2016#table transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_percep January International website, 25, 2017, “Corruption PerceptionsIndex2016,” Transparency Mongolian People’sRevolutionaryParty. the party, also called a newpolitical bayar established golian People’s Party, in2010, formerpresidentEnkh to itsoriginalname, MPRP Mon reverted When the See Bulag,“Mongoliain2008.” asia-pacific/7485473.stm BBC News Kohn,“FrustrationsMichael boiloverMongolia,” in to Mine-golia,” Uradyn E.Bulag,“Mongoliain2008: From Mongolia 7484632.stm 2, 2008, “Fatal clashesinMongoliacapital,” 2004), 59. Mongolia: Memory of Heroes Kaplonski, Christopher David O.Morgan(Leiden:Brill,1999),229–248. and ItsLegacy Empire States, c.1220–c. Mongol of the 1290,” in Peter Jackson, “From the MongolianEmpireintoautonomouskhanates. . This internal conflict ultimately divided of grandsons andthe brothers AriqBöke, and Khan Kublai War from 1260 to 1264. between It wasfought Toluid Civil Mongolianswasthe The lastwarbetween economic-prospects#data http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/global- Recovery Bank, World (Warsaw: OSCE, 2016), 2016, Election Observation Mission Final Report (OSCE), and CooperationinEurope Organization for Security Mongolia: Parliamentary Elections, 29 June (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2017), 92, Bank,2017), DC:World (Washington, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/ , July 2, 2008, 2,2008, , July . http://thediplomat.com/2016/07/mon Global Economic Prospects: AFragile Prospects: Economic Global https://www.osac.gov/pages/Content Asian Survey . CountryReportson Terrorism 2009 http://gec.gov.mn/en/?singlepage= (Sydney: IEP, 2016), IEP, (Sydney: . . , ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and Ulus Truth, in and Politics History http://gec.gov.mn/en/?single . http://www.osce.org/odihr/ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ . . toKhanate: The Making 49(2009),129–134. . (London: Routledge, , (Washington, DC: . BBC News http://www. The Mongol Global Ter http://eco Diplomat Mongolia Mongolia , July ------. , ​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​ ​ 22 21 20 19 18 17 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 Administration tutional Approach,” Insti on Based Mongolia: in Issues Solution and flict Dorjderem, “Land Kim andOtgonbold Con Daegeon admincourt.gov.mn May 15,2015, 2014” [in Mongolian], accessed 2012,2013,and Proceedings: Court’sRecord trative Court,“CityAdminis CityAdministrative Capital org/handle/10986/21496 Bank, 2015), 78, Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia in Bank, World events/ Mongolia website, of Mountain 2, 2017, Save Noyon entry, May timeline interactive ofMongolia,” people the for “Small win com/2017/04/mongolias-democracy-under-stress/ Stress,” Bolor Lkhaajav,“Mongolia’sDemocracyUnder 10.1080/14742837.2013.877387 (2015): 92–97, gle inMongolia,” Strug Movements’ River “The Byambajav, Dalaibuyan elections/mongolia/271821?download=true Health, 2017),9. Violence of Sexual DiseasesAmongVictims ually Transmitted MongolianGender EqualityCenter, Ibid. Ibid. website, andNPA, “Mongolian StatisticalInformation Services,” NSO violence-criminal-offence/ 02/08/mongolias-amended-law-makes- February 8, 2017, Domestic Violence a Criminal Offence,” Makes Law Amended “Mongolia’s Griffiths, Ashleigh NPA, gegdsen_gemt_hereg.pdf Statistic_medee/2016_12_sar_medee/2016.12_burt [in Mongolian], Police Agency (NPA), March 8, 2017, accessed website, Mongolia of Office Statistics tional InformationServices,”Statistical “Mongolian Na court.gov.mn/site/article/Taylan [in Mongolian], accessedMarch 13, 2017, Report” Year Court, “Full Administrative City Capital OSAC, pdfs/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf 2014),151, Global StudyonHomicide2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), http://www.en.nso.mn/content/166 National Report Population and Housing By-CensusofMongolia: See National Statistics Office of Mongolia (NSO), vatization_Mongolia.pdf AID_Land_Tenure_Property_Rights_and_Land_Pri 10, Mongolia Success in Property Rights and Land : Issues for (USAID), U.S. forInternational Development Agency http://usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/US​ 2016 AnnualCrimeStatistics Mongolia 2016Crime . Diplomat [in Mongolian], (Ulaanbaatar: Ministry of Ministry [inMongolian],(Ulaanbaatar: https://www.unodc.org/documents/gsh/ Land Administration and Management Land Administration http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ref/​ 17,no.3(2012):21–44. http://www.1212.mn/en/ (Ulaanbaatar:NSO, 2016),47–49, http://www.police.gov.mn/media/ https://openknowledge.worldbank. , April14,2017, Social Movement Studies 2016 AnnualCrimeStatistics ​2017/ http://asiafoundation.org/ http://savenoyonmountain.com/ . (Washington, DC: USAID, 2004), 2004), DC:USAID, (Washington, International Review ofPublic Review International 2016 Annual Crime Statistics . . . . (Washington, DC:World . . . http://thediplomat. (Vienna: UNODC, StudyReport: Sex . . InAsia http://admin ​ domes​ ; National . 14, no. 1 (blog), http:// . 2015 tic- . . ------​ ​

​ ​ ​ 36 35 organization/271343.pdf 2017),285–287, Report State, of U.S. Department state.gov/documents/organization/265568.pdf Rights Report U.S. Department ofState, (WashingtonDC:State,U.S. of Department , accessed March 8, , 2017, accessed https://www.state.gov/documents/ . 2017 Trafficking in Persons Mongolia 2016 Human https://www. . 38 37 Rights Report U.S. Department ofState, lang--en/index.htm#banner Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_15595/ aanbaatar: ILO,2010),17, Children Sexually Exploited and on SexWorkers (ILO), LaborOrganization International . http://www.ilo.org/ipec/ . Mongolia 2016 Human Survey Report Report Survey (Ul -

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