Game Review: Sid Meier's Civilization
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Game Review: Sid Meier's Civilization
Brian Palmer
● Identification ● Story-line ● Features ● Design ● Success ● Bibliography ● About this document ...
Brian Palmer 2001-02-22
http://www.stanford.edu/~bpalmer/review/ [2/23/2001 3:19:18 PM] Identification
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Identification
The subject of this review is Sid Meier's Civilization (hereafter Civilization or Civ), a game released in 1991 by MicroProse as an adaption of Avalon Hill's board game Civilization. The computer game was a smashing success and has been a gaming classic ever since. The most prominent designer of the game, Sid Meier, was also the programmer. The other chief designer was Bruce Shelley; but more than a score of other people helped with the game. A complete list of the game credits is given in [10].
Brian Palmer 2001-02-22
http://www.stanford.edu/~bpalmer/review/node1.html [2/23/2001 3:19:59 PM] Story-line
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Story-line
Civilization has elements of historical simulation within it, but is predominantly a ``4X'' turn-based strategy game. The term ``4X'' is explained by [1] as standing for the phrase ``eXplore, eXpand, eXploit, and eXterminate'' -- these four verbs provide a sketchy overview of the game. The player begins the game viewing a map with control over one or more `settler' units (a unit is a small figure which can be moved around the world map representing a specialized group of people). Settler units are capable of founding cities, which is where more units are produced. Founding a city eliminates the settler unit, but a city can produce many new units. In order to produce units, cities require a number of resources, such as food and a population. The size of the population and the citizen productivity determine how quickly new units and city improvements are built (the larger the city's population, the quicker the production). The game's units include peaceful units like the settlers and many more military units. Each unit has a distinguishing feature from others; military units are used to explore and attack enemy civilizations, while other units add abilities to the player's civilization. Performance in the game is tracked by various statistics, such as the economic affluence and happiness of the civilization. These factors may be linked to each other and to data like the type of government a civilization currently has and the improvements placed within its cities. Money is directly convertible to and from various improvements to cities. Happiness affects productivity, and may interfere Suiting a game of world-spanning score, there are two possible methods of winning: ● Defeat all rival civilizations by occupying their cities. This is perhaps the most popular option, as borne witness by the large variety in military units. ● Build a spacecraft to travel to Alpha Centauri; the first civilization to reach the stars triumphs. success. To produce the spacecraft, a civilization must have discovered almost every technology. The spacecraft then requires a combination of three expensive; once the first of these units is produced, the ruler can send a mission to the stars at any time. Even here, a choice is possible, since a ship may embark with less than perfect chance of success in order to try to beat rival civilizations. A game involves a human player and up to six other civilizations controlled by the computer. The civilizations are chosen from a list of fourteen historical civilizations; each one starts out the game with a different set of initial technologies. The starting technologies are very loosely mapped to technologies that a particular civilization is associated with (e.g., Romans start with road-building), with some adjustment for game balance. In general, cities produce units independently of one another. Once trade is developed, cities can help
http://www.stanford.edu/~bpalmer/review/node2.html (1 of 2) [2/23/2001 3:20:04 PM] Story-line combine their efforts to produce city improvements that will help the entire civilizations (called `Wonders'). These improvements are historically significant items and produce much more visible effects than a normal city improvement; however, they represent a significant investment of resources and can be captured by rival civilizations (e.g., the Pyramids add a granary to every city in the civilization that possess them). Improvements in technology can render the effects of Wonders obsolete while allowing a civilization to progress towards winning the game. At the heart of the game is the belief that advances in technology drive civilization forward; a player must balance revenue-gathering taxes with research and entertainment expenditures to balance the needs of the now with the needs of the future.
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Features
Civilization was not a game that pushed the technical requirements of computers. It could be played with a wide variety of display types, ranging from sixteen color EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) to 256 color VGA (Video Graphics Array); note that VGA adapters had been out for some years already in 1991. For input devices, the game can be played with a keyboard alone, which may be supplemented with a mouse. The interface is primarily point-and-click regardless of the input device, which helps make the game easy to play. For sound, the game supports options ranging from no sound at all to PC speakers to some of most popular sounds card of the time (for example, Creative Labs' Soundblaster). The sound is fairly minimal, as can be expected for a game occupying only 2 MB of disk space. It serves its purpose of accompanying game information without distracting unduly. The game's interface is fairly clean, which is a must given the small resolutions it was targeted at. Simple icons represent units; the currently active unit blinks. City views allow you to see a visual display of the city, and icons inform the player of his city status. Animated features interrupt game-play periodically when grateful citizens reward a benevolent player with modifications to the player's ``palace''; the player gets a choice of which architectural style to use in the addition. Similarly, an animation celebrates the player's victory when a winning condition is met. The game is a turn-based game, which means that periodically, the player gets the chance to move his forces and change his commands to cities; then the machine calculates what happens next and displays the changes on screen. To compress 6000 years of history into a playable time-frame, turns initially move in increments of fifty years (i.e., the player first issues commands at 4000 B.C, and then issues commands at 3950 B.C). The time-frame compresses as the game progresses, so that at the end a turn corresponds to one year. A typical game will last between 4 and 8 hours. As the game does not allow for multi-player options, the AI is a critical part of the game. This is where the game falls down; the computer AI is notoriously not able to stand up to an experienced player. In an effort to help compensate for the weak AI, the designers chose to cheat; there are some restrictions on units that the AI-controlled units get to ignore which apply to units the player controls (e.g., computer-controlled triremes can go any distance in the water, whereas human-controlled ones must stay along the coastlines)
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Design
The game's design helped cement its designers' reputations in the strategy game world ([3]). As testimony to this, Civilization was a perennial favorite game of the critics. For example, [8] refers to it as the ``top strategy game of all time'' five years after its publication, and the game was listed in GameCenter's 1997 Hall of Game: Innovation feature ([4]). The game does its best to reiterate its historical theme at every opportunity, while not allowing reality to impinge upon its game-play. When the game first begins, a picture of a swirling cosmos is depicted, granting a godlike perspective to the player; then the game begins and the player takes the role of an immortal leader. One of the game's central elements is its ``Civilopedia'' which describes almost every aspect of the game. Most notably, upon discovery of a new technology, a message describing the technology's effect on the real world is displayed. This serves both as inspiration for the player and to add an educational element to the game. Leaders are historical figures of the civilizations they represent, and the cities are given default names of famous cities in their civilization. Civilization is eminently replayable, due in large part to the depth of the choices it proffers the player. From the outset, the player is confronted with choices about skill level and, more intriguingly, which civilization to start with. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses visible in its starting technologies. And were the enormous branching factor of the game tree not enough, the game tries to ensure that every game is different by randomizing events and set up. The battles contain elements of chance; although some units are more powerful than others, there is almost always a chance that even military units centuries less advanced than another can triumph. Combat is an example of how the game chooses to favor game-play over historical accuracy. Some of the choices the player must deal with in the course of a game are how to respond to diplomatic overtures, the order in which technology should be pursued, and the schedule of building improvements and units. These choices, and the multiplicity of winning conditions, support players who are interested in different styles of playing. Ted Friedman, in his discussion in [5], points out that certain underlying ideologies of the game do limit the flexibility of the player, but within those limits is a wide variation possible in game-play (See also [7]).
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Success
The game is one of the successes of the computer-based strategy games. It has sold over $4$ million copies since its publication ([9]), and its work has influenced the entire strategy game market. Sequels to the original game include Civilization II, Civilization II:Call to Power, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, and the upcoming Civilization III, which have won many glowing accolades of their own. The best-selling Age of Empires series from Microsoft have also been influenced, as their chief designer is Bruce Shelley, one of Civilization's co-designers. Even today, with now crude graphics and primitive sound, the game is discussed frequently on online fora such as news:comp.sys.games.ibm.pc.strategy: its principles of gameplay are held as benchmarks to which others are compared ([2]). Dedicated fans are creating a free implementation of the game (with significant elements from Civilization II as well) at http://www.freeciv.org. The game is and was a success in every way which can be measured.
Brian Palmer 2001-02-22
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Bibliography
1 Al-Herbish, Thamer. PC Strategic Games FAQ
http://www.stanford.edu/~bpalmer/review/node6.html (1 of 2) [2/23/2001 3:20:28 PM] Bibliography Brian Palmer 2001-02-22
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About this document ...
Game Review: Sid Meier's Civilization This document was generated using the LaTeX2HTML translator Version 99.2beta6 (1.42) Copyright © 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, Nikos Drakos, Computer Based Learning Unit, University of Leeds. Copyright © 1997, 1998, 1999, Ross Moore, Mathematics Department, Macquarie University, Sydney. The command line arguments were: latex2html review The translation was initiated by Brian Palmer on 2001-02-22 Brian Palmer 2001-02-22
http://www.stanford.edu/~bpalmer/review/node7.html [2/23/2001 3:20:35 PM] The Freeciv Website
'Cause civilization should be free!
Freeciv is a multiplayer strategy game, released under the GNU General Public License. It is generally comparable with Civilization II®, published by Microprose®.
GET STARTED INFO / HELP DEVELOPMENT GAMERS About Freeciv FAQ Remember Game Announcements Introduction Windows FAQ How to Contribute Freeciv Metaserver Screenshots IRC Roadmap Freeciv's Civserver Requirements Mailing Lists To-Do List The Myth about Freeciv Features Webstats Projects and Ports Timeline Quick-Start FTPstats Graphics Related Links Manual People Sounds Tutorials Rulesets/Tilesets Articles Suggestions/Ideas Browse the Source Bug/Patch Tracking Known Bugs Internationalization Localization
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GZIP: freeciv-1.11.4.tar.gz 3.42 MB BZIP2: freeciv-1.11.4.tar.bz2 2.48 MB
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http://www.freeciv.org/ (1 of 5) [2/23/2001 3:21:19 PM] The Freeciv Website NEWS BZIP2: Try 'em out ! Updated 23/02
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Poll Civworld 8 February 2001
How do you usually play Freeciv? After Thue brought the Freeciv map editor, Civworld, up to date with the latest code base, I play on my localhost. Mike Kaufman made some further I play on a lan. improvements. Note that Freeciv doesn't offer I play remote via the internet. scripted scenarios in the way that Civ II does. I do not play Freeciv. But at least we have a map editor again. You Wow, I did not know I had theses may also wish to try our contributed maps. Or options! submit your own!
Reinier Post View results of old polls Isometric view 8 February 2001 If you have an interesting suggestion for a poll mail Martin Willemoes Hansen. Thue's isometric view patch has been in CVS since January, 25. It allows you to play in Civ II-style (isometric) view, with Civ II-compatible tilesets. One of those, the 'hires' Who to contact? tileset by Tim Smith, is now in the distribution as well. Admin 1: Jeff Mallatt This feature was high on the wishlist of many; Admin 2: Tony Stuckey Thue went out and did it! Web & FTP: Martin Willemoes Hansen Please note that it is only in CVS for now, so Host issues: Paul Zastoupil you will have to compile Freeciv from source in order to use it. See CVS source snapshots. For a quick impression, see the latest screenshots. Search the site!
Reinier Post
Mac OSX port 31 January 2001 More search options.
http://www.freeciv.org/ (2 of 5) [2/23/2001 3:21:19 PM] The Freeciv Website Thanks to Brian Olson for making Freeciv happen on OSX. The port is at least two thirds done, and is easily playable from beginning till 500 A.D. or so. Then you start wanting features not If you like and enjoy Freeciv, please help implemented yet. others to enjoy it too, by adding a banner Go get it from the projects page. to your site. Martin Willemoes Hansen
Claus talks about Freeciv 25 January 2001
Everybody who might be so lucky will hear Claus Leth Gregersen talk about Freeciv, at this year's LinuxForum in Denmark/Copenhagen.
Martin Willemoes Hansen
New 20x20 tileset 22 January 2001
Jussi Asp has uploaded a new tileset. It is 20x20 and true color and sitting on the ftp site. So if you play at a low resolution or just want to be able to see more of the map, give them a try. You can check out a screenshot.
Paul Zastoupil
First Two Contributed Nations 20 January 2001
http://www.freeciv.org/ (3 of 5) [2/23/2001 3:21:19 PM] The Freeciv Website The first two submissions to our new Contributed Nations area have just been posted. They are a very complete Assyrian nation, and a bare Cuban ruleset. As always, contributions are provided as-is. They have not been tested in any way. You can find a link to the Contributed Nations area on the download page.
Jeff Mallatt
New photo of Freeciv 18 January 2001
I took a new picture of Freeciv in its new home. Not real exciting, but hey, I have a digital camera. You can also see civserver.freeciv.org next to it. I guess you can't tell its a dual PII 333 from the photo. The box on top of www.freeciv.org is a drive I use for backups, its a lot faster than tape.
Paul Zastoupil
Older news: 1998 1999 2000 2001
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http://www.freeciv.org/ (4 of 5) [2/23/2001 3:21:19 PM] The Freeciv Website
http://www.freeciv.org/ (5 of 5) [2/23/2001 3:21:19 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot)
by GameSpot. Written by Terry Coleman. Re-formatted by Thunderfall on 9/28/00.
Foreword: Many of us have played Civilization/Civilization II for a long time. However, I think most Civers don't know much about Sid Meier. There are just too few articles about Sid on the internet... I was absolutely thrilled when I stumble upon this long and detailed article titled "The Sid Meier Legacy" last night. It is about 20 pages in length if you print it out and was written by GameSpot in 1998, before Alpha Centauri was released. Even better, it included a big interview! It's odd that I missed this article and didn't see any civ site mentioning the article back in 1998. ~ Thunderfall, 9/29/2000.
Table of Content ● Introduction (on Page 1) ● The Formative Years: 1984 to 1989 ● Silent Service (1985) ● NATO Division Commander (1985) ● Conflict in Vietnam (1985) ● Crusade in Europe and Decision in the Desert (1985) ● Sid Meier's Pirates! (1987) ● Red Storm Rising (1987) ● F-19 Stealth Fighter (1988) ● Gunship (1997) ● The Classics are Born: 1990 to Present (on Page 2) ● Sid Meier's Railroad Tycoon (1990) ● Sid Meier's Civilization (1991) ● Sid Meier's Covert Action (1991) ● CPU Bach (1993) ● Sid Meier's Colonization (1994) ● Sid Meier's CivNet (1995) ● Sid Meier's Civilization II (1997) ● Magic: The Gathering (1997) ● Sid Meier's Gettysburg (1997) ● Sid on the State of the Game Industry ● Related Links
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (1 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot)
Introduction Sid Meier isn't the most talented programmer the world has ever seen. He doesn't lie awake nights striving for the most exquisitely optimized 3D engine, and you don't have to own the latest state-of-the-art computer to play his games either - an oddity in an industry obsessed with pushing the envelope almost until it shreds. But it's the rare gamer indeed who doesn't own one - or more likely several - of Sid Meier's games. The body of Sid's work can be seen as a microcosm of the industry's journey from the early Apple and Commodore 64 games to today's hi-tech PCs, and for that alone it has historical significance. But the reason Sid Meier stands apart from other designers is that many of his older games stand as much more than museum pieces, even in today's graphics-intensive market: Not only are EGA/VGA titles like Railroad Tycoon and Pirates! still on the shelves, Civilization II is also selling quite well, more than two years after its initial release. The Sid Meier philosophy has always been to keep the pace of the game moving, and to keep it fun. Throughout his career, Sid has managed, much in the same manner as a good film director or novelist, to cut to the essence of whatever secret he's letting us in on. As a result, every Sid Meier game is worthwhile, even to those only marginally interested in the subject matter. At a time in his career when most designers would be happy to retire, legacy intact, Sid continues to look for new challenges - like this past year's Gettysburg and the upcoming Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri. As long as Sid keeps his passion about crafting games that he wants to play, it's a good bet that gamers everywhere will share his enthusiasm. Join us for a tour of Sid Meier's games, from the early obscure titles to the well-known classics. We'll even peek into some corners that Sid himself would probably wish would stay hidden, but that's half the fun, especially when we hear it from Sid himself. The Formative Years: 1984 to 1989 The legend of Sid Meier begins, appropriately enough, with a tall tale. Sid Meier and Bill Stealey were playing an arcade flight combat game, and Bill - a former military pilot - was amazed that Sid could consistently rack up higher scores. After humbling Bill (and Stealey being humble about anything is your first clue that this is a fairy tale), Sid pointed out that the AI of the enemy arcade pilot was so predictable that he could easily figure out what it was going to do. Moreover, Sid said he could design a better one, so the story goes, in two weeks. Bill took Sid up on the bet by giving the engineer a job, the two men formed MicroProse, and their vision led them to fame and fortune. Certainly this makes for a great story, and like most tall tales, it has a kernel of truth at its Solo Flight (1984) center. But it's been more than a little embellished over the years, and it leaves out some Design: Sid Meier critical facts. Sid and Bill kept their day jobs for the first several months, making MicroProse Publisher: MicroProse Genre: Arcade Flight one of many "garage operations" to appear in the budding computer industry in the '80s. It Difficulty: Easy would be some time before the "Bill and Sid show" became the corporate giant known as MicroProse (and even longer before financial troubles forced MicroProse's merger with Spectrum HoloByte - but that's another story). Needless to say, Sid needed more than a couple of weeks to design the game. Looking back on it, Solo Flight seems primitive, but it was a step up from the pitiful AI common in arcade machines of the era. In that respect, Sid achieved his goal, and the lessons he learned here would serve him in good stead when he moved on to Hellcat Ace (another 1984 release) and later to real flight sims like 1988's F-19 Stealth Fighter.
Bill Stealey and I were working for General Instrument Corporation. Bill was in business development and I was a systems analyst. I had finally gotten a personal computer - which was the Atari 800 - probably six months before. I had really held off on getting a personal computer because they were all very hardware oriented. But the Atari 800 came out, and it was finally a computer that didn't have switches and paper tape - you could actually program it - so I got into making some games on it.
I ran into Bill Stealey who is always telling his Air Force stories, so he started telling them. I said, "Well you know, I like computer games and I'm working on one with airplanes in it," and he said, "Oh? Let's start a business." And I said, "Well, that's an interesting idea."
We wandered around - this was in Las Vegas - and we dropped by this arcade which had a game called Red Baron, a World War I airplane game. Bill sat down and played it, and he shot down a couple planes, and then he kind of got wasted. Then I sat down and played it, and I shot down a lot more planes. He said, "How
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (2 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot)
did you do that? I'm a hotshot Air Force fighter jockey. You can't be shooting down more planes than me." And I said, "Well, I noticed just watching the game that the key is you don't want to let them get behind you. When they get behind you, there's no way you can ever shoot them down." So he said, "Hey, that's pretty clever."
There was a bond made there. I think Bill respected the fact that there was maybe more to these computer games, but he was interested in the sales and marketing side, and he had kind of the drive and the personality, and I was interested in the creative side and how these games were put together and what made them tick and what the strategies were and things like that.
So we kind of shortly after that decided to form MicroProse, and it started off very small. The irony is we thought we were behind the curve, that the industry had already peaked, and we were just trying to catch up. This was like 1981, 1982. In hindsight, it was a great time, the timing was excellent. It was still a time when a couple guys in a basement could duplicate their own disks, put them in plastic baggies with a four-page photocopied manual, and actually sell a product like that. It was a great learning experience. I think a lot of what makes me kind of able to keep doing games is the fact that I was there at the beginning and that I don't have to play catch-up all the time. It's kind of like I've been there since the start, so I've seen the evolution and have a bit of a sense of history and perspective.
Silent Service (1985) If a game such as Silent Service tried to pass itself off as a simulation in today's realism-and-detail-are-everything market, it would be torpedoed almost before it left port. In 1985, however, action-oriented sims were only a couple of notches more realistic than arcade games, and Silent Service fit the bill quite nicely, becoming MicroProse's (and Sid Meier's) first big hit. As the commander of a United States submarine during WWII, you rushed around your vessel Design: Sid Meier Publisher: MicroProse doing almost everything yourself: sighting the enemy in your periscope, figuring out a firing solution Genre: for your target, and even loading the torpedoes into the tubes. All this activity was hardly Action/Simulation appropriate for a captain, but it was fun - and it brought you into intimate contact with your sub in a Difficulty: Easy big hurry. And let's be fair: It would have been hard for Sid (or anyone else) to have a lot of high-detail crew members taking orders and running around the screen on a Commodore 64, the launch platform for this game. The WWII missions were interesting but featured neither the defining campaign of Sid's later Gunship nor the gritty realism of Red Storm Rising. The sequel, Silent Service II, improved on a lot of Meier's concepts and added much-improved graphics and sound. But it would be a mistake to simply dismiss the original. Silent Service is a perfect example of Sid's philosophy of "when fun and realism clash, fun wins." Submarine games were all the rage in 1985, and while most of them are now forgotten, gamers remember Silent Service fondly. With this game, Sid began to emerge as a designer who could bring a fresh approach to any genre, a talent that would serve him well for the rest of his career: a good example would be 1997's Sid Meier's Gettysburg.
MicroProse was a pretty linear evolution. We expanded by a factor of about three [employees] every year for quite a while. We started off with basically me writing the games, and I had a couple of my friends doing conversions (we all had day jobs; this was kind of our hobby). In those days, I was doing the Atari [conversion], but we also had to convert to Commodore, Apple, Sinclair; there was a whole bunch of machines running around. We gradually hired people. I think Andy Hollis, who now works at Origin, was the first programmer that came on board. We hired a salesperson. It was a pretty linear growth.
For the first year or so, we weren't sure where things were going, so we tried to use part-time people, but after that, we hired full-time people. MicroProse was one of the first companies to go to Europe and set up its own sales and marketing organization and start to build the European market. It helped MicroProse a lot. They were actually distributing products from other companies. But the early years were a pretty steady growth, reflecting what the PC industry was doing.
One thing that I remember from those days is that the console business was fluctuating wildly. The Atari 2600 was there, and all of a sudden it was gone, and the Mattel, and Intelevision. These consoles would come and go. It was an incredible boom and bust cycle in consoles, whereas, over in PCs, we were kind of gradually, steadily growing a little bit every year. So [the growth of] MicroProse reflected the PC orientation as opposed to riding the roller coaster of console stuff.
NATO Division Commander (1985) It was the era of complicated board wargames, where phone books passed for rules, and every time fun and realism clashed, realism took center stage. The knock on computer wargames at this time was their relative lack of sophistication. So, never one to shirk from a challenge, Sid decided that he could re-create the board game experience on a computer.
While his decision may seem strange in hindsight, keep in mind that virtually every other Design: Sid Meier Publisher: MicroProse strategy game designer was trying to do the same thing. Why? Simple: Avalon Hill and SPI Genre: Wargame board games were what the first generations of computer game designers had grown up with. Difficulty: Advanced And for all their flaws, the best of these games - such as Afrika Korps, Third Reich, and Terrible Swift Sword - were bona fide classics well worth emulating.
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (3 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot)
Theoretically, with the computer handling all of the tedious bookkeeping chores, NATO should have been much simpler than a board game to play. It wasn't. Rather than formulating a strategy to keep the Warsaw Pact from overrunning Europe, most players spent time fighting the steep learning curve. Reviewers at the time evidently loved the game, but I suspect most of them were intimidated. What NATO taught Sid was that complexity is never a substitute for depth. Later, Sid wargames would either be much simpler - and more fun - or (as with Civilization) would make their complexity more digestible with easily understood subsystems.
I played a lot of those kinds of games when I was a kid - the hexes and counters games - and I wanted to do one on the computer. I did NATO Commander. I probably learned that that was not a real fruitful direction to go. I think that style of game is OK on the computer, but you lose almost as much as you gain by putting it on the computer. You lose the scope of the map, the ability to take in everything at once. It's fun to have an opponent there all the time that the computer gives you, but I'm not sure those games are dramatically more fun on a computer than they are on paper. Whereas a game like Pirates or a game like F-15 or a game like Civilization are games that really are only as much fun as they are on the computer.
So the lessons from NATO Commander are probably more negative ones than positive. I thought it was a cool game, but it wasn't a direction where there was a lot more for me to do there.
Conflict in Vietnam (1985) Vietnam is a sensitive subject for Americans, even now, which makes it all the more surprising in retrospect that MicroProse would do a game on the subject. Truth is, if the game had been designed by anyone other than Sid Meier, MicroProse wouldn't have even considered it. Conflict in Vietnam was designed in the early stage of Sid's career, which is best characterized as a relentless search for identity. Sid's enthusiasm, so evident in games such as Sid Meier's Pirates or Silent Service (both of which he would design in the next two years), was severely dampened here - mainly because everyone associated with the project wanted to treat the subject seriously. On the other hand, Conflict in Vietnam was more accessible than NATO Division Commander, another high-complexity wargame designed by Sid during this period. It isn't as accurate a Design: Sid Meier Publisher: MicroProse treatment as Nick Karp's old Vietnam board game (ironically designed about the same time Genre: Turn-Based Wargame and of similar complexity - you can still find copies in auctions at summer game conventions Difficulty: Advanced like GenCon or Origins). If you're dying for a campaign-style Sid game, you're much better off playing the lighter affairs of Crusade in Europe or Decision in the Desert (provided you can find a Commodore 64 emulator). Or better yet, play some of the excellent scenario packs for Civilization II.
I think there are different styles of gamers. I like some element of competition. I don't need a game that has a score permanently displayed, which winds up as you do better. I like the idea that I can play once and play again and then be able to compare the two times and say, "I'm going to go for a better score or whatever." So there's a kind of middle ground of gamers that like some competition, some idea of being able to make progress. There are other gamers that don't need that to play a game. [In games] like SimCity or Flight Simulator, the model is basically the reward. You're not being scored, and there's not a real sense of competition. Then there are gamers on the other side who play games where scoring is the only thing - a Mario Brothers or something - where basically you're just going for the next score, the next level, the next whatever. I don't think there's a right or wrong way. It's just that there's a spectrum, and I like games that have some of both.
Crusade in Europe and Decision in the Desert (1985) Crusade in Europe and Decision in the Desert marked Sid's departure from his more complex designs such as NATO Division Commander. Despite the fact that the manuals are too long (everyone knows that real gamers demand thorough manuals, then don't read them), these two titles are actually beer-and-pretzels games that have aged nicely. Problem is, if you don't have access to a Commodore 64 emulator, you can't play them (assuming you could stomach the ancient, cartoonish graphics). The games offered World War II conflict on an easily accessible scale, with minimal worries about logistics and other nonentertaining items. Basically, you accepted your role as Eisenhower or Montgomery and cut to the chase. The interfaces wouldn't stand up to the Warcraft IIs of today, but they were fairly clean for the time. The campaigns were interesting, and the computer opponents of both games put up a good fight (especially when you take into
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (4 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot) account the limitations of coding AI in 64K memory). Both games sold pretty well, but neither was a breakout hit. Overall, Decision in the Desert was more realistic (mainly because the North African campaign was fairly limited in scope), and Crusade in Europe was more sheer fun. Sid seems reticent about doing this kind of campaign-style game again, but given the recent success of similar games such as Panzer General, you never know.
My approach to game design in general is that I will find a topic, like pirates or the Civil War or civilization, and say, OK, what's cool about this topic? What are the cool payoffs, and what's the fun that I want to have? And then I decide what's the genre that it falls into; what's the system that will do that.
A good example is Civilization. I knew I wanted a game [of Civilization] to start small, then build into this big, kind of Risk/Empire conquer-the-world kind of game. Design: Sid Meier My first approach was to take the SimCity real-time genre and say I'll do it in this genre. But after I played for a Publisher: MicroProse while, I decided this doesn't work. I need a different system to get the effect that I want. I went back to more of an Empire kind of Genre: Turn-Based Wargame approach. Difficulty: Easy
I don't go about writing games to fit into a genre, make the topic fit the genre. It's more find the topic and figure out what style of gaming, what genre, is going to make it fun. That was certainly true of Pirates!, that I knew I wanted all the key scenes of a pirate movie: the ship battle, the sword fighting, all the characters. But I realized that it doesn't all fit into one genre. We needed some adventure, we needed to travel, we needed action scenes, we needed all these different things. So I did it as a hybrid basically because that was the only way to get all the cool things that I thought needed to be in the game into the game.
Sid Meier's Pirates! (1987) It debuted on the Commodore 64 and soon became one of the most popular games ever on the Macintosh. Sid Meier's Pirates! reached its creative peak, however, on the Amiga, where its sumptuous graphics and full stereo soundtrack - featuring a marvelous pirate soundtrack by Jeff Briggs - weren't surpassed on the PC for almost a decade. Ostensibly, it's an adventure/role-playing game, where you attempt to carve out a nefarious reputation for your pirate captain before retiring or meeting with an untimely end. But at times, Pirates! is also a fast-action game, where you engage in sword fights (with your choice of refined rapier, basic longsword, or bloody cutlass) and exchange broadsides between vessels on the high seas. There is a definite strategy element, as you explore the Caribbean, traveling from one port to another in search of gold to plunder and enemies to overcome. Pirates! is even a real-time wargame - several years before these surged in popularity - as you maneuver Design: Sid Meier with your scurvy dogs over grassland, hills, and even swamps to approach walled towns, fighting Arnold Hendrick Publisher: MicroProse everyone from townspeople armed with farm implements to elite Spanish pikemen and Genre: Action/Adventure/ cavalry. RPG/Strategy/Wargame Difficulty: Easy To this day, Pirates! is unique in offering the right balance of real-time and turn-based gaming. If you are into resource management, you can handle your ship's inventories and pore over virtual charts at leisure before leaving port, but once the anchor is raised, the game keeps moving as you meet one adventure after another. And as with any great Sid Meier game, there is always plenty to do. Buying pieces of obscure maps may lead you to your long-lost sister or even buried treasure. After meeting with the colony governor to negotiate a Letter of Marque, you can converse with his beautiful daughters, flirting or even proposing marriage via a multiple choice menu. It's hard to imagine a game more steeped in enjoyable period flavor - both historical and Hollywood - than Sid Meier's Pirates! It's unquestionably the best hybrid game ever designed for any platform, offering something for everyone, regardless of what gaming genre they usually prefer. Unless you're one of the few remaining Amiga faithful, pick up the Pirates! Gold version for the PC - just make sure to get the patch.
Pirates! just struck a chord with a lot of people. It was pretty unexpected, but I still get people who talk to me about Pirates! and say "When are you going to do another version of Pirates!?" or "That game was a lot of fun." Pirates! was basically my reaction to the adventure/RPG games that I'd played, and being frustrated with the games that were all about hit points and charisma points and pick up the stick.
For me, that was frustrating. I didn't want to spend three hours building up my hit points so I could challenge the next opponent. The idea of telling a story was kind of cool. The method it was being done in was very hackneyed. I don't know whether it came from paper gaming. It seemed to really not be computer-oriented - not what computers could do with adventures. So I did Pirates!. I thought, "This is the way I would like to see an adventure game done." Forget the points, the mathematics - just have an adventure. Go do things and wander around this world.
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (5 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot)
It was also a reaction against what I call the pick-up-the-stick games. You know, go in a room, look at the lamp, look at the drawer, open the drawer, close the door, turn on the light. Pirates! was a menu game; you had four options. You didn't have to worry about exhaustively investigating your environment for an hour before you had any fun. The idea was that there were three reasonable things you could do - pick one and move on. So it was kind of an adventure game for people who didn't like adventure games in a way, who weren't really into that technology of adventure gaming. A lot of people seemed to respond to that.
Red Storm Rising (1987) Before Tom Clancy became a weapons expert, political analyst, TV mogul, and a veritable network unto himself, he was just a storyteller - one talented enough to transform the arcane sensibilities of modern warfare into something fascinating for the average Joe. And while Clancy never became a hard-core gamer, Tom liked games; in particular, he liked the idea of turning his novels into games, for which the combat-rich Red Storm Rising novel was perfectly suited.
In 1985, TSR (the Dungeons & Dragons folks) sold some 60,000 copies of a Red Storm Rising Design: Sid Meier and Arnold Hendrick Publisher: board game (which is still worth picking up, if you're interested) based on a land conflict MicroProse Genre: Simulation between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces in Europe. So, when MicroProse signed the contract Difficulty: Intermediate to with Clancy for a computer title, Sid wanted to do something different: a modern naval game. Advanced In Red Storm Rising, you portray a submarine captain, but all of the cozy arcade accouterments from Sid's earlier Silent Service are replaced by a gritty techno-realistic look. The game is played over a series of multiple sonar arrays, together with torpedo tracking and threat displays - enough grids to make you swear off graph paper forever - but it also offers plenty of eye candy, in the form of sinking ships and missile launches, to keep you coming back for more. The missions are the most varied of all Sid Meier sims: You stalk Soviet ICBM subs under the Arctic ice cap; stop your enemy from landing commando forces in Iceland; slip just offshore of the Karelian peninsula and level a land base with Tomahawk missiles; even get into "knife fights" with hunter-killer submarines. Tom Clancy is so expensive now as to render the question of a Red Storm Rising II moot, which is a real shame. More recent submarine simulations, such as SSI's Silent Hunter, may offer more photo-realistic instrument displays, but nothing can quite capture the feel of involvement and psychological realism found in Red Storm Rising. Each time Red Storm Rising was ported to another platform, it was tweaked to take advantage of each platform's strengths. If you use headphones when playing the Amiga version, for example, the sound quality is such that you learn to identify enemy vessels by their unique propeller noises - you feel almost like a real sonar operator! And as you win or lose missions, the fate of the free world hangs in the balance. A bit melodramatic? Perhaps, but it's a wonderful way to design a game.
Red Storm Rising was the only license I've done. We wanted to do a modern submarine simulation, especially after Silent Service had been pretty successful. When I read the book Red Storm Rising, I really enjoyed it. I was really leery of doing licenses, but Bill (Stealey) kind of convinced me. It was actually not as complicated as we thought, but we had to kind of be approved by Tom Clancey. So we went one day to Tom Clancey's house, having no idea what to expect. He was a very friendly guy. Bill of course went into fighter pilot mode and told him all his war stories, and basically Tom just wanted to make sure we were OK guys and would do an OK job with this product.
Tom had written Red Storm Rising with Larry Bond, who was kind of the hard-core, harpoon, really knew the nuts and bolts of submarines and things like that. So he was the guy I basically dealt with most. It was a productive and a good relationship, but I did get a sense [for the first time] that I really prefer to work on my own and make the final decisions. We had a good relationship with Red Storm Rising, but I could see how with a license, things would get to a point where you as a designer want to do one thing for gameplay purposes, but the licensee would have other ideas. So I've stayed away from licenses since Red Storm Rising.
Red Storm Rising amazed me in that it went too far in the sim obscurity direction. You have a screen with some dots running around and some numbers flashed up and people bought that as.... I mean, I knew what was happening, but the fact that with fairly rudimentary graphics you could convince people that they were in a submarine, and missiles were dropping in the water and circling around searching for them. I gave people a lot of credit for getting it, because I think the actual presentation is on the fuzzy edge of being a little too obscure. But again, if you were into the topic, you really liked it, and a lot of people seemed to enjoy that game. I wouldn't put it on my top ten list of my games, but I think it was... it took the topic seriously and did the best it could with a pretty obscure topic.
F-19 Stealth Fighter (1988) A minority of vocal hard-core flight sim fanatics will try to convince you that anything prior to Falcon 3.0 is closer to a jazzed-up arcade experience than a true simulation. How ironic it is, then, that MicroProse's later F-117A flight sim hasn't held up nearly as well as F-19 Stealth Fighter, which was published before the government's announcement of the real-life F-117 stealth fighter. As with his later Red Storm Rising, Sid Meier showed in F-19 Stealth Fighter that he could make a simulation - using declassified data augmented with a
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (6 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot) sound physics model and some shrewd guesswork - that was accurate enough to please the enthusiast and a great enough game to make flight sim fans out of everyone else. F-19 Stealth Fighter hearkens to an earlier age when a 1MB PC (notably the Amiga) was the hottest gaming machine on the market, and though its gloss is somewhat faded now when compared with more recent Gouraud-shaded simulators, F-19 Stealth Fighter still offers one thrilling ride. Without the multifunction joysticks and throttles of today, pilots of the mythical F-19 had to manage with keyboard overlays and hot keys; yet the game still provided challenges unique to Design: Sid Meier with Arnold flight simulations of the day. Hendrick Publisher: MicroProse Although the F-19 was adequately armed (free-fall and guided bombs, Vulcan 20mm cannon, Genre: Flight Sim and over a half-dozen missile types for land, sea, and/or air), the electronic profile and stealth Difficulty: Intermediate elements were so well done that it was often more fun to avoid a dogfight than to engage in one. So, even considering the holes in the simulation - keep in mind that the real stealth fighter wasn't yet built - the game took on the nature of a "thinking man's sim," a real departure from the reflex-heavy simulators of the time. The missions in particular were especially well-designed, as they involved sneaking around through a variety of enemy defenses. Perhaps the most intriguing thing about the game was how surprisingly similar it was to actual Desert Storm sorties years later.
I thought Stealth Fighter was a great game. There were times playing that game where I was totally into it. I remember one time floating over Baghdad and going as slow as possible, and I totally believed that I just had to do this or else they were going to pick me up on their radar. It was one of the first games that gave me that Doom feeling of playing on the edge of your seat. It was called Stealth Fighter, so we had to add the stealth effect, but it was really refreshing to me to have a game that wasn't about destroying 70 planes in one mission. That was an element of flight simulators that had gotten out of hand to me, so this added another dimension.
It was pretty leading edge in terms of 3D technology. It was a time when we were making really neat strides in 3D, and they really had a payoff - they were not only better looking, but gave you more gameplay than you had before. I think these days, 3D's getting better, in that it looks better, but I'm not sure that it adds a whole lot to gameplay. Which is not to say it's bad, but I think that in those days, the increases in 3D technology and the better 3D action gave you a better game to play.
The tracking cam was something I'm still proud of. The problem with flight simulators had been that you are basically fighting a dot out there on the screen, but you would read these books about fighter combat, and it's about all these cool split-S maneuvers and things like that. In a flight simulator, you couldn't do that, because you couldn't tell what the other plane was doing. It was either a dot, or for a split second, it was a big plane, and then it would be behind you or whatever. Since we were doing a hi-tech plane, we invented this tracking camera, which, in the corner (of the screen), gave you a view of what the other plane was doing. So, for once, you could tell what the other plane was doing - it's a dot out there, but I can tell it's going to the left, so I'm going to anticipate. You'd start to get into actually doing real fighter plane types of maneuvers.
Once we had that, we added all the different camera views. I think we were the first to do a game where you could actually pick among seven or eight different cameras: the camera that rode on your missile, the camera that always kept you and the other airplane in the same shot, the reverse view. We found that just being in the cockpit all the time was not enough information. Those ideas came out of gameplay, but I think they became part of the technology of flight simulators.
Gunship (1997) In the late '80sand early '90s, flight simulators were where most of the ground-breaking work was being done in computer games - a fact reflected in the sales figures. MicroProse thus built its early empire by becoming the undisputed champion of flight sims, and it was games like Gunship that got them there. The dream design team combined the talents of Sid Meier and veteran strategy/simulation designer Arnold Hendrick with newcomer Andy Hollis (now the head of Jane's Combat Simulations for Electronic Arts) to produce the first chopper product on the computer to be both a reasonable simulation and an enjoyable game - a feat that seems beyond most of today's sim designers. The polygon-filled graphics moved quickly - especially when you consider that Gunship debuted on the 8-bit Commodore 64. It's rare that you see a sim today largely controlled via keyboard, but Gunship's keyboard overlay worked brilliantly, offering an easy enough learning Design: Sid Meier, Andy curve that the design team didn't have to skimp on the helicopter feel (can you imagine trying Hollis, Arnold Hendrick Publisher: MicroProse to fit one of these overlays over today's ergonomic keyboards?). Flight sim veterans and casual Genre: Flight Sim gamers alike found the relatively sluggish controls of the AH-64A Apache a refreshing change Difficulty: Intermediate compared to the reflex-demanding jet simulations of the day. Obviously, newer simulations have passed Gunship by graphically, but few of them modeled more hi-tech toys - inertial navigation systems, anti-torque tail rotors, 30mm chain guns, flare decoys, radar jammers, and a treasure
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (7 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Civilization Fanatics' Center: Sid Meier's Legacy (GameSpot) trove of rockets and missiles, among others - or presented them in such a nonthreatening manner to the would-be chopper pilot. Gunship was the first sim to offer character continuity through a linked series of missions, with such nice touches as R&R for fatigued pilots and the option to pass on hazardous missions by taking sick leave. Although Gunship spawned a host of imitators, it's significant that it took Andy Hollis years to finally surpass the original with Jane's Longbow and Longbow 2, games that match the excitement of Gunship with the increased realism and performance available with today's PC technology.
It was fun doing a helicopter game after doing all those airplane games; a whole different flight model was a fun thing to do. I think of Gunship as something where we did a lot of 3D work. I remember sitting with Andy (Hollis) and trying to get this frame rate to come up on a 4.77 IBM PC. We did a calculation and we figured we'd only draw the screen physically three times a second. We really put a lot of work into 3D speed in that game. I remember sitting with Andy and him saying, "Sid, I need one more optimization run. I know you can come up with one more idea." We'd brainstorm about how we were going to get some speed out of this 3D stuff or how could we simplify the equation and how could we simplify the drawing. We really pulled our hair out to get a kind of a frame rate that we were satisfied with. In the interest of gameplay, it had to move at a certain speed. We were going to rip stuff out if it didn't speed up.
Page 2 of 2: The Classics are Born: 1990 to Present >>
Civilization Fanatics' Center
http://www.civfanatics.com/sidlegacy/ (8 of 8) [2/25/2001 8:22:04 PM] Welcome to the Civ III Preview: the FAQ (General FAQs)
The Civilization III FAQ: General v1.1, Last Updated 1/2001 FAQ Contents I. Introduction III. General II. Website III. General
● What is the status of Civilization III? ● What can we expect from Civilization III? ● What is the connection between Sid Meier's Civilization III, Civilization, Alpha Centauri and Call to Power? ● Who's publishing the game? ● When is Civ III scheduled for release? ● What will Sid Meier's role be in the making of Civilization III? ● What will the system requirements be for the game? ● Are there any plans for Civilization III to be made for the Mac, Linux or other gaming platforms? ● Will there be multiplayer support for Civ III?
What is the status of Civilization III? We're happy to report that the dedicated team of programmers, designers, artists, sound and network engineers are working full throttle on the game. We already have a really fun playable prototype and we will continue to play it - adding, tweaking and polishing as we go along. As we get closer to the finish line we'll announce an official release date. We'll be posting regular updates on the game's progress on this site, so stay tuned.
What can we expect from Civ III? The short answer is simply the best strategy game experience you've ever had! We will accomplish this by keeping the components that made Civilization I and II incredibly addictive and fun games and adding new elements and features that complement and enhance the existing system. In addition, we've built a completely new graphic engine that will provide the most stunning maps, animations and graphics you've ever seen in this genre of game. Here are some of our key objectives in developing the best Civilization game you've ever played: ● New game play features that deepen and enrich the Civilization experience - more fun and interesting decision-making, new paths to take to victory, greatly enhanced combat and diplomacy and new ways to win. ● The most polished cutting-edge animations, art and sound ever found in the genre. ● New interface and reporting screens to accommodate the most seasoned Civilization players and those who are picking it up for the first time. ● More powerful and intuitive customization tools. http://www.firaxis.com/civ3/faq-general.cfm (1 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:03 PM] Welcome to the Civ III Preview: the FAQ (General FAQs)
● Full set of integrated, multiplayer options including LAN, Internet and hotseat play. ● And that's just a few of the ways we'll improve the Civ experience. Stay tuned for all the details!
I'm sooo confused. What is the connection between Sid Meier's Civilization III, Civilization, Alpha Centauri and Call to Power? The Sid Meier's Civilization series is one of the most successful and beloved game series ever created. Sid Meier and many members of the Firaxis team created Civilization I and II while working at MicroProse (now Hasbro). Many members of the Civilization II team left MicroProse to form Firaxis Games. Now, Hasbro and Firaxis have reunited to bring you the one and only Sid Meier's Civilization III.
In 1998, Firaxis Games released Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, a turn-based science fiction strategy game. Alpha Centauri was extremely successful and had many game play innovations that advanced the turn-based genre. Firaxis Games will utilize many of the cool innovations made in Alpha Centauri in CivIII. In Civilization III you'll find borders (but even more realistic than in SMAC), unique benefits depending on the Civilization you choose, enhanced and more realistic diplomacy AI, build- queues and more ways to delegate commands for those who want to minimize micromanagement at later stages in the game. These are just some of the innovations that will be found in Civilization III and that made Alpha Centauri the highest rated PC game ever!
Activision is the developer of Call to Power and Call to Power II. There is no relationship between CivIII and Call to Power other than they originally shared Civilization in their title. Due to some legal wrangling between Hasbro and Activision, Call to Power will drop Civilization from its' title.
Who's publishing the game? Hasbro Interactive will publish the game.
When is Civ III scheduled for release? We have not officially announced a release date for Civilization III. Our goal is to give you the highest quality game software possible. We will announce a specific release date only when we feel we are very close to providing you the most polished, high-quality and fun product there is!
What will Sid Meier's role be in the making of Civilization III? Sid is the Director of Creative Development at Firaxis Games. He is overseeing the project, making game play and design decisions.
What will the system requirements be for the game? We haven't set any system requirements yet, but Firaxis has always been committed to keeping them as low as possible. We want this game to be playable on the widest possible variety of machines. At the same time, we will support the capabilities of higher-end systems.
Are there any plans for Civilization III to be made for the Mac, Linux or other gaming platforms? The publisher, Hasbro Interactive, makes decisions regarding ports to other platforms. Since this is a major release, you'll most likely see ports to other platforms, but there are no commitments yet. We'll keep you posted.
http://www.firaxis.com/civ3/faq-general.cfm (2 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:03 PM] Welcome to the Civ III Preview: the FAQ (General FAQs) Will there be multiplayer support for Civ III? You bet! We will have a variety of multiplayer options, including LAN, Internet, Hotseat, and PBEM.
LEGACY | GAME UPDATE | GALLERY | DOWNLOADS | COMMUNITY | FAQ
Legal Notice: All contents ©2000 Firaxis Games, Inc. All rights reserved. Sid Meier's Civilization III and Sid Meier's Civilization II are trademarks of Hasbro Interactive. Firaxis Games and Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri are trademarks of Firaxis Games, Inc. All other Trademarks are property of their respective owners.
Please note that this site is a preview site of a game in development. Everything you see on these pages is subject to change before the game is commercially available to the public.
http://www.firaxis.com/civ3/faq-general.cfm (3 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:03 PM] Game Credits for Sid Meier's Civilization
Title: Sid Meier's Civilization Keyword Search: Published By: MicroProse Developed By: MicroProse Copyright Year: 1991 more searches MobyScore: 4.3 (out of 5) Platform: DOS Rap Sheet: Genres: · Main Summary Managerial, Strategy » Credits [ more covers ] · Box Covers · Screenshots · Technical Specs Credits · Trivia · Tips & Tricks Lead Design Sid Meier, Bruce Shelley · Rating Breakdown · Advertising Blurb Programming Sid Meier · Links/Searches Graphics / Artwork Barbara Bents, Todd Brizzi, User Actions: Stacey Clark, Michael Haire, · Rate Game Brian Martel, Erroll Roberts, · Review Game Nicholas Rusko-Berger, · Contribute Chris Soares, Harry Teasley
Music Jeffery L. Briggs
Sound Ken Lagace, Jim McConkey
Packaging Moshe Milich
Documentation Laurie Baker, Iris Idokogi, B.C. Milligan, Terry Rund, Bruce Shelley, Susan Ullrich
Playtesting Arnold Hendrick, B.C. Milligan, Paul Murphy, Sandy Patterson, Doug Whatley
Quality Assurance Chris Clark, Mike Corcoran, Alan Roireau, Chris Taormino, Tim Train
Credits for this game were contributed by Chris Soares (11) and Brian Hirt (1781)
In addition to this game, the following people are listed as working on other
http://www.mobygames.com/game/credits/gameId=585/ (1 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:12 PM] Game Credits for Sid Meier's Civilization games in the MobyGames database: Sid Meier, 26 other games Ken Lagace, 19 other games Jeffery L. Briggs, 18 other games Jim McConkey, 18 other games Michael Haire, 16 other games Chris Taormino, 13 other games Alan Roireau, 13 other games Barbara Bents, 9 other games Iris Idokogi, 9 other games Bruce Shelley, 8 other games Arnold Hendrick, 8 other games Moshe Milich, 7 other games Tim Train, 6 other games Stacey Clark, 6 other games Harry Teasley, 5 other games Todd Brizzi, 5 other games Erroll Roberts, 5 other games Mike Corcoran, 5 other games Chris Soares, 5 other games Nicholas Rusko-Berger, 4 other games Brian Martel, 4 other games Chris Clark, 4 other games B.C. Milligan, 3 other games Susan Ullrich, 3 other games
People who have worked on this game have also collaborated on the creation of the following games: Darklands, a group of 14 people Night Hawk: F-117A Stealth Fighter 2.0, a group of 12 people Sid Meier's Civilization 2, a group of 10 people Sid Meier's CivNet, a group of 10 people Pirates! Gold, a group of 9 people Sword of the Samurai, a group of 8 people M1 Tank Platoon, a group of 8 people Red Storm Rising, a group of 8 people Sid Meier's Colonization, a group of 7 people Sid Meier's Covert Action, a group of 7 people F-19 Stealth Fighter, a group of 7 people Gunship 2000, a group of 7 people F-15 Strike Eagle II, a group of 7 people Knights of the Sky, a group of 6 people Sid Meier's Pirates!, a group of 6 people Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, a group of 5 people Sid Meier's Gettysburg, a group of 5 people F-15 Strike Eagle III, a group of 5 people 1942: The Pacific Air War Gold, a group of 5 people Return of the Phantom, a group of 5 people http://www.mobygames.com/game/credits/gameId=585/ (2 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:12 PM] Game Credits for Sid Meier's Civilization Railroad Tycoon, a group of 4 people Gunship, a group of 4 people Rex Nebular and The Cosmic Gender Bender, a group of 4 people 1942: The Pacific Air War, a group of 4 people Airborne Ranger, a group of 4 people Command H.Q., a group of 4 people Lightspeed, a group of 3 people Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire, a group of 3 people
MobyGames Copyright © 1999-2000, Jim Leonard and Brian Hirt. All rights reserved. Do not duplicate or redistribute in any form.
http://www.mobygames.com/game/credits/gameId=585/ (3 of 3) [2/25/2001 8:25:12 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers Citing Electronic Information in History Papers by Maurice Crouse Department of History, The University of Memphis
Copyright © 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 by Maurice Crouse. You may freely reproduce this document, provided that you reproduce it in its entirety and without any modification.
Introduction The Basis of My Recommendations Models and Examples Individual Works Parts of Works Periodicals and Journals Newspapers and Magazines Abstracts and Reviews of Individual Works Abstracts and Reviews of Periodicals and Journals Electronic Mail (Personal) Electronic Conferences, Interest Groups, Newsgroups (Usenet), and Lists Searches in Online Library Catalogs and Databases Government Publications and Legal Documents Finding and Using the Information for Citations Implications for Methodology Bibliography
Introduction:
New information media always present challenges to bibliographers, who must either adapt existing forms of documentation or devise new ones to maintain bibliographic control. The style guides that historians commonly use have not risen well to the challenge of electronic information -- information that has migrated to computer files. All the early guides failed to provide adequate means of citing it, giving sketchy treatment and few useful examples. These included Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), in secs. 9.121-2, 11.56-7, 12.20; The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), in secs. 15.421-4, 16.207-9; and Sue A. Dodd, of the Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Carolina, in an online paper in 1990 entitled Bibliographic References for Computer Files in the Social Sciences: A Discussion Paper (available online; see the bibliography of this paper). The 6th edition of the Turabian manual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), in secs. 8.139-41, 11.57, 12.1, and 12.20, added disappointingly few basic examples, so we are still awaiting a definitive standard in the discipline of history
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (1 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers for citing electronic information. In the meantime, I recommend that you consider the styles described below, in which I seek to make forms borrowed from various sources compatible with Turabian's traditional styles for history. (In early versions of this paper, I recommended the use of a reference list, on the assumption that if historians are sufficiently up-to-date to use electronic sources of information they are also sufficiently up-to-date to use newer forms of citation. Clearly, however, there still is a demand or preference on the part of many historians for the older forms of bibliography and footnotes or endnotes, so I now include them, too.) The beginning point is Xia Li and Nancy B. Crane, Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information (Westport, CT: Meckler, 1993). Li and Crane, reference librarians at the Bailey/Howe Library, University of Vermont-Burlington, advocated a style based on the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 3d ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1983). In turn, in its 4th edition (published 1994) the APA's manual incorporated their style as its standard for citing electronic information (sec. 3.102 and Appendix 3-A, sec. I. Electronic Media, examples 72-7). Li and Crane had some influence on Joseph Gibaldi, in secs. 4.8.1-6, 4.9.1-3, 4.10.7, B.1.7-8, and B.1.9.g of MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 4th ed. (New York: Modern Languages Association of America, 1995), secs. 4.9.1-9 of MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 5th ed. (New York: Modern Languages Association of America, 1999), and sec. 6.9 of MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, 2d ed. (New York: Modern Languages Association of America, 1998). Because no early published style guide other than Li and Crane's dealt extensively with electronic information, many scholars wrote papers which summarized Li and Crane's recommendations, adapted or extended them for a particular academic discipline, or advocated a substantially different approach, such as an extended MLA style of citation. Janice Walker, Department of English, South Florida University, is the central figure among advocates of the MLA style. The Alliance for Computers and Writing endorsed the recommendations in her paper, MLA-Style Citations of Electronic Sources. However, in their paper, Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet (available online; see the bibliography of this paper), Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger, Eastern Kentucky University, argued that these recommendations needed amending to avoid ambiguity. The outcome is a very much improved citation system in Janice R. Walker and Todd Taylor, The Columbia Guide to Online Styles (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), a portion of which is available online (see the bibliography of this paper). The guide contains forms for both "humanistic styles" and "scientific styles." In 1996, Li and Crane published a revised edition of their book, which reflected the influence of many of the papers mentioned above or listed in the bibliography of this paper. Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc., 1996) includes revised forms for both "APA embellished style" and "MLA embellished style" citations, and a few examples of footnotes and endnotes -- but no "Turabian embellished style." In my view, their new forms are much better than the old ones. The forms in the 1993 edition were fairly consistent for all types of media, but they broke up Internet Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) into unnatural "chunks" of information. The new forms are fairly consistent, too, and allow perfectly natural citations of URLs at the small cost of making citations of CD-ROMs and dial-up information service databases in the APA style look like URLs. Some historians might find Li and Crane's MLA style acceptable, because it is not remarkably different from Turabian's bibliographic style. Fewer, perhaps, might find their APA style congenial, although it resembles Turabian's reference-list style. Most historians have been trained in Turabian's styles, have used them all their academic lives, and would prefer to keep as much of them as possible. The only person before me, to my knowledge, who has tried specifically to adapt Turabian's styles to electronic information in a fairly comprehensive way is Melvin Page, Department of History, East Tennessee State University, in A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources in History and the Humanities (available online; see the bibliography of this paper). Harnack and Kleppinger think that his recommendations need amending, too, to avoid ambiguity. I agree that there are shortcomings. Furthermore, in common with most writers on citing electronic information, Page deals only with sources from the Internet and omits forms of citations for CD-ROMs and dial-up information services. He advocates the use of a bibliography and notes and has no forms for a reference list. Early in 1997 Harnack and Kleppinger published Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997; rev. 2000), in which a chapter entitled "Using Chicago Style to Cite and Document Sources" incorporates their improvements on Page's models. Like Page, however, they deal only with Internet sources, and their models are still not quite what I think Turabian style should be. (In addition to Chicago style, they also have a chapter on
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (2 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers MLA style, and they have two sets of models for reference lists, one based on APA style and the other on Council of Biology Editors style.) Although Li and Crane did not attempt to create a "Turabian embellished style," I believe that their forms can be adapted to Turabian. At first glance, admittedly, these forms look very unfamiliar to persons schooled in the Turabian tradition. Li and Crane add labels such as "Online" or "CD-ROM" which they call "Type of medium" statements. In a striking departure from traditional methods of citation, they substitute for the usual information on place and publisher of printed works an "Available" statement giving the electronic medium where the information can be found. They include two dates for electronic information: the date of the last revision of the work, if it is known, and, at the end of the citation, the date on which the computer search was made (the "Access date"). Besides this, history students will probably consider the spelling, spacing, punctuation, and capitalization of URLs very odd indeed, quite unlike anything to which they have been accustomed. But Turabian documentation has always changed as the nature of information itself has changed, and now, to enable the adequate citing of radically different kinds of information, it needs to change its forms of citation radically, too.
The Basis of My Recommendations:
While I begin with Li and Crane's recommendations as the foundation for my own, I depart from them on both major and minor points. In their APA style (but not in their MLA style), Li and Crane attach the "Type of medium" label firmly to the title of the publication. It seems to me to be much more closely related to the means of access, so I have moved it to the "Available" statement. Li and Crane provide separate forms of citations for each of the various protocols used on the Internet for transferring electronic information, such as FTP, Gopher, HTTP, and others. For two reasons, I prefer to cast all Internet citations into forms that use URLs, the "lingua franca" of the World Wide Web: ● Li and Crane supply very large numbers of forms that are very much alike, differing from each other in only a few details. The use of URLs very substantially reduces the number of distinct forms required. ● A World Wide Web browser is a "Swiss Army knife" for the Internet -- it can access almost any information, using almost any protocol. The time is fast approaching, if it has not already arrived, when we can assume that researchers on the Internet will be using the World Wide Web. URLs do not solve all problems, however; they can complicate as well as simplify. For example, searches for information on the Internet sometimes activate Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts or lead to search engines. These often require the researcher to choose from menu items or to enter search terms which will result in information being returned. It is true that in both theory and practice, once the information has been retrieved it can always be represented by a URL, but the resulting URL may be absurdly long and intricate. For example, a report from the U.S. General Accounting Office could be represented in reference-list form by:
U.S. General Accounting Office. 1995. U.S. Vietnam relations: Issues and implications. Available [Online]: http://bubba.ucc.okstate.edu/cgi-bin/GPOretrieve?target=wais. access.gpo.gov:210&base=gao&type=TEXT&size=62546&docid=3= 0%20-62546%20/diskb/wais/data/gao/ns95042.txt;7=%00;&images=0 [25 October 1996].
This citation, although correct and useable, is unacceptably complicated. There are two ways to improve it. One is to enclose the basic address within angle brackets, a common convention on the Internet (the brackets are not part of the
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (3 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers address; they are delimiters to show where the address begins and ends). The other is to return partially to Li and Crane's earlier (1993) system of documentation and use elements labeled "Select," "Search," "Message," "Subject," or other descriptive terms, to identify keystrokes that must be entered once the address has been reached. The previous citation could become:
U.S. General Accounting Office. 1995. U.S. Vietnam relations: Issues and implications. Available [Online]:
This citation has several advantages over the original: it is simpler and easier to understand; it reflects more accurately how the original researcher actually found the document; and it makes URLs easier to distinguish from other kinds of information about access. Harnack and Kleppinger make the important point that there can be many equivalents of the same electronic address. This principle is obvious in the example above. Persons who prefer prefer to make citations that reflect the "step by step" access that is natural to Gopher may use it for that purpose. My preference is for a form which, if used with a World Wide Web browser, leads directly to the information:
About The University of Memphis. 6 June 1995. Available [Online]:
But there is no inherent reason for rejecting a "hybrid" form which, although it looks very different, leads to the same information:
About The University of Memphis. 6 June 1995. Available [Online]:
The same "hybrid" form can relieve an especially troublesome problem in documenting electronic information -- the need at times to distinguish between the electronic address and the content of a document or the sequence of commands, path names, or keystrokes necessary to retrieve it from that address. Li and Crane's recommendations are not helpful with this problem. In an earlier version of this paper, following Li and Crane's model, I recommended the following citation:
H-Net jobs guide [Online]. 26 January 1996. Available e-mail: mailto:[email protected]/get h-net jobguide [30 January 1996].
What appears to be a Path name or a File name is actually the body of the message that is to be sent, but it perhaps is not obvious that there are two very different kinds of information in the "Available" statement. The citation could more accurately become:
H-Net jobs guide. 26 January 1996. Available email [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (4 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers This "hybrid" form is not elegant. But it is less misleading than Li and Crane's forms and, at the moment, it is the best way I can think of to represent the required information without confusion. The 5th edition of the MLA Handbook (sec. 4.9.3a-b) has abandoned the startling suggestion of the 4th edition (sec. 4.9.3a-b) that access information about an online document is optional or merely supplementary. It now recognizes, as do all recent guides, that Li and Crane (pp. 97, 103) are correct in insisting that an "Available" statement is essential in an electronic citation. This edition also omits the recommendation of the 4th edition (secs. 4.8.2a, 4.8.3-6, 4.9.2a, 4.9.3a-b) that if the electronic work has a printed counterpart, the information for the printed source should precede the information for the electronic source. Li and Crane (p. 100) still recommend citing both sources. I do not follow this reasoning. If a printed source is conveniently available, you should use it alone and cite it in preference to the electronic source; if you use an electronic source, you should cite it alone (see the section of this paper entitled "Implications for Methodology"). My other departures from Li and Crane's forms are less substantial. I think that Li and Crane's forms for citing postings in lists, Usenet newsgroups, and email need some changes. There are also in other forms a few small adaptations in citing volume, issue, and page numbers; in dates; and in the order of the names of multiple authors, mostly to bring them in line with Turabian.
Models and Examples:
Below are the most common forms, inspired by Li and Crane but adapted to Turabian, with both general models and specific examples. My aim is to retain, as much as possible, the familiar appearance of the forms recommended by Turabian (critics will possibly judge that I have been able to salvage very little indeed), while giving access information that is complete, consistent, and without ambiguity. I do not discuss here such matters as the arrangement of the entries within the reference list or bibliography, the use of parenthetical references in the text or notes, or the placement of footnotes or endnotes, because Turabian fully explains them. The models are as general as possible. Usually, if the model calls for an item that is missing from the information you are citing, you may simply pass over it to the next item. The only exceptions are with dates, as indicated below, where you must be careful to place the date second in a reference list entry and make the notation "No date" if the date is missing from any kind of entry. On the other hand, you may occasionally have to consult the Turabian manual for guidance on citations that are more complicated than the general ones given here. But such complications as books in a named series with a series editor, or multi-volume works with separate volume titles, seldom occur with electronic information. These forms assume an author or editor for each entry. If there is neither, the title becomes the first item, as some of the examples show. (Observe that in a reference list, the date of publication is always the second element in the citation.) Documents that stand alone, such as entire databases, computer sites (FTP, Gopher, Telnet, World Wide Web), online papers, and email messages, are treated as books. Conferences, interest groups, Usenet newsgroups, and lists are treated as periodicals, and the postings that appear in them are treated as articles. A "message" may, therefore, be an individual work in one setting and an article in another, and a single-page online paper will have a citation form that is indistinguishable from that of a thousand-page book that appears online. Long-time users of Turabian documentation will doubtless find these conventions strange. Li and Crane nowhere explain fully the philosophy behind them but hint (pp. 4, 80-2, 99, 182-4) that they rest upon a distinction between that information which is serial and that which is nonserial in nature. (Li and Crane consider some databases to be serial, others nonserial; I find this distinction more troublesome than useful and do not observe it.) Observe that in citing electronic information there is no such category as unpublished material. Everything that is available online is published in some sense. Nearly all of the examples given below have known dates of publication. If an entry lacks this information, put "No date"
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (5 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers at the proper place; do not leave this item blank. Except for "Usenet," "email," and similar protocols, you may omit the protocol type ater the word "Available" because the necessary information appears in the URL. Because of physical limitations on line length, URLS in their printed form may appear divided on more than one line. Ideally, the line division should come after one of the / characters, but, if necessary, it may come after any of the punctuation characters (such as . or -) that are actually part of the URL. A hyphen is always taken to be part of the URL; never use a hyphen to indicate continuation of the URL. Be aware that on computer systems you must enter everything within the angle brackets as one continuous string of characters from start to finish. Moreover, you must observe meticulously the spelling, spacing, capitalization, and punctuation, or the attempt to access the information will fail. Omit the item "Additional" if the URL is sufficient to retrieve the information. If you use it, label it "Select," "Search," "Message," "Subject," or whatever descriptive term is needed. As in the example above, repeat the item as many times as necessary to assure completeness. The examples sometimes show, in square brackets, optional supplementary information about the nature of the document being cited. You should furnish such information when it will be helpful to the reader. For example, you might improve citations of newspapers by such notations as "News item," "Editorial," "Personal column," or "Editorial cartoon." The examples show only "Online" and "CD-ROM," the most common types of media. Other common types are "Diskette" and "Magnetic tape." Li and Crane remark that users of a local area network may not be able to identify the ultimate type of the medium; they suggest (pp. 5-6, 103) the generic designator "Electronic" for those cases. You should use the best descriptive term available. The forms and examples for notes show no note numbers, because their placement and style may vary. Turabian (secs. 8.10, 14.14) says to place the numbers for endnotes on the line (not superscript), followed by a period; numbers for footnotes may be like those for endnotes or they may be superscript (without a period) and possibly in a smaller size of type. Some of the forms show only one model because the information usually occurs in only one electronic medium (for example, email).
Individual Works:
Reference List:
Author or Editor. Date. Title of work. Edition. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Kehoe, Brian P. 1992. Zen and the art of the Internet. 2d ed. Available [Online]:
Dissertation abstracts ondisc [Bibliographic database]. 1861- [Years of coverage]. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [11 November 1996].
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (6 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
H-Net jobs guide. 26 January 1996. Available email [Online]:
Crouse, Maurice. 7 September 1999. Citing electronic information in history papers. Available [Online]:
The University of Memphis Anonymous FTP Archive. 25 August 1998 [Last update]. Available [Online]:
Palmer, Pamela. 24 February 1998. Academic Writers' Net Source [Helps for writers]. Available [Online]:
Uncle Sam [WWW home page of Government Publications Department, Regional Depository Library, The University of Memphis]. 7 October 1998. Available [Online]:
Online Book Initiative [Public-domain electronic texts]. No date. Available [Online]:
Bibliography:
For the bibliographic form the Turabian manual, 6th ed. (sec. 11.18), shows a comma separating the title from the edition. This is at odds with the sample bibliography (sec. 14.42); the manual's own "Selected Bibliography" (pp. 283-6); the corresponding form in the 5th ed. (sec. 11.19); and the corresponding form in The Chicago Manual of Style (sec. 15.132) -- all of which show a period separating the title from the edition. I conclude that the 6th ed. form must contain a typographical error.
Author or Editor. Title of Work. Edition. Date. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Kehoe, Brian. Zen and the Art of the Internet. 2d ed. 1992. Available [Online]:
Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [Bibliographic database]. 1861- [Years of coverage]. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [11 November 1996].
H-Net Jobs Guide. 26 January 1996. Available email [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (7 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
Crouse, Maurice. Citing Electronic Information in History Papers. 7 September 1999. Available [Online]:
The University of Memphis Anonymous FTP Archive. 25 August 1998 [Last update]. Available [Online]:
Palmer, Pamela. Academic Writers' Net Source [Helps for writers]. 24 February 1998. Available [Online]:
Uncle Sam [WWW home page of Government Publications Department, Regional Depository Library, The University of Memphis]. 7 October 1998. Available [Online]:
Online Book Initiative [Public-domain electronic texts]. No date. Available [Online]:
Note:
Author or Editor, Title of Work, edition (Date). Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Brian Kehoe, Zen and the Art of the Internet, 2d ed. (1992). Available [Online]:
Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [Bibliographic database] (1861- [Years of coverage]). Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc [11 November 1996].
H-Net Jobs Guide (26 January 1996). Available email [Online]:
Maurice Crouse, Citing Electronic Information in History Papers (7 September 1999). Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (8 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers The University of Memphis Anonymous FTP Archive (25 August 1998 [Last update]). Available [Online]:
Pamela Palmer, Academic Writers' Net Source [Helps for writers] (24 February 1998). Available [Online]:
Uncle Sam [WWW home page of Government Publications Department, Regional Depository Library, The University of Memphis] (7 October 1998). Available [Online]:
Online Book Initiative [Public-domain electronic texts] (No date). Available [Online]:
Parts of Works:
Reference List:
Author or Editor. Date. Title of part. In Title of work, edition. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Tritten, James John. August 1988. Is naval warfare unique? In Joint electronic library, ed. J-7, Joint Chiefs of Staff. Available [CD-ROM]: MicroRetrieval Corporation/Joint Electronic Library/ Military Research Papers and Studies/Is Naval Warfare Unique? [5 December 1996].
West India Company. 1978. In Everyman's encyclopaedia, 6th ed. Available [Online]: DIALOG/Everyman's Encyclopaedia (File 182) [25 March 1995].
Belarus. 1995. In World factbook, 1995 ed. Available [Online]:
Harnack, Andrew, and Eugene Kleppinger. 10 June 1996. Citing the sites: MLA-style guidelines and models for documenting Internet sources, version 1.3. In Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting electronic sources on the Internet. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (9 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
Bibliography:
Author or Editor. "Title of Part." In Title of Work, edition. Date. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Tritten, James John. "Is Naval Warfare Unique?" In Joint Electronic Library, ed. J-7, Joint Chiefs of Staff. August 1988. Available [CD-ROM]: MicroRetrieval Corporation/Joint Electronic Library/ Military Research Papers and Studies/Is Naval Warfare Unique? [5 December 1996].
"West India Company." In Everyman's Encyclopaedia, 6th ed. 1978. Available [Online]: DIALOG/Everyman's Encyclopaedia (File 182) [25 March 1995].
"Belarus." In World Factbook, 1995 ed. 1995. Available [Online]:
Harnack, Andrew, and Eugene Kleppinger. "Citing the Sites: MLA-Style Guidelines and Models for Documenting Internet Sources," version 1.3. In Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet. 10 June 1996. Available [Online]:
Note:
Author or Editor, "Title of Part," in Title of Work, edition (Date). Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
James John Tritten, "Is Naval Warfare Unique?" in Joint Electronic Library, ed. J-7, Joint Chiefs of Staff (August 1988). Available [CD-ROM]: MicroRetrieval Corporation/Joint Electronic Library/Military Research Papers and Studies/Is Naval Warfare Unique? [5 December 1996].
"West India Company," in Everyman's Encyclopaedia, 6th ed.
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (10 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers (1978). Available [Online]: DIALOG/Everyman's Encyclopaedia (File 182) [25 March 1995].
"Belarus," in World Factbook, 1995 ed. (1995). Available [Online]:
Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger, "Citing the Sites: MLA- Style Guidelines and Models for Documenting Internet Sources," version 1.3, in Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet (10 June 1996). Available [Online]:
Periodicals and Journals:
Reference List:
Author or Editor. Date. Title of article. Title of Periodical volume, issue: paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Gore, Al. Fall 1994. A new era begins. Memphis State University Law Review 25:1. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/MSULR/gore [5 December 1996].
Technology projections: 2001. May 1992. Direct Marketing: 23-25. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Business Periodicals Online/ 92-29833 [25 March 1995].
Schaeffer, Scott. May 1996. Disney and the imagineering of histories. Postmodern Culture 6, no. 3: par. 11. Available [Online]:
Bibliography:
Author or Editor. "Title of Article." Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (11 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers or Author or Editor. "Title of Article." Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available [Type of medium]: Supplier/ Database identifier or number/Item name or number [Access date].
Gore, Al. "A New Era Begins." Memphis State University Law Review 25 (Fall 1994): 1. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/ MSULR/gore [5 December 1996].
"Technology Projections: 2001." Direct Marketing (May 1992): 23-25. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Business Periodicals Online/92-29833 [25 March 1995].
Schaeffer, Scott. "Disney and the Imagineering of Histories." Postmodern Culture 6, no. 3 (May 1996): par 11. Available [Online]:
Note:
Author or Editor, "Title of Article," Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Al Gore, "A New Era Begins," Memphis State University Law Review 25 (Fall 1994): 1. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/ MSULR/gore [5 December 1996].
"Technology Projections: 2001," Direct Marketing (May 1992):23-25. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Business Periodicals Online/92-29833[25 March 1995].
Scott Schaeffer, "Disney and the Imagineering of Histories," Postmodern Culture 6, no. 3 (May 1996): par. 11. Available [Online]:
Newspapers and Magazines:
Turabian (secs. 11.44-5) says that you should seldom place separate news items from newspapers in a bibliography or a reference list and recommends that you list them only in notes or parenthetical references. If you use newspapers extensively in the paper, Turabian recommends that the entries in the bibliography or the reference list contain only the
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (12 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers newspaper names and the inclusive dates. If you disagree with Turabian, use the following forms:
Reference List:
Author or Editor. Date. Title of article. Title of Newspaper or Magazine, edition, section: paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Johnson, Rheta Grimsley. 19 March 1995. South had better brace itself. [Memphis] Commercial Appeal, Final ed., Section B (Metro): B8. Available [Online]: DIALOG/The Commercial Appeal (File 740) [25 March 1995].
Taylor, Frank S. 10 October 1995. Who's making the waves? Triangle on the Web Magazine. Available [Online]:
Bibliography:
Author or Editor. "Title of Article." Title of Newspaper or Magazine, edition, date, section: paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Johnson, Rheta Grimsley. "South Had Better Brace Itself." [Memphis] Commercial Appeal, Final ed., 19 March 1995, Section B (Metro): B8. Available [Online]: DIALOG/The Commercial Appeal (File 740) [25 March 1995].
Taylor, Frank S. "Who's Making the Waves?" Triangle on the Web Magazine, 10 October 1995. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (13 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
Note:
Author or Editor, "Title of Article," Title of Newspaper or Magazine, edition, date, section: paging. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Rheta Grimsley Johnson, "South Had Better Brace Itself," [Memphis] Commercial Appeal, Final ed., 19 March 1995, Section B (Metro): B8. Available [Online]: DIALOG/The Commercial Appeal (File 740) [25 March 1995].
Frank S. Taylor, "Who's Making the Waves?" Triangle on the Web Magazine, 10 October 1995. Available [Online]:
Abstracts and Reviews of Individual Works:
Reference List:
Author. Date. Abstract or Review of Title of work, edition, by Original Author or Editor. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Cupples, Douglas W. December 1995. Review of The lost colony of the Confederacy, by Eugene C. Harter. Available [Online]:
McSwain, James Burton. 1986. Abstract of The controversy over infant baptism in England, 1648-1700 [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University]. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc/Jan. 1982-Dec. 1987/mcswain and baptism [5 December 1996].
Harkins, John Edward. 1976. Abstract of The neglected phase of Louisiana's colonial history: The New Orleans Cabildo, 1769-1803
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (14 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University]. Available [Online]: DIALOG/Dissertation Abstracts Online (File 35)/589099 [25 March 1995].
Bibliography:
Author. Abstract or Review of Title of Work, edition, by Original Author or Editor. Date. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Cupples, Douglas W. Review of The Lost Colony of the Confederacy, by Eugene C. Harter. December 1995. Available [Online]:
McSwain, James Burton. Abstract of The Controversy Over Infant Baptism in England, 1648-1700 [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University]. 1986. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc/Jan. 1982-Dec. 1987/mcswain and baptism [5 December 1996].
Harkins, John Edward. Abstract of The Neglected Phase of Louisiana's Colonial History: The New Orleans Cabildo, 1769-1803. [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University]. 1976. Available [Online]: DIALOG/Dissertation Abstracts Online (File 35)/589099 [25 March 1995].
Note:
Author, Abstract or Review of Title of Work, edition, by Original Author or Editor (Date). Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Douglas W. Cupples, Review of The Lost Colony of the Confederacy, by Eugene C. Harter (December 1995). Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (15 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers James Burton McSwain, Abstract of The Controversy Over Infant Baptism in England, 1648-1700 [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University] (1986). Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc/Jan. 1982- Dec. 1987/mcswain and baptism [5 December 1996].
John Edward Harkins, Abstract of The Neglected Phase of Louisiana's Colonial History: The New Orleans Cabildo, 1769-1803 [Ph.D. diss., Memphis State University] (1976). Available [Online]: DIALOG/Dissertation Abstracts Online (File 35)/589099 [25 March 1995].
Abstracts and Reviews of Periodicals and Journals:
Reference List:
Author. Date. Abstract or Review of Title of article, by Original Author or Editor. Title of Periodical volume, issue: paging. Available [Type of medium]:
Triezenberg, Herman L. October 1996. Abstract of The identification of ethical issues in physical therapy. Physical Therapy 76, no. 10:1097-1108. Available [Online]:
Abstract of Time for a change: Analyzing graduation invocations and benedictions under religiously neutral principles of the public forum, by Rick A. Swanson. Summer 1996. Memphis State University Law Review 26:1405. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/MSULR/ swanson [5 December 1996].
Abstract of American homesteaders and the Canadian provinces, 1899 and 1909, by Michael B. Percy and Tamara Woraby. 1987. Explorations in Economic History 24, no. 1:77-100. Available [Online]: DIALOG/America: History and Life (File 38)/950008 [25 March 1995].
Bibliography:
Author. Abstract or Review of "Title of Article," by Original Author or Editor. Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available [Type of medium]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (16 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers information [Access date]. or Author. Abstract or Review of "Title of Article," by Original Author or Editor Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available [Type of medium]: Supplier/Database identifier or number/Item name or number [Access date].
Triezenberg, Herman L. Abstract of "The Identification of Ethical Issues in Physical Therapy." Physical Therapy 76, no. 10 (October 1996): 1097-1108. Available [Online]:
Abstract of "Time for a Change: Analyzing Graduation Invocations and Benedictions Under Religiously Neutral Principles of the Public Forum," by Rick A. Swanson. Memphis State University Law Review 26 (Summer 1996): 1405. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/MSULR/ swanson [5 December 1996].
Abstract of "American Homesteaders and the Canadian Provinces, 1899 and 1909," by Michael B. Percy and Tamara Woraby. Explorations in Economic History 24, no. 1 (1987): 77-100. Available [Online]: DIALOG/America: History and Life (File 38)/950008 [25 March 1995].
Note:
Author, Abstract or Review of "Title of Article," by Original Author or Editor, Title of Periodical volume, issue (Date): paging. Available [Type of medium]:
Herman L. Triezenberg, Abstract of "The Identification of Ethical Issues in Physical Therapy," Physical Therapy 76, no. 10 (October 1996):1097-1108. Available [Online]:
Abstract of "Time for a Change: Analyzing Graduation Invocations and Benedictions Under Religiously Neutral Principles of the Public Forum," by Rick A. Swanson, Memphis State University Law Review 26 (Summer 1996): 1405. Available [Online]: Mead LEXIS/TENN/MSULR/swanson [5 December 1996].
Abstract of "American Homesteaders and the Canadian Provinces, 1899 and 1909," by Michael B. Percy and Tamara Woraby, Explorations in Economic History 24, no. 1 (1987): 77-100. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (17 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers DIALOG/America: History and Life (File 38)/950008 [25 March 1995].
Electronic Mail (Personal):
Some style manuals, such as that of the APA (sec. 3.102), recommend the citing of email only in the text of the paper. If you disagree, use the following forms. These forms do not usually have "Available" statements, because email messages are like personal letters, memoranda, or telephone conversations in that they generally are not freely available to the public. If the contents of an email message are crucial to a point you are making, you perhaps should save the message in some archival form so that you can allow public access to it. If you do so, you should add a statement to the citation, explaining exactly how a researcher could access the message. (The examples reflect email addresses that were current on the dates of the messages.) Reference List:
Author
Martin, Thomas M.
Davis, Doug
Bibliography:
Author
Martin, Thomas M.
Davis, Doug
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (18 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers Note:
Author
Thomas M. Martin
Doug Davis
Electronic Conferences, Interest Groups, News Groups (Usenet), and Lists:
These materials are not as ephemeral as email, which may vanish completely unless the senders or recipients deliberately create archival copies. Usenet postings remain available as long as the host server has room to retain them on its storage disks (which may be only a few days with busy servers) and may be accessed by a news reader during that period. Because all these materials go through some central distribution point rather than directly from one individual to another, there is an opportunity for their handlers to store copies of them in electronic archives for later retrieval by anyone. Such archives are increasingly common. H-Net, for example, has archives of all of its lists, and Deja News, Inc., has archives of all Usenet news groups. Always try to find an archival copy to support your citation (see the section of this paper entitled "Implications for Methodology"). If you cannot locate one, you may have to omit the "Available" statement in your citation.
Reference List:
Author
Wheeler, Bob
Beatty, J. D.
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (19 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers Usenet [Online]:
Beatty, J. D.
Bibliography:
Author
Wheeler, Bob
Beatty, J. D.
Beatty, J. D.
Note:
Author
Bob Wheeler
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (20 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
J. D. Beatty
J. D. Beatty
Searches in Online Library Catalogs and Databases:
Students often ask how to cite the results of searches that they have made in online catalogs or databases such as UnCover, using specific search terms. For example, a researcher might want to mention in a paper the number of books on Eastern Orthodox icons reported in the online catalog of the library of a Presbyterian liberal-arts college. Another researcher might want to know for how many dissertations in history at Memphis State University during the period 1980-92 Dr. Charles W. Crawford was the major advisor. Yet a third researcher might want to know how many VMS accounts are registered to persons in the Department of Political Science at The University of Memphis. The results coming back from these searches hardly constitute in themselves bibliographic items, but the information requires some kind of citation. It might be possible to force such citations into one of the models above, but because they are often one-time occurrences it seems more advisable to use the form recommended by Turabian in sec. 10.15. There is no entry in the reference list or bibliography -- all the information is in a parenthetical reference in the text or in a note. In the examples below, the forms alternate between the two; observe that in notes, you should omit the parentheses. Avoid the temptation to treat everything you encounter as the result of this kind of search. Documents, home pages, and computer sites are usually not databases. Selecting a link in an online document is not using a search term. Using a search term normally involves your typing a word or phrase of your choosing rather than selecting from a list of possibilities. Even if you use a search term to locate an item, it may be like using the index to a book: you often end up with a perfectly good bibliographic item which you can cite in the normal way -- for example, a "search" to locate McSwain's dissertation in a previous section. If the "search" culminates with a definite bibliographic item and you use it as such, cite it using appropriate forms given above. Use the following forms only if the "search" yields a temporary set of information which will vanish as soon as you exit from the database. (Other researchers who use your citation may recreate the information, but it still is not an enduring bibliographic item.)
(Results of Type search on term "search term" in Source. Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
Results of Name search on term "hurley jack" in UnCover database. Available [Online]:
(Results of Subject search on term "icons" in online catalog of Burrow Library at Rhodes College. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (21 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
Results of Expert Keyword search on term "au onasch and ti icons" in online catalog of McWherter Library at The University of Memphis. Available [Online]:
(Results of search on term "su(history, united states) and sc((memphis state university) or (university of memphis)) and ad(crawford, charles w)" in Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc database. Available [CD-ROM]: UMI/Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc/Jan. 1980- Dec. 1992 [11 November 1996])
Results of Title search on term "debow's review" in Tennessee Union List of Serials database. Available [CD-ROM]: Auto-Graphics, Inc./Tennessee State Library CD-ROM Catalog/Serials [11 November 1996].
(Results of Department search on term "political science" in VMS Users Directory at The University of Memphis. Available [Online]:
Results of Author search on term "hawes joseph" in WorldCat database. Available [Online]: OCLC FirstSearch/All Databases/WorldCat [2 November 1996].
Government Publications and Legal Documents:
The models and examples above should be enough to get you through most of the citations you will need, unless you work with government publications and legal documents. For these difficult materials, I have neither space nor expertise. Diane L. Garner and Diane H. Smith, The Complete Guide to Citing Government Documents: A Manual for Writers & Librarians (Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service, 1993), and The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, 16th ed. (Cambridge: Harvard Law Review Association, 1996) are the most complete guides for citing printed versions of these materials, but they barely recognize the existence of electronic versions. The Turabian manual (secs. 12.1-33) and The Chicago Manual of Style (secs. 15.312-411, 16.148-98) have useful models which could be adapted with some determined effort. Li and Crane's book (chapters 5, 12) is the only comprehensive guide for citing electronic versions. The Government Publications Department, McWherter Library, The University of Memphis, has prepared a Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications, which deals partly with electronic sources. It is available online (see the bibliography of this paper). Candace Elliott Person has a few examples for citing legal materials in Citation of Legal and Non-legal Electronic Database Information (available online; see the bibliography of this paper). I recommend that you study all these guides and choose one set of recommendations for the descriptive part of the citation. Then use one of the following models for the "Available" statement, depending on the means of access:
Available Protocol [Type of medium]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (22 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
Finding and Using the Information for Citations:
The author's name is usually at the head of the electronic document. If not, you should look for it at the end of the document, or near links labeled "Send comments to," "Mail to," "Return to," "Maintained by," or something similar. Usenet postings or email messages may have only an email address as author. Some messages may have a nickname or "handle" as author. If you fail to find any indication of the author's name, you may sometimes substitute the publisher's name if it is known, or you may omit the information entirely and begin the entry with the title. Most electronic documents have titles at their head, just like printed documents. If you use a browser to access the document, there will probably also be a title which appears at the top of the browser window. If the two titles differ, you should choose the title that more accurately describes the document. If no meaningful title appears anywhere, you may supply a descriptive title of your own in square brackets. The date of the document often occurs either at the head or the end of the document. In either case, it may be labeled "Last revised," "Last modified," or something similar. In my experience it is not uncommon for authors to forget to change this information when they make changes in the document. I have seen papers in which two or more conflicting dates appear. Remember that the date of the document is usually not the date on which you accessed the document; do not confuse the two dates. You should always give the access date, except for email, where the access date is not required in the citation model. If you cannot find a date for the document, put "No date" in the citation. How do you get the URL for an online document that you access? If you were able to access the document using a given URL, presumably others can do so as well; use the given URL in your "Available" statement. If you use a browser to jump from one hypertext link to another, the browser usually displays the current URL. If not, there is usually a menu choice or keystroke that will display it -- consult the browser's documentation or online help file. For example, if you are using Lynx, you can display URLs for both the current document and the link to which the cursor points by pressing the = (equal sign) key. If you are using Netscape, the URL of the current document appears in a small window near the top of the screen, and the URL of any link on which the mouse cursor is resting appears at the bottom of the screen. The last two citations in the section entitled "Searches in Online Catalogs and Databases" illustrate a special problem with citing information found in electronic sources: some citations may be difficult or impossible for others to verify. Anyone can use the online catalogs cited in that section by telneting directly to them and using the public usernames, which do not require passwords. But some information is restricted to qualified members of an organization. For example, persons who want to use the VMS Users Directory at The University of Memphis must themselves have valid usernames and passwords on that VMS system. Outsiders cannot verify a reference to that database because they are barred from access to it. There is a similar problem in the citation of the WorldCat database. At The University of Memphis, one means of access to WorldCat (and all other OCLC databases) is through the online catalog of The University of Memphis Libraries, whose contract with OCLC grants only restricted use of OCLC materials. Persons who access the online catalog from their password- protected VMS accounts are presumed to be bona fide members of the University community. They can, therefore, easily reach FirstSearch through selecting a procedure on a menu that runs a script; the script connects to a remote computer and logs in with an unidentified password belonging to the library. But it would be useless for you to include in your citation the steps you took to be able to select that procedure, because persons who reach the online catalog via
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (23 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers the URL of that page or follows a link to it can attempt to use the databases. But OCLC will not allow such access unless it ":sees" an IP address in The University of Memphis domain. Even bona fide members of the University community who use "outside" Internet Service Providers will be barred unless they use the University's proxy server to access the databases. The same problem is inherent to earlier citations of Mead LEXIS, which, at The University of Memphis, is under a similar restrictive contract with Mead. Furthermore, only paying subscribers to the Knight-Ridder information services may use DIALOG. Again, lack of access to a database results in the inability to verify a citation made to it. This is not to say that you must refrain altogether from citing electronic sources that might be difficult for others to verify. If it alone contained the information you needed, you would not hesitate to cite a rare book that could be found in few or no other libraries. Similarly, with electronic information, you should cite what you actually use. It is simply a fact of academic life that some libraries have better holdings or better access to information than others. Still, if you can find the same information in an electronic source that is freely available to the public, you should cite that source. How much access information should you provide? Students sometimes assume, erroneously, that they must account for each and every link they have used in finding information. Suppose that you used the Harvard Guide to American History to locate a bibliography on the colonial period of American history, then used the bibliography to identify Charles Sydnor's book, Gentlemen Freeholders, as a good source of information on your topic. The only book you would need to cite is Gentlemen Freeholders, because that citation is sufficient to lead readers to the exact material you used in your report. Similarly, suppose that you used Netscape to access the home page of The University of Memphis, then selected in turn the links for "Academics," "History," "Resources in history," and finally the link for the electronic equivalent of this paper,
Implications for Methodology:
There is a serious problem in citing electronic information that seems inescapable, a problem that Harnack and Kleppinger aptly call "invisible revisability." A citation gives the content and the location of the information at the time of access. Unlike most printed information, electronic information may have been silently modified, moved, or deleted by the time a reader tries to verify the citation. For example, if you were to send email today to
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (24 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers engines at the URL
Bibliography:
● Achtert, Walter S., and Joseph Gibaldi. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 3d ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1988.
● American Psychological Association. Electronic Reference Formats Recommended by the American Psychological Association. 10 January 2001. Available [Online]:
● Becklehimer, Jeff. How Do You Cite URL's in a Bibliography? 24 April 2000. Available [Online]:
● The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation. 16th ed. Cambridge: Harvard Law Review Association, 1996.
● The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
● Dewey, Russ. APA Style Resources. 7 September 2000. Available [Online]:
● Dodd, Sue A. Bibliographic References for Computer Files in the Social Sciences: A Discussion Paper. May 1990. Available [Online]:
● Garner, Diane L., and Diane H. Smith. The Complete Guide to Citing Government Documents: A Manual for Writers & Librarians. Bethesda, MD: Congressional Information Service, 1993.
● Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1995.
● ______. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 5th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1999.
● ______. MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing. 2d ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1998.
● Government Publications Department, McWherter Library, The University of Memphis. Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications. 14 January 1998. Available [Online]:
● Guffey, Mary Ellen. APA Style Electronic Formats. 1 February 2000. Available [Online]:
● ______. MLA Style Electronic Formats. 11 May 2000. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (25 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers
● Gunnels, Claire, and Sheila Welling. MLA Style: Paper and Electronic. 13 February 2001. Available [Online]:
● Harnack, Andrew, and Eugene Kleppinger. Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet. 10 June 1996. Available [Online]:
● ______. Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000. [Complete information about this publication is available at
● Ivey, Keith C. Citing Internet Sources. 20 August 1997. Available [Online]:
● Land, T. Web Extension to American Psychological Association Style (WEAPAS). 15 October 1998. Available [Online]:
● Li, Xia, and Nancy B. Crane. Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information. Westport, CT: Meckler, 1993.
● ______. Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1996.
● Modern Language Association. How Do I Document Sources from the World Wide Web in my Works-Cited List? 17 October 2000. Available [Online]:
● Page, Melvin. A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources in History and the Humanities. 20 February 1996. Available [Online]:
● Person, Candace Elliott. Citation of Legal and Non-legal Electronic Information. 24 June 1997. Available [Online]:
● Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 3d ed. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, 1983.
● Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 4th ed. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, 1994.
● Purdue University On-Line Writing Lab. Documenting Electronic Sources. 2001. Available [Online]:
● ______. MLA Format: Giving Credit to Sources. 2001. Available [Online]:
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (26 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] Citing Electronic Information in History Papers ● ______. Using APA Format. 2001. Available [Online]:
● Quinion, Michael B. Citing Online Sources. 11 February 1998. Available [Online]:
● Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 5th ed. Revised and expanded by Bonnie Birtwistle Honigsblum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
● ______. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Revised by John Grossman and Alice Bennett. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
● Wagner, K. Guide for Citing Electronic Information. 1 September 2000. Available [Online]:
● Walker, Janice R., and Todd Taylor. The Columbia Guide to Online Style. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
● ______. Basic CGOS Style. 20 March 2000. Available [Online]:
______
This document is subject to constant revision. You may find the current version on the World Wide Web at the URL:
Send comments to Maurice Crouse at:
Last modified: 19 February 2001
http://www.people.memphis.edu/~mcrouse/elcite.html (27 of 27) [2/25/2001 8:25:24 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - best games of all time - strategy/war
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Is there anything more to say about Sid Meier's Civilization? It's the big cheese of gaming, the big kahuna, el numero uno. This successfully ambitious game--if you consider spanning all of time ambitious--is more addictive than a box of Tic-Tacs.
Download a Mac version of Civilization now!
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by George Jones
You wanted it; you got it. The response to our "top 10 games of all time" story broke the charts--everyone from Fairbanks, Alaska, to Auckland, New Zealand, has an opinion when you're talking about the best. So we're at it again, this time doing it the way so many of you requested: by category. We took the three most popular genres: action, adventure, and strategy/war, thought, fought, and reconciled, and came up with what we consider to be the best of the best. Also this time around, we gathered up the responses from our original top 10 story and took them into account. But this isn't a democracy here, so don't expect to see every one of your votes. As always, we love hearing what you think, whether you get to see it in print or not. So fire away with those gripes, suggestions, compliments, and flame mails. And while you're at it, don't forget to give us your top vote for each of the three categories; we'll tally them and publish the readers' choices.
And if there's another "best of" list you'd like to see, let us know. Watch what you wish for, though--make a good enough suggestion, and we may just force you to write the whole thing yourselves (and get the resulting avalanche of email).
Check back here soon--we'll also be summing up the five best RPGs, sports games, and simulations ever!
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by George Jones and Bill Meyer
Define the greatest games of all time? That's it? Are you sure you don't want us to do anything more, like maybe solve cold fusion, while we're at it? But this was our mission, and it came straight from the top. Thankfully, with only 15 years in the computer game industry's pockets, the task didn't require too much dusting off of old boxes (and minds). So we each sat down with our lists and a pizza, figuring we could pound it out over lunch. Three agonizing days (and numerous physical and emotional bruises) later, done it was. So, without any further ado, here are our completely biased choices.
Note: With a few exceptions, such as Commodore 64 and Apple II games from the mid-'80s, you stand a decent chance of finding some of these games in the bargain bins at your local software dealer. In some cases you can even order them directly from the manufacturer. Whatever the situation, if you're not familiar with any of these games, and you ever get a chance to own or play them (or any of their numerous sequels), take it. Trust us.
Comments? Think we left one out? Miffed because your favorite game wasn't picked? Let us know! Also, check out your flames, brains, and responses to our top ten story.
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MicroProse, 1994 Designers: Julian Gollop, Nick Gollop
"I just can't wait to get up there and whoop ET's ass." --Captain Steve Hiller, Independence Day
According to those who count all the ticket stubs every weekend, everyone and their mother has seen Independence Day, which makes sense: the alien craze that gripped the nation back in the '70s is back (with a nihilistic '90s attitude, no less) with films like The Arrival, ID4, and probably a hundred other knockoffs in the works by the Hollywood trend followers.
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/ufo10.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:05 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - X-COM: UFO Defense Funny thing is, back in 1994--wa-a-a-ay before this alien conspiracy stuff had kicked up (again)--MicroProse hit gamers with its own "aliens attack Earth" story, this time in an interactive form that let you fight back. And it did more for sleep loss than Close Encounters of the Third Kind ever could--even with its spiffy new ending. X-COM is a genre-buster. For the past couple of years, gamers have referred to any game that resembles X-COM's isometric perspective and turn-based ground combat as an "X-COM style of play." The great thing about X-COM is that the combat was only one aspect of play. Constructing your UFO Defense bases, researching new and alien technologies, scrambling jet fighters to intercept alien vessels, and even dealing with international politics supplemented the incredible combat sequences. In these situations, you'd engage the enemy with your soldiers in urban hostage situations, downed alien crafts, and a variety of other environments. Through some truly ingenious storytelling, the designers managed to keep the tension level mounting, delivering new aliens and new plot twists the whole ride. X-COM is a truly impressive work, one of those games that comes along far too rarely. If you've never played it, it's worth a treasure-seeking trip down to your local software store's bargain bin. Or check out MicroProse's X-COM demo.
give me number 9
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/ufo10.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:05 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Front Page Sports Football Pro
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Dynamix (now a division of Sierra), 1993 Designer: Pat Cook
"When it comes to football sims, Front Page Sports Football is pretty much all there is."
With its stunning graphics, realistic replays, and incredible, intriguing season and career modes, Front Page Sports Football Pro unified the pigskin simulation title immediately upon its release almost four years ago. A football sim that looked great while still retaining a wealth of statistical depth and realism? Incredible. A career mode that let you coach and manage a team season after season, complete with a college draft, retiring players, and training camps? Unbelievable!
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/football9.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:12 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Front Page Sports Football Pro
Although action is an option, FPSF's cerebral aspects are what sets it apart. One heck of an AI was built into the game engine, which meant calling "halfback toss left" seven times in a row wasn't (and still isn't) likely to work. And the career and season replay modes forced gamers into thinking in a way they never had before. Graphically, the Front Page Sports engine was unparalleled, particularly in 1993. Multiple camera angles allowed players to view the action from every possible position, even way up in the sky. And the player animations were so detailed, we believed we were seeing things that couldn't possibly be happening (I still swear I once saw my defensive lineman deliberately trip the ball carrier). When it comes to football sims, Front Page Sports Football is pretty much all there is. The scary thing is, with each reincarnation (there have been four now), this game just keeps getting better and better. give me number 8
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/football9.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:12 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Ultima IV
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Origin Systems, 1985 Designer: Richard Garriot
"Whereas in most games you simply dictate who is attacking whom, in Ultima you actually moved your characters around the screen." The first thing you did when you started playing Ultima IV was answer a series of moral questions. This, instead of the standard D&D-style dice-rolling, finger-crossing method, was how your hero was generated. Each answer helped shape your character's attributes, class, and moral standing. This unique method of character generation set the tone for what remains one of the most unique role-playing games ever.
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/ultima8.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:20 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Ultima IV Building on the strength and style of Ultima III, Ultima IV set your stalwart party off on another adventure across the immense land of Brittania. Viewed from a top-down perspective, designer Richard Garriot (a.k.a. Lord British) really instilled a sense of enormosity into your quests and the world in general. Traveling from the city of Skara Brae to Paws, for instance, was a discouraging task because it was such a long, dangerous trek. Unless of course, you had figured out air travel... And who can forget the combat? Although at times the number of hostile encounters seemed a bit much (that's what little brothers are for, I guess), the way battles were handled is legendary. Tactically incredible for such a simple game, gamers were able to set up elaborate, combined arms strategies for all sorts of situations and terrains. Whereas in most games you simply dictate who is attacking whom, in Ultima you actually moved your characters around the screen. On top of all this, and the usual "get the magic rune" quests, were issues of morality, something no one had ever seen before in a computer game. Sure, you could steal gold or kill a helpless Orc while they were trying to run away, but it would affect your morality ratings (compassion, honor, courage, and so on) and hinder your progress toward Avatarhood, one of the prerequisites for winning the game. No one who's played Ultima IV (or Ultima III for that matter) will ever forget the perspective. give me number 7
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/ultima8.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:20 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - X-Wing
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LucasArts, 1993 Designer: Larry Holland
"By itself, the buzz-roar of Tie Fighters blowing past you made the game worthwhile."
Who saw Star Wars back in 1978 and didn't wish they could fly Luke Skywalker's X-Wing fighter? Everyone had a friend or little brother or son or daughter who, immediately after seeing these movies, climbed high into a tree with their plastic model X-Wing (the wings actually expanded, just like in the movie!) and, well, went to some imaginary place far, far away. In 1993, LucasArts delivered such an opportunity to our PCs, and with
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/xwing7.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:25 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - X-Wing the processing power of the 486, X-Wing made waves. The scrolling Star Wars text and authentic-sounding score was just the start. This was the real thing, the real universe. Admiral Ackbar, Darth Vader--they were all here! And the action? Amazing. Top-notch graphics and an excellent (albeit seemingly impossible at times) variety of missions made PC gaming a crowd-gathering experience for the first time. By itself, the buzz-roar of Tie Fighters blowing past you made the game worthwhile.
Had X-Wing not had the magnetic wrappings of the Star Wars universe, it's entirely possible we might be talking about one of Origin's Wing Commander games right now instead. But George Lucas's trilogy will forever be remembered for its greatness, a sliver of which LucasArts managed to bottle up for us in X-Wing. give me number 6
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/xwing7.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:25 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Pirates
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MicroProse, 1987 Designer: Sid Meier
"Attention to historical fact gave Pirates the authenticity to do swashbuckling justice."
Sid Meier's swashbuckling epic of piracy on the Spanish main came out many, many moons ago, but it's one of those classics that crusty gamers still tearfully refer to with reverence and praise ("I loved that game, man!"). Like any elite great, Pirates was a genre-buster, and the market was soon crowded with imitators and wanna-bes. But none of these rogue challengers have come even close to Pirate's historical depth, detail, and imaginative gameplay.
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/pirates6.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:29 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Pirates Like most Sid Meier games, Pirates was so memorable because it zipped players back in time and re-created the romance of a bygone era, a tough enough task for a movie, let alone an 8-bit computer game. Attention to historical fact gave Pirates the authenticity to do swashbuckling justice. For one, the game depicted the multiple eras of this "profession" in several different scenarios, from piracy's infancy to heyday to sunset. Players were able to travel to authentic port cities whenever they chose; align with and battle colonial nations like the Dutch, Spanish, and Portugese; challenge bona fide buccaneers such as Blackbeard; and participate in adventures based on historical fact, like raiding the silver train. On another level, Pirates' open-ended gameplay was brilliant as well. Based only on the wind and the news of the day, you plotted your own course from early age to (hopefully) wealthy retirement. No computer game before Pirates gave you so much freedom. Finally, the game's clever skill options, from charm to sword prowess, opened up a whole new dimension in strategy gaming. You could woo the governor's daughter in order to gain land and a fat inheritance or you could live by the sword. All in all, every time you set sail on a new campaign, Pirates' treasure trove of player options, exotic destinations, and endless subplots made it as limitless as the open sea. give me number 5
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/pirates6.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:29 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - MechWarrior 2
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Activision, 1995 Designers: Zachary Norman, Sean Vesce
"Activision has created the most sophisticated yet accessible and exciting gaming experience ever." Though we had to wait over two years to finally get our greedy hands on MechWarrior 2, this masterfully built combat simulator was more than worth the wait. Before its arrival on the gaming landscape, ground-based combat simulators tried and continuously failed to meet our overblown expectations. And when MechWarrior 2's ship date continued to slip, we became a bit skeptical about it, too. But when it finally arrived, MW2 not only met gamers' expectations, but answered their prayers.
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/mech5.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:34 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - MechWarrior 2 To put the greatness of MechWarrior 2 in perspective, consider this: this wolf in sheep's clothing is, in addition to being an action-oriented game, a sophisticated simulator, as complicated as any flight sim in terms of functionality and customization. With more than ten different mechs that suit various strategies for various environments, and a bewildering array of munitions, armaments, and specialized gadgets, both the hard-core simulator enthusiasts and Johnny Novice have a lot to chew on. In spite of this complexity and integrity, MechWarrior 2 also broke through in terms of its terrain; incredible, scalable 3D graphics; high-octane mission play; and intuitive controls, all of which led to the game's ability to captivate the mainstream masses without insulting sim aficionados. By thrusting players into the action rather than leaving them dormant on the runway, creating a straightforward yet powerful targeting and navigation system, and offering nonstop action, Activision created the most sophisticated yet accessible and exciting gaming experience ever.
If you've never played MW2, do yourself a favor and check it out!
give me number 4
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/mech5.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:34 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - SimCity
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Maxis, 1987 Designer: Will Wright
"SimCity introduced cerebral and emotional elements into gaming that we'd never seen before."
The "builder" game might not be if not for this gem from Maxis. From the moment gamers placed their first little residential blocks and their first stretches of road, it was hooksville.
It's hard to imagine how such a simple concept could be so engaging. The key reason is the designers' intentionally open-ended game design, which still stands as a work of genius. You could play SimCity in any way, shape,
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/simcity4.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:38 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - SimCity or form you chose. Los Angelinos envious of the East Coast could try their hand at building a centralized, massive expanse of asphalt and concrete, while city designers who believed in the merits of the automobile learned the hard lessons of pollution and traffic (how cool was it to see those little computer-blip traffic jams as residents poured out of a stadium or commuted during rush hour?). And in addition to the fun factor, SimCity introduced cerebral and emotional elements into gaming that we'd never seen before. Ripping down sections of low-income housing to make way for commerce or deliberately ignoring a neighborhood's pleas for a police station created a scope for gaming rarely seen. That's the mark of a classic. Maybe the whole god thing strikes a primal chord, and that's why this game has been a best-seller ever since its inception. Or maybe being in total control of a SimCity relieves our deeply embedded feelings of helplessness and angst. Or maybe, just maybe, gamers appreciated the ultimate computer game--one in which we weren't cajoled, funneled, or forced into attaining someone else's goals. And it was released for the Macintosh first. Holey moley. give me number 3
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/simcity4.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:38 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Warcraft II
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Blizzard, 1995 Designers: Chris Metzen, Ron Millar
"Warcraft II was the first game in its class to up the ante with Super VGA graphics."
Late last year Blizzard Entertainment took the classic underpinnings of war strategy and injected it with a shot of attitude, dark humor, and real-time havoc. And though Westwood Studios' Dune 2 was a big real-time strategy innovator, and Command & Conquer a sterling success, Warcraft II is the best of its kind. And graphically, this game is unrivaled--no other game even gets close to
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/warcraft3.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:42 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Warcraft II Warcraft II's crisp graphic detail in terms of its structures, miniatures, maps, and descriptive icons. This was also the first game in its class to up the ante with Super VGA graphics. Warcraft II's impressive bells and whistles and enticing carnage are obvious. However, the real heart of the game is its sophisticated resource-management system and unit and building dependencies hierarchy, which rival the best turn-based strategy games. Hence, though Warcraft II is easy to learn, it is difficult to master. This baby has incredible amounts of strategic depth, detail, and pacing, and never loses the hard-core addicting action that makes it so compelling. The chaotic din of war that gamers experience time and time again, and the variety of missions--from rescuing hostages to open assaults on enemy towers--creates a unique experience each and every time. The litany of logical upgrades open up countless attacking options and strategies and, despite the numerous variety of land, sea, and air units, it also has the best play balancing. And we haven't even mentioned the human-on-human network bloodfests that go on around the world every night. This beauty's been out only a year, but there's no doubt in our mind: Warcraft II is a classic. give me number 2
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/warcraft3.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:42 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Doom
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id Software, 1994 Designer: John Romero
"Before Doom, no game suddenly dropped the lights and left you scrambling pitifully through the dark."
While the number of lackluster Doom clones could probably wrap around Earth multiple times by now, there is no getting around the fact that id Software's Doom is one of the most important games in the history of computer gaming. What would gaming be like without Doom? That's like asking where the NBA would be without Magic Johnson and Larry Bird. Anyone who has played Doom all the way through, or at night with all the
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/doom2.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:46 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Doom lights out, knows it added one crucial element to gaming that truly distinguished it from anything else--real terror. No other game immersed players and suspended their disbelief so completely that we actually feared for the Doom Guy--forget the Doom Guy, we feared for ourselves--and left our comfy desk chairs thinking the PC was possessed. The game environment alone tapped into some unconscious fears that could (and did) make the religiously conservative run screaming for the altar. Doom's ingeniously revolting, taboo environments, with their juxtaposition of ancient and modern taboo imagery (swastikas, hanging half-eaten corpses, beasts crested with pagan horns, and entire levels shaped as pentagrams) have yet to be paralleled. The use of atmospheric lighting was revolutionary; before Doom, no game suddenly dropped the lights and left you scrambling pitifully through the dark. And the over-the-top, in-your-face carnage; the daring use of violence; and the super-cool weaponry are by now legendary. But forget Doom's engine, game design, and gameplay for a moment. Doom also spearheaded the successful use of shareware as a means of distribution, a process that has now become an industry standard for many small up-and-coming game developers. In addition, this beast introduced the masses to the wonders of multiplayer gaming and temporarily brought networks and productivity everywhere to its knees. Finally, id Software was the first game company to enable gamers to step into the creative process by allowing and even encouraging the creation of third-party development tools that let players easily build their own Doom levels. Thousands and thousands of players answered this call. Who knows how many different WAD files are out there now.
Sure Quake and Duke Nukem are great. But Doom kick-started it all.
give me number 1
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/doom2.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:46 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Civilization
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MicroProse, 1991 Designer: Sid Meier
"It's only fitting that the greatest computer game of all time has the most sweeping goals and ambition."
You know it's there, and you can't, no, won't get rid of it, no matter how many times you've pruned your hard disk. As a matter of fact, you'd probably delete Windows off your system before booting Civilization. It's only fitting that the greatest computer game of all time has the most sweeping goals and ambition. Lead your winky, dinky tribe, instantly spawned in some remote location on the planet, to dominance over the
http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/civil1.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:51 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - features - top ten games - Civilization course of 6,000 years. Constantly adjusting to your surroundings via diplomacy, technological advances, or brute force, you'll have to manage an ever-growing empire of cities, content and not-so-content citizens, and dozens of military units (creating a civilization always means making war at some point). But you already know all of that. Civilization is a watermark in game design. Master designer Sid Meier managed to successfully break down the development and advancement of society into a board game format, abstracting life into such core areas as technological advancements, population (who can forget the Elvii?), and production. Add to that a simple yet sophisticated military model, resource management, and some heavy emotional attachment ("He beat my innocent Cavalry unit!"), and you have a game with some serious legs. Civilization: Sid Meir's masterpiece, and our immense, long-lived joy.
Note: It could be pretty hard to find a copy of Civilization, but MicroProse recently released Civ II.
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Topten/civil1.html (2 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:26:51 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - Features - The Hall of Game Innovation
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Civilization Publisher: MicroProse Lead Programmer: Sid Meier Released: 1989 Original Platform: PC Available: Mac, Super Nintendo Derivatives: Imperialism, Age of Empire
Yes--it's Civilization again, in yet another "of all time" list. Can you blame us? Was it truly all that innovative? The answer is an emphatic yes, but Civ's innovations went far beyond game features. Sid Meier's 1989 masterpiece was the first game that actually mimicked life, the world, and the interrelation between the two in a beautifully abstracted way. Civ created real emotional ties--how could you not become attached to a tiny group of people who turned themselves into a world power?--and never turned its back on strategic depth. Citizens got all ornery because you had too many military units abroad; political options included the ability to impose Despotic, Monarchic, or Democratic rule; you could build Wonders of the World...never before had computer gamers seen anything even remotely close to Civilization. And we haven't seen anything like it since. In fact, game design companies are only now beginning to get a grip on how to mimic the greatest game of all time.
I can hardly contain myself!
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http://www.gamecenter.com/Features/Exclusives/Hallofgame/ss05.html (1 of 2) [2/25/2001 8:27:08 PM] GAMECENTER.COM - Features - The Hall of Game Innovation
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