This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Food and Health published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author’s institution, for non-commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial Costa H., Mafra I., Oliveira M.B.P.P. and Amaral J.S. (2016) Game: Types and Composition. In: Caballero, B., Finglas, P., and Toldrá, F. (eds.) The Encyclopedia of Food and Health vol. 3, pp. 177-183. Oxford: Academic Press. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Author's personal copy G Game: Types and Composition H Costa, Instituto Polite´cnico de Braganc¸a, Braganc¸a, Portugal I Mafra and MBPP Oliveira, REQUIMTE Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal JS Amaral, REQUIMTE Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal; Instituto Polite´cnico de Braganc¸a, Braganc¸a, Portugal ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Game Meat hunting areas. According to the EU Regulation (EC) No. 853/ 2004, farmed game is defined as being farmed ratites (such as In a global sense, game refers to wild animals and birds, with the ostrich) and farmed land mammals other than domestic term ‘game’ being used for culinary purposes to describe all bovine, porcine, ovine, and caprine animals and domestic birds and animals that are hunted for food. In the European solipeds (single-hoofed, e.g., horse). With the exception of Union (EU), wild game is defined in the EU Regulation (EC) farmed rabbits, which are often produced in intensive systems, No. 853/2004 as being “wild ungulates and lagomorphs, as well most of the other farm-raised game (such as deer, reindeer, and as other land mammals that are hunted for human consump- wild boar) is generally farmed using extensive systems. In the tion and are considered to be wild game under the applicable United States, species such as the American elk, wild boar, law in the Member State concerned, including mammals living pheasant, and antelope (blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) and in enclosed territory under conditions of freedom similar to nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)) are being farm-raised, while those of wild game, and wild birds that are hunted for human in Europe, in particular in northern countries, the most com- consumption.” The same legislation also defines ‘small wild mon farmed-raised animals are deer (including several differ- game’ as being wild game birds and lagomorphs (rabbits and ent species such as red deer (Cervus elaphus) and fallow deer hares) living free in the wild and ‘large wild animals’ as land (Dama dama)) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Deer produc- mammals, living free in the wild that do not fall within the small tion is also a well-established industry in New Zealand. To wild game definition. In the United States, wild game refers to distinguish farmed-raised game from wild free-running ani- wild land mammals (including those living within an enclosed mals, some authors proposed to designate the first as venison, area under conditions of freedom) that are hunted and wild associating the second as being African game antelope. How- birds. Large native game animals in the United States include ever, the designation ‘venison’ is most frequently used as a antelope, buffalo, caribou, deer, elk, moose, and reindeer, while culinary term referring to meat not only from deer but also game birds include wild turkeys, wild geese, wild ducks, grouse, from other cervids such as reindeer, elk, and moose. quail, pheasant, and other nondomesticated species of fowl. Although production and consumption data for farmed Around the world, a vast number of wild animals are har- game are scarce, according to the Food and Agriculture Orga- vested for several reasons including for food purposes and nization (FAO) Statistics Division, game meat production has sport hunting, with the type and range of animals hunted been steadily increasing during the last decade (from approx- depending on climate, animal diversity, tradition, local taste, imately 1.59 million tons in 2000 to more than 1.99 million legislation, and local perception on what can or cannot be tons in 2012), which can possibly be related to a general legitimately hunted. For example, in Europe, the most frequent increased consumption of game meat. big game species include red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, In fact, in the last years, game meat is increasingly perceived mouflon, and wild boar, while in South Africa, the hunted as a delicacy product; thus, its consumption in restaurants and game species are mainly several African ungulates including at home dinners has also been increasing. This can be springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), blesbok (Damaliscus pygar- explained by several different motivations including the per- gus phillipsi), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), among other ception that game meat is healthier, its particular taste and antelopes. Game meat consumption is also related to the flavor, the idea that game meat can be considered as a biolog- consumers’ acceptability, which is influenced by several factors ical product (free-running animals without the use of anabolic including cultural, religious, and ethnic aspects, organoleptic steroids and other drugs), and the attraction for new experi- characteristics, price, and availability, among others. ences such as tasting exotic meats. Nowadays, besides being hunted as free-running animals in the wild, originally, wild species of animals are being raised, domestically or semidomestically, for sale. Farmed game is Game Meat: Sources and Production used not only for meat production but also for animal breed- ing, aiming at their subsequent release into the wild for Hunting has been practiced since ancestral times being one of restocking the game population in private and community man’s main sources of food in prehistoric ages. Over millennia Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00345-7 177 The Encyclopedia of Food and Health, (2016), vol. 3, pp. 177-183 Author's personal copy 178 Game: Types and Composition of civilization, with the development of agriculture and domes- has advanced to a level where typical livestock farming is tication of animals, the importance of hunting and game meat applied, thus assuring a regular supply of quality meat. In New as a means of survival radically decreased in most parts of the Zealand, red deer is the major farmed species, accounting for world. Nevertheless, in the present time and particularly in about 85% of the total farmed deer, which nowadays corre- developing countries, a variety of different wildlife species is sponds to approximately 1.1 million animals. According to the still sought as food as they inevitably remain a cheap source of European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) data, among the cervids, protein for many population groups. In Africa and other the fallow deer and the red deer are the most common species regions of the globe, such as the Amazon in South America, farmed in Europe, with approximately 280000 animals farm- bushmeat (according to the Convention on Biological Diver- raised in 2010, although less than half of these are slaughtered sity, bushmeat is a term used to describe any terrestrial wild annually. In some European countries (Sweden, Norway, and animal in tropical and subtropical countries harvested for sub- Finland) and in Alaska, venison production is dominated by sistence or commercial purposes) remains of major impor- traditional reindeer farming, which is generally performed in a tance either for consumption or to obtain revenue from less-intensive system when compared to red deer farming since trade. Although some recent data have been published on the the animals are free-ranging in the forests/mountains instead of bushmeat consumption in some parts of the world, such as in being enclosed in fenced areas. The animals that pasture exten- South America where consumption in indigenous communi- sively in herds may belong to different owners, being recognized ties can attain values of 35.8 to 191.6 kg per capita year, the by specific cut marks on their ears. In the United States and level of consumption is very difficult to estimate due to several Canada, different cervid species are being farm-raised including factors, such as unreported data concerning harvested animals, the elk (Cervus canadensis), the fallow deer, the sika deer (Cervus direct sales, trade in hidden markets, and illegal poaching. nippon), the axis deer (Axis axis), and the white-tailed deer (Odo- However, it is generally accepted that in rural African areas, coileus virginianus). bushmeat continues to represent a vital dietary item for a vast Regarding small game animals, as referred, rabbits are gen- number of people although high variations across the conti- erally farmed-raised mostly using intensive systems, while nent exist. Apart from being consumed by local populations, hares are hunted in the wild. Several game bird species, includ- game meat is also frequently tasted by tourists who visit those ing migratory birds such as geese and ducks, are also frequently regions, although this represents a minor percentage of the hunted worldwide, with a small number of species, such as total game meat consumed. pheasants, also being breed in captivity for restocking hunting During the last decades, the potential of African ungulates areas or for boosting natural populations. for meat production is also being taken into account for meat exportation, with different wild animals that roam in large enclosures being harvested for this purpose.