ROBERT J. THOMPSON and ALEXANDER KOSSIAKOFF

THE MASTER' S DEGREE PROGRAM IN TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT

The JHU/ APL Technical Management Program is designed to help scientists and engineers become successful managers. Management is presented as an art that the student learns by solving problems in a simulated management role under the tutelage of experienced managers, as well as by lectures, reading, and class discussion. This article presents the curriculum and describes the distinctive features of the in­ structional approach.

INTRODUCTION A graduate program in The Johns Hopkins Univer­ course is taught by two instructors and several guest lec­ sity G. W. C. Whiting School of Engineering leading turers, exposing the students to a broad range of ex­ to the degree of Master of Science in Technical Manage­ periences and iewpoints. ment is now in its ninth year at the JHU/ APL Educa­ The students are generally mature scientists and en­ tion Center. The program is also offered at the Uni er­ gineers who ha e fi e or more years of professional ex­ sity's new Montgomery County Center. Its objecti e is perience and who have recently made or expect to make to assist professional scientists and engineers, who ei­ the transition into management. They are drawn from ther have already assumed management responsibilities a broad cross section of the neighboring technical com­ or who aspire to a future career in management, in de­ munity and show considerable diversity in education, veloping their skills for effectively managing technical work experience, and viewpoint. projects and directing the efforts of technical profession­ als. In this program, students learn what managers do, THE NEED FOR THE PROGRAM what kinds of problems they must deal with, and what Technical products are becoming more complex, more tools and techniques they can use. An integrated curric­ esoteric, and more expensi e, while our society is becom­ ulum introduces the students into management, teaches ing more dependent on them, both for national defense them basic skills in managing work and dealing with peo­ and in commercial applications. The research, develop­ ple, and presents the opportunities and challenges of in­ ment, production, and often the operation of high-tech­ troducing technological change and developing new nology products and systems require the coordinated ef­ products. fort of many skilled speciali ts trained in a variety of The program has several distinctive features. Manage­ disciplines. Successful management of such an effort re­ ment is taught primarily as an art that the student can quires a thorough understanding of the technology in- best learn ·by doing, as well as through lectures, read­ olved combined with highl de eloped skill to organize, ings, and interactive discussion. A scenario is presented motivate, and direct the specialists to meet exacting goals in which the student plays a management role and deals of performance, schedule, and cost. with realistic situations. Each problem is assigned be­ As technology has grown more complex, so has the fore the principles it illustrates have been discussed, so manager's job. Being a technical leader in the field is that the students' minds are fully engaged before the no longer enough. Today's knowledge workers ha e their classroom lecture or discussion. Both the problems and own agendas and cannot be directed simply by saying, the lectures are organized around a series of "lessons Do as I say or Follow me. Nor, because of the high risks to be learned": specific, practical principles the student and costs in 01 ed, can the new manager afford to learn can remember and apply to similar situations in the fu­ by trial and error. He needs to learn fast and learn right. ture. For example, an important lesson is that the tech­ (Throughout this article we use "he" in lieu of the awk­ nical manager must understand the technology he ward "he or she." An increasing number of technical manages. managers are women, as are about 20070 of the student The value of the program is directly related to the qual­ in the Technical Management Program.) Serious prob­ ity of the faculty, and JHU/ APL is endowed with skilled, lems therefore arise when the scientist or engineer mo es experienced managers who are members of the university into a supervisory or project management position and community and who enjoy teaching. Some of the faculty finds that neither his professional education nor his ex­ and guest lecturers are also drawn from the neighboring perience as a technical professional has prepared him for technical community. All instructors are practicing dealing with the complex and often frustrating problems managers who share their experiences with the students inherent in accomplishing his work through others or in interactive discussions and problem reviews. Each for planning, organizing, and directing the efforts of di-

162 John Hopkin APL Technical D ige c, Volume JO umber 2 (/9 9) verse individuals and groups to exacting technical, cost, between getting overly involved in technical detail, at the and schedule requirements. The transition is severe and risk of micromanaging and losing the big picture, or be­ frequently traumatic. An all too common consequence is ing insufficiently involved in technical problems, at the that an effective technical specialist becomes an ineffec­ risk of losing technical control and becoming a high-level tive technical manager, to the detriment of his coworkers, bookkeeper. He is responsible for everything on his proj­ the organization and its products, and his own career. ect, but by himself can do almost nothing. Transition into Management The new technical group supervisor fmds that, although he is working harder and longer than ever, he can no The kinds of knowledge and skills that an aspiring longer see tangible accomplishments at the end of the manager needs to acquire may be better understood by month, let alone the week or the day. In fact, he has examining in more detail the transitions he experiences no directly measurable work output, and his worth to as he pursues a management career. Technical organi­ the organization depends on the level of performance zations frequently use "matrix" management, in which of other professionals whom he can guide but cannot project or program managers are responsible for the ex­ effectively give orders to. Recognition for new ideas and ecution of projects from inception to completion and successful products goes to the individuals directly must employ the skills of appropriate technical groups responsible, but overall responsibility for technical as the project advances from conception through design, difficulties, schedule slippages, and cost overruns in the de elopment, testing, and production. Functional or line group rests with the supervisor. He must find his satis­ managers are responsible for establishing and maintain­ faction in the professional accomplishments of the group ing the expertise of the organization's technical specialty rather than his own technical contributions. groups and for overseeing their work on the successive Each new manager discovers, as he attempts to carry projects that use their talents. Many managers will oper­ out his job, that his plans and directions are routinely ate in both capacities in the course of their careers. The misunderstood and often ignored. His whole job now two managerial roles, however, are sufficiently distinct depends on successful communication, but usually nei­ that the Technical Management Program is divided into ther he nor his colleagues have been well trained in ef­ two tracks, project management and organization man­ fective interpersonal communication or even in technical agement, as shown in Fig. 1. report writing. Generally, the transition can be very frus­ The newly appointed manager, whether of a techni­ trating and the newly appointed manager needs help. cal project or a technical group, suddenly finds that the useful output of his project or group is produced by peo­ ple other than himself; he is no longer a direct technical Transition within Management contributor. The project manager also fmds that the suc­ When the first-level manager is promoted to a middle­ cess of his project depends on numerous technical disci­ management level, he finds the transition almost as pro­ plines or specialties, including some that he knows rela­ found as the earlier one. He had become by this time tively little about. He must balance technical objectives a successful group supervisor, and, by guiding and direct­ and risks that he may not fully understand against cost ing the work of others, the impact of his individual ef­ and schedule commitments that are also not entirely of fort had expanded dramatically into the directed effort his own devising but based on the inputs of others. When of "his" team, in which he took great pride and satis­ technical crises occur, as they will, the project manager faction. Now he has been appointed to head an organi­ is responsible for resolving them and deciding the course zation of several groups-a branch, division, or depart­ of action. He must make system-level decisions on the ment-with several technical group supervisors report­ basis of limited and imperfect knowledge, and do so ex­ ing to him. On paper his authority has grown consider­ peditiously but not hastily. He constantly walks a line ably; in practice his direct authority may be severely diminished. He is now a manager of managers, each of whom has his own objectives and agenda and feels no need to be told what to do or to report regularly on what Individual he is doing. Managing managers is a new game for our professional middle manager, and one for which he will generally find no rules. He is likely to discover that his new role is somewhat nebulous and quite different from any he has Project Line management played previously, a role of influence rather than direct control as he becomes a goal setter, facilitator, teacher, spokesman, and advocate to higher management and to customers, and frequently a helper to his subordinates in solving problems or relieving them of administrative burdens. Similarly, the program manager who had learned to plan, direct, and control the effort on his program finds, when promoted to manage a much larger program, that his direct control is diminished as he now works through Figure 1-Transitions in the life of the technical manager. a technical and business staff. He also spends much time

fohns Hopkins A PL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1989) 163 Thompson and Kossiakojj and effort dealing with top management, subcontrac­ solution. An additional objective of the introductory tors and suppliers, and especially with the customer. courses is to ensure that the student will learn enough There can be great satisfaction in being able to pro­ about the management environment to determine for vide direction, motivation, and guidance to larger seg­ himself whether he has the desire, aptitude, tempera­ ments of the organization or larger programs. But there ment, and commitment required to be an effective man­ also can be continued frustration if the manager has not ager. The introductory courses are prerequisite to the understood and prepared for his changing role. more ad anced courses in their respective options. THE CURRICULUM Intermediate Courses Five intermediate courses are designed to provide the The technical management curriculum is designed to tudent with basic management tools and skills and with help equip students for a management career by offer­ the opportunity to practice their application. Three ing a series of interrelated courses in which they will learn courses, dealing respectively with project planning, com­ what managers do, what kinds of problems they must munications, and fmance and contracts, make up a core deal with, and what tools and techniques they need to program required of all degree candidates. A system en­ know. Throughout, the student plays the role of a man­ gineering cour e is required for the project management ager, engaging in typical activities and confronting typical option and a personnel management course is required problems. The activities, techniques, and tools of man­ for the organization management option. agement are presented in the lectures and reading. The instructors, who are experienced managers, share their Advanced Courses knowledge and expertise in interactive discussions of the The introductory and intermediate courses form an student problems, readings, and lectures. The courses integrated structure offering a strong foundation in both are organized in three progressive levels, as shown in Ta­ work management and people management. The ad­ ble 1. vanced courses build on this foundation. They are of two types. One course in each option addresses the Introductory Courses management of today's larger projects and organiza­ Introduction to Project Management and Technical tions. The others address special topics of significance Group Management are the starting points of the proj­ in the management of high-technology activities in to­ ect and organization management tracks, respectively. day's environment. Both courses are required of all degree candidates, since More detailed course descriptions are presented below. project managers and line supervisors, who must work together to carry out technical programs, need to un­ THE APPROACH derstand each other's work. Also, many managers may play both project and line management roles during their Although many major universities have established careers. The transition from engineering specialist to graduate programs designed to teach management skills manager is addressed by placing the student in the role to engineers, the JHU program has features that distin­ of a newly appointed project engineer or technical group guish it from the others. supervisor, where he learns the functions and responsi­ Most university programs in engineering management, bilities of the new job, encounters typical technical and engineering administration, management of technology, personnel management problems, and begins to prac­ and related areas are largely theoretical, combining tice the methods and develop the skills required for their courses from the business school with courses featuring analytical tools for use in program management or sys­ tem engineering. Examples of management situations are often presented as case studies whose outcome is ana­ Table 1-Scope of the technical management courses. lyzed. Courses are generally taught by professors who Introductory courses have studied management from an analytical iewpoint but who ha e not themsel es practiced it. These pro­ Transition to management grams are aluable for broadening a student's understand­ Managing technical tasks ing of business practices and analytical methods, but may Managing professional personnel have limited practical applicability. Intermediate courses The JHU Technical Management Program also cov­ Basic management skills ers management principles, techniques, and tools that System viewpoint can be learned and used. Overall, however, the manage­ Dealing with people ment field lacks organized knowledge or generally ac­ Effective communication cepted wisdom. It is largely experience-based. Since it is more an art than a science, the students can learn best Advanced courses by doing. They are placed in management roles and gi - en realistic management problems to solve. These prob­ Transition to middle management Interacting with customers lems are then interactively discussed in class. An Computer applications art is best taught by a skilled practitioner, and this Technological change is a key feature of the program. Courses are taught by current or recent managers of large-scale projects or by

164 Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, umber 2 (1989) The Master's Degree Program in Technical Management middle- or top-level technical supervisors. All courses the subject and eager to discuss it. This enhances the ef­ have two instructors and also feature guest lecturers who fective use of limited classroom time. The lecture can are specialists in specific areas of interest. This exposes then be an interpretation, elucidation, or generalization the students to a broader range of experiences and points of the material that the student has already encountered. of view, and also makes possible participation by active In some of the advanced courses, lectures have been put managers who want to teach but who may not always in written form for the students to read in advance. be available. Classroom time can then be spent in informal interac­ The program has been developed as a unified entity, tive discussion of problem situations, questions and an­ course by course, to ensure its integration into a coher­ swers, and exchange of experiences. ent structure. The student first deals with simpler sys­ In addition to optimizing the value of the limited con­ tems and smaller organizations, progressing to larger, tact time between students and instructors, our approach more complex systems and organizations. The mechan­ emphasizes learning by doing. Effective learning requires ics of management are presented first. Work manage­ that the student incorporate the material into his own ment is discussed before people management, and experience. Listening for the first time to a lecture in interactions with subordinates and colleagues are dis­ an unfamiliar subject area may not effectively associate cussed before the more difficult interactions with non­ or connect the material to anything in the student's previ­ technical peers, superiors, and customers. Three points ous experience, so it is less likely to be integrated and are increasingly emphasized as the curriculum progresses: recalled. As far as possible, the problems are designed (1) management is an art dealing with people; (2) deci­ to offer simulated management experience that the stu­ sions must often be made on the basis of incomplete and dent will recall when he encounters a similar situation. ambiguous information; and (3) there are few "school Interpretation of a reading assignment also engages the solutions" to problems, since every situation is unique. mind. This approach more nearly resembles the combi­ nation of practice, theory, criticism, and example used Lessons to be Learned in teaching art or music than it does the teaching of a An important feature of the JHU program is the con­ knowledge-based subject. cept of organizing the courses around specific lessons to be learned. The focus is on the practical result to be "Scenario" Problems achieved-improving the student's understanding and Another notable feature of the teaching approach is skills-rather than on simply imparting information. A the emphasis on what we call scenario problems, in lesson to be learned is an impression the student will car­ which the student is placed in the role of a manager hav­ ry away from a lecture or problem discussion; he will ing to deal with a specific problem. This role-playing, remember it and can call upon it in the future as the or more properly role-thinking, offers a learning ex­ basis for action in a similar situation. Thus, the lesson perience that may be recalled in the future. It gives the is similar to the moral of a fable or parable, long recog­ student a vicarious managing experience, and so is quite nized as powerful teaching tools. Identifying lessons to different from the case study approach used in many be learned in a given area of instruction has proved more management courses, wherein the student is an observer effective to help an instructor organize his material than and analyst and compares his analysis with an outcome the more usual subject-heading outline. that is later revealed. Observation and analysis, which One important lesson to be learned is that change is are typical of the theoretical approach to teaching a distinguishing characteristic of high-technology organi­ management, can be very useful to specialists on cor­ zations. Technology is highly dynamic and constantly porate, military, or legislative staffs, for example, but presents new opportunities, new products and applica­ less useful to practicing line or project managers. tions, and thus new challenges to technical managers. Unlike the case study, which is usually based on a real Technical organizations and programs must adapt to situation and has but a single outcome, in the discus­ change or they will suffer obsolescence and be out­ sion of a scenario problem, each student will arrive at distanced by competitors. The manager may often feel a somewhat different solution, often with different ex­ like the Red Queen and Alice when they had to run as pected outcomes. The student learns that, whereas there fast as they could just to stay in the same place. The are certain guiding principles to be followed, in com­ program teaches that the successful technical manager plex situations there is usually no school solution, but facilitates change and that, paradoxically, the technical rather a range of approaches that may be comparably organization attains stability not by resisting change but valid and may produce comparably satisfactory (or un­ by being flexible and adaptive enough to exploit changes satisfactory) outcomes. He also learns that there gener­ in its technical environment (i.e., by evolutionary devel­ ally are no ideal solutions, but that one needs to effect opment). compromises and avoid the less desirable outcomes. Since An unusual feature of the program is that the prob­ the student will learn lessons he can retain and apply in lem or reading is generally assigned to the student be­ the future, the scenario problem is an implementation of fore the principles it illustrates have been presented in the lessons-to-be-Iearned concept. a classroom lecture-the reverse of the customary aca­ To offer a familiar and consistent setting for scenario­ demic procedure. The student thus grapples with the based problems, a mythical company called Space Tech­ problem before coming to class and is fully engaged with nology Applications, Incorporated (STA) has been creat-

Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1989) 165 Thompson and Kossiakojj ed. In various courses the student plays the role of proj­ to give him some tools for quick learning, such as ag­ ect manager, engineering group supervisor, assistant chief gressive questioning of experts, and to help him develop engineer, major program manager, and chief engineer of some confidence that he can quickly learn what he needs the company. to know to make technical decisions. Lack of confidence STA is based partly on the APL Space Department, in his ability to learn new technologies is a major prob­ partly on a division of a large aerospace company that one lem for a manager who, as he grows older and moves up of the authors was associated with, and partly on mate­ the organizational ladder , may become a paper shuffler rial gleaned from annual reports of medium-sized aero­ and lose technical control of his project or organization. space and electronics companies. The structural break­ The manager who maintains his grasp of the basics, con­ down of the company and its engineering department are sistently adopts a system iewpoint, and is not intimi­ shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively; a summary of the dated by the jargon of the experts will find it easy to company's business profile is presented in Table 2. The pick the brains of those experts and incorporate new in­ students are given extensive background material (about formation into his broad knowledge base. 70 to 80 pages of text and figures) on the company: its The di ersity in both the technology presented and the history, projects, organizational functions, engineering background of the student body are such that probably group descriptions, and bibliographies of the key per­ no one student will be familiar with all the subject mat­ sonnel with whom the student interacts. The company ter, but every technical subject will be familiar to some is dynamic, and significant changes in the organization, students. By selecting teams of students with diverse projects, and personnel occur as the student progresses backgrounds to work together on problems, the students from project engineer or technical group supervisor to learn from each other. chief engineer. These changes also keep up with advanc­ ing technology and cost inflation and the needs of new THE STUDENTS student problems. The Technical Management Program is designed for Technical Breadth the needs of three classes of students: (1) scientists and The objectives of incorporating a high degree of tech­ engineers who have mastered their technical specialty and nical content in our program are twofold. The first ob­ aspire to career in management; (2) tho e who ha e re­ jective is to impress on the student that he must know cently assumed po itions of management responsibility and understand the technical content of what he is man­ (either informally as technical team leaders or more for­ aging. The most serious problems in high-technology sys­ mally as project engineer or first-level line supervisors) tems usually arise from technical deficiencies in the en­ and want to learn how to operate in the management en­ gineering concept or design. The manager must be able vironment (about half the tudents); and (3) experienced to deal with those problems. If he does not appreciate managers who want more formal training in manage­ the nature of the problem, he is at the mercy of the ment tools and methodology and a broadening of their specialists who do-or think they do. He must under­ outlook. The a erage age of the tudents is in the stand the technical context of management decisions in mid-30s, ranging from the late 20 to over 50. order to do his job. To gain full alue from the program, students must The second objective is to give the student opportu­ be sufficiently experienced and profes ionally mature to hities to learn new technical material outside his specialty, comprehend and cope with the types of managerial prob-

Management ~ President Board of Council Executive Vice-President ----1 Directors I Assistants to the President: Planning and Organization Public Relations

Staff functions I I I I Vice-President of Manager of Counsel and Controller and Director of Marketing and Contracts and Corporate Treasurer Personnel Customer Relations Purchasing Secretary

Operating functions I I I I 1 Senior Director of Vice-President of Director of Vice-President of Vice-President Administrative Technical Programs Q ual~y Control Product Operations and Chief Engineer Operations

Figure 2-0rganizational structure of Space Technology Applications Incorporated.

166 John Hopkin APL Technical Dige c, Volume 10, umber 2 (19 9) The Master's Degree Program in Technical Management

Senior Vice-President and Chief Engineer Assistant Chief Engineer

I I I I Planning Information Personnel Budgeting Reporting Services Coordinator Scheduling

I I I I Director of Research II Director of Design Director of Manager of Manager of I and Advanced Design and Analysis I System Development 11Engineering Services II Computing Services I r- Space physics I- Electronic design - Navigation systems - Drafting specifications r- Operations standards I- Ocean physics I- Mechanical design - Communication I- Programming systems - Computer-aided I- Solid-state physics I- Power and thermal design ~ User support and devices design - Control systems - Model shop '- Knowledge-based I- Software design - Guidance systems systems - Microelectronics - Analysis - Instrumentation laboratory

- Materials test laboratory

- Functional and environmental test laboratory

Figure 3-Engineering department of Space Technology Applications, Incorporated.

Table 2-Business profile of Space Technology Applications, ing, or mathematics and at least five years of profes­ Incorporated, an engineering research and sional work experience. They must also meet the scholas­ development company. tic requirement for graduate students of the G. W. C. Whiting School of Engineering. $100 million/ year gross business The academic and employment backgrounds of the 800 employees (550 technical personnel) sfudents vary considerably, which brings a desirable di­ 66070 in-house; 33% subcontract versity of experiences and viewpoints into the classroom 75% government (000 and NASA); 25% nongovernment discussions. The principal dichotomy is between the hardware-oriented engineers and the software specialists, Product % of Effort who comprise two distinct cultures. Since the contem­ Navigation satellites 20 porary manager must deal with both cultures and see Communication satellites 20 to it that they interact effectively, it is excellent experience Scientific satellites 15 for the students to become familiar with the jargon and Space instruments 15 the particular technical and organizational problems of Ocean instruments 10 the " other half," and to appreciate the similarities and Biomedical instruments 5 differences between hardware and software development Transportation systems 5 and application. Special projects (independent 10 The introductory classes are limited to about 20 stu­ research and development, bid dents. The advanced classes are generally smaller, allow­ and proposal) ing a high level of student participation. At the APL Center, about 375 students have attend­ ed 130 classes since the program began in 1980; 109 lems they will face. They also need the self-confidence graduates have received master of science degrees, and that comes from being well established and recognized about 150 students are now enrolled. The newer Mont­ in their specialty. And, since the program stresses that gomery County program, which started in 1986, has en­ a technical manager must understand the work he man­ rolled about 80 students, none of whom has yet ages, a solid technical background is essential. Conse­ graduated. quently, admission is generally limited to candidates who The composition of the student body is diverse in edu­ have a bachelor's degree in physical science, engineer- cation, work experience, organizational affiliation, and

Johns Hopkins A PL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1 989) 167 Thompson and Kossiakojj

management status. About 700/0 of the students are em­ cently held by APL staff members include: an assistant ployed by neighboring industrial organizations, 20% are director, the chief scientist and former director, three from government, and 10% are APL staff. Most of the major department heads, three associate or assistant industrial employees are federal government contractors. department heads, fi e branch supervisors or assistant About 20% of the students are women. supervisors, ten group upervisors or assistant supervi­ sors, and eight program or project managers. Several FACULTY AND PROGRAM COORDINATION instructors or regular gue t lecturers have also had sig­ Currently, more than 40 instructors are actively en­ nificant non-APL experience, up to vice-president level gaged in the program; over half are upper-level organi­ in the aerospace industry and flag rank in the Navy. zation managers or managers of major programs. On Academic 0 ersight of the program is provided by a average, each brings to the program over 20 years of program committee that reports to the Dean of the technical and general management experience gained in G. W. C. Whiting School of Engineering. The commit­ private industry, in government service, or at APL. tee establishes the curriculum and course schedules, About 20 guest lecturers on special topics include inde­ selects and nominates the instructors, sets the admission pendent consultants and experts from other universities, criteria, reviews applicants for admission, certifies can­ government, and industry, as well as APL managers and didates for graduation, and is generally responsible for staff specialists. the quality of the program. The APL members also serve Instructors are carefully selected on the basis of their as the students' academic advisors and teach in the pro­ demonstrated success in managing projects or technical gram. The authors of this article have been Chairman organizations and their interest and skill in communicat­ and Vice-Chairman of the Program Committee since its ing their management experience to prospective manag­ inception. Other current members include J. R. Austin, ers. Since success in management requires exceptional Head, Submarine Technology Department; J. J. Boland, ability to communicate with a diverse audience, effec­ Professor, Geography and Environmental Engineering, tive managers, as a rule, make very capable teachers. Whiting School of Engineering; E. J. Hinman, Head, About three-fourths of the technical management Fleet Systems Department; and G. L. Smith, Assistant faculty are members of the Principal Professional Staff Director for Research and Exploratory Development. of APL, a rank equivalent to tenured faculty. About a The administration of the program is facilitated by dozen non-APL faculty are drawn from the management Samuel Koslov, Director of the APL Education Center, ranks of nearby industry, primarily from the Defense and J. L. Teesdale, Supervisor of Education and Train­ and Electronics Systems Division of Westinghouse Elec­ ing and Assistant Director of the APL Education Center. tric Corporation. The APL staff has been a particularly rich source of INDIVIDUAL COURSES faculty because of its diverse activities in developing mis­ The technical management curriculum comprises 13 sile, space, and other complex systems for the Navy, courses grouped into three categories-two introducto­ NASA, and other government agencies, and its broad ry, five intermediate, and six ad anced-and is organized range of research, analysis, and evaluation programs. into two parallel tracks: project management and organi­ The staff traditionally works closely with both industry zation management (see Fig. 4). To qualify for the mas­ and major government laboratories and understands ter of science degree, students must complete seven re­ their organizations, methods of operation, and special quired courses and three electi es under either option. abilities. Through APL's service in many programs as Students who select both options complete nine required a technical agent for the government, the staff has ac­ courses and one elective. a er half the students elect both quired experience in all phases of major system acquisi­ options; the remainder are about equally divided between tion and operational evaluation. project and organization management. A description of Among the several research universities that operate the individual courses follows. major research and development laboratories, JHU is the only one that has established graduate programs or­ Introduction to Project Management ganized and primarily taught by members of its labora­ Introduction to Project Management deals with the tory staff. JHU/ APL is unique in having available as problems a newly appointed program manager encoun­ teachers experienced and practicing technical managers ters in achieving the transition from technical specialist who are also members of the university community. Our to manager. Emphasis is placed on the functions, roles, managers find time to teach within their busy schedules and responsibilities of the project manager and his in­ because they enjoy it and because they recognize the val­ teractions with the technical personnel working on his ue of the program to aspiring young managers. Also project, under his management, and for his customer. notable is the cohesion of the faculty, enhanced by The previously described STA scenario is used, and the monthly faculty luncheons where the status and progress specific project that the student is to manage is described. of the courses and students are reported and common The general methodology of managing a project problems aired. throughout its life cycle from concept formulation to Although statistics do not adequately convey the qual­ operational use is presented, including project organi­ ity of the faculty, it is worth noting that positions of zation, planning, and assignment of work; execution, the technical management faculty now occupied or re- direction, and control; and assessment and reporting.

168 fohns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, umber 2 (1989) The Master's Degree Program in Technical Management

Introduction to Technical Group Project Management I Management I

,~

" Project Planning and Control

System Communications in Technical Personnel Engineering Technical Organizations Management

Financial and Contract Management

Figure 4-Course organization of the technical management curricu­ ,~ , lum, showing the two introductory courses (top row), the five inter­ System Management of System Modeling mediate courses (middle row), and Acquisition Technical Organizations and Simulation the six advanced courses (bottom Management (required) row). or Advanced Software Computer Resource Technology Engineering Management Seminar Management (recommended)

Required for Required for Required for Elective for project organization both options either option management management D option option

Project management tools and methodology are in­ detailed scenario problem provides a realistic setting in troduced, and the students practice their use in the con­ which the new supervisor assumes responsibility for the text of the scenario that focuses on the individual, the group and experiences a succession of typical problems stresses to which he must adjust, and the decisions he involving his interactions with individuals both within must make in response to unanticipated but typical prob­ and outside the group. These problems point out the lems. The problem is usually presented first, and the complexity of the supervisor's task and the multiplicity methods or tools that will help the student to deal with of relationships he must maintain with the individuals it are then introduced and applied. This approach is in his group and with his superiors and peers through­ designed to help the young project manager to acquire out the organization. Primary attention is focused on the attitude and viewpoint as well as the skills and the development of the individual as a manager as he methods he will find most helpful in doing his job. is introduced to and given the opportunity to practice The project engineer must achieve a balance between management methods and skills in establishing goals and providing technical leadership and carrying out the plan­ priorities; planning and organizing tasks and assigning ning and control necessary to complete the task on time work; developing task objectives, costs, and schedules; and to cost. The organizational relationship of the proj­ starting up and staffing new projects; closing out old ect manager to the engineers in the technical groups who projects; monitoring technical progress and identifying work on his project and to their line supervisors is ex­ difficulties or deficiencies; and delegating authority and amined. The need for sensitivity, active two-way com­ responsibility. Personnel management is introduced, in­ munication, and continuous negotiation to maintain cluding leadership, motivation, evaluation, profession­ cooperative effort and avoid potential conflicts between al growth, and conflict resolution. line and project management is stressed. The student learns that the technical group leader is primarily responsible for the technical quality, integri­ Technical Group Management ty, and productivity of his group, and his success de­ Technical Group Management is the companion pends on the efforts of others. To exercise successful course to Introduction to Project Management. The two technical leadership, he must be thoroughly familiar with courses are independent and may be taken concurrently the work of his group; the specific technical problems or consecutively in either order, but they are closely in­ involved in the tasks; and the skills, abilities, and defi­ terrelated, since both are concerned with the transition ciencies of his personnel. Early problem identification from individual worker to manager. and prompt direction of effort to reach a timely and cost­ The student plays the role of a newly appointed group effective solution are hallmarks of the excellent group supervisor in the engineering department of STA. The and the capable group supervisor.

Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1989) 169 Thompson and Kossiakoff

System Engineering a capable technical organization range from goal setting The System Engineering course is required of all stu­ and recruitment of professional personnel to personnel dents in the project management option and is taken as evaluation, counseling, and professional growth. The an elective by most other students. It treats the techni­ course stresses that the supervisor is largely responsible cal leadership aspect of the project manager's task and for defining the goal , setting the tone, and establishing stresses the need for the project manager to think like the work environment of the group, and for providing a system engineer as he manages and integrates the ef­ the leadership, direction, and motivation required for forts of the engineering design and development, test, innovative and effecti e technical accomplishment. The production, and logistics specialists who perform the importance of establishing and maintaining effective two­ detailed work on his project. Although the project man­ way communications is emphasized. ager should not become involved in the technical details Building on the scenario previously introduced in at the component level, he must have a broad technical Technical Group Management, the student plays the role overview of the system and of the interactions among of the group supervisor dealing with activities and prob­ its component parts. He should understand thoroughly lems encountered during a typical year, including those the system performance requirements; the basic techni­ calling for group leadership and those requiring one-on­ cal concepts designed to meet those requirements; the one interaction with specific individuals. operational environment; and the trade-offs, advantages, and risks involved in critical design decisions. A high-technology system typically involves both hard­ Project Planning and Control ware and software, and both mechanical and electrical The Project Planning and Control course is required components, and requires the expertise of a variety of of all students, since all managers must learn to plan, technical specialty disciplines during its development. The measure, and control the work they manage. This course project manager must learn to think broadly in terms treats the organization of the project office; the plan­ of component or subsystem functions and interactions. ning, budgeting, scheduling, and assignment of work; A total system viewpoint is necessary to balance properly the measurement and assessment of progress; and the the technical requirements and performance objectives actions required to correct for the inevitable deviations of the project against the cost, schedule, and other from the plan as unanticipated technical difficulties, cost constraints-a balance that only the project manager can escalations, or schedule delays are encountered. effectively accomplish-and to evolve a system config­ The scenario presents problem situations arising in the uration that can be most readily developed, tested, management of a high-technology project, from the re­ produced, and maintained. quest for proposal to product delivery, emphasizing the System engineering principles and methods are in­ continually changing role of the project manager in plan­ troduced and applied to the solution of technical prob­ ning, directing, and controlling the work as it progress­ lems through the life of the project, from the initial es through engineering design, de elopment, and test. mission need statement through concept formulation and Particular attention is gi en to preparing the technical engineering development, to production and deployment. and cost proposals and initiating the work on receipt of Topics covered include requirements analysis and con­ a eontract, ince the subsequent success of the project cept definition, functional specifications, design criteria largely depends on the quality and thoroughness of these and design trade-offs, risk analysis, configuration de­ initial planning efforts. The cour e stresses that the plan sign · and control, system performance validation, and must be based on a thorough under tanding of the tech­ design documentation. The scenario traces the develop­ nical requirements of the ystem to be de eloped and ment history of a moderately complex system, present­ a realistic appraisal of the factor affecting co t and ing the student with typical system engineering problems schedule performance. that illustrate important issues, apply system engineer­ The methodologies u ed include the work breakdown ing methods and tools in their solution, and stress the structure, which divides the total effort into a hierarchical importance of the system viewpoint. set of deliverables down to the Ie el of task that are individually assigned to technical groups, and the criti­ Technical Personnel Management cal path method, which identifies the pace- etting tasks The Technical Personnel Management course is re­ that need particular management attention. An expendi­ quired of all students in the organization management ture and technical progres reporting system at the task option and is an elective for other students. It treats the level provides the manager with the 0 ersight needed to interpersonal relations, interactions, and problems of the monitor and control the program, identify problems technical group supervisor as he deals with the profes­ promptly, and replan the effort as necessary. sional workers in his group. Although significant mate­ Students are encouraged to become familiar with and rial from management science and behavior theory is pre­ use computer-based project management support tool. sented and discussed, the principal emphasis is on the The course stresses, however, that although the computer practical problems of accomplishing work through the is a valuable management aid, it cannot substitute for efforts of others. The personnel being led are indepen­ the manager's thoroughness in planning, vigilance in ear­ dent professional workers who must be treated as in­ ly identification of problems, and judgment in finding dividuals. The elements involved in building and leading and applying corrective actions.

170 fohns Hopkin APL Technical Dige t, Volume 10, umber 2 (19 9) The Master's Degree Program in Technical Management Communications in Technical Organizations Although the material is presented from the standpoint The objective of Communications in Technical Or­ of the technical manager rather than the accountant or ganizations, which is required of all students, is to help lawyer, all the essentials required to read various finan­ the student develop the communication skills essential cial reports or to understand the basic principles of con­ to his effectiveness as a manager. Since the job of the tract management and the major types of contracts are manager is to get work accomplished through the ef­ considered. The material is reinforced by case studies and forts of other people, no skill is more important to him assignment of practical problems for the students to than effective interpersonal communication. The com­ solve. munications treated here are not simply transmitting System Acquisition Management technical information from one person to another but System Acquisition Management may be taken by rather two-way, closed-loop communications that will project management option students to fulfill their ad­ result in appropriate actions by the participants to pro­ vanced course requirement and is an elective for other duce a desired result. Such management communications students. It focuses on management activities and prob­ must persuade as well as inform, they must be correctly lems occurring throughout the acquisition cycle of a ma­ understood, and the recipient must in turn provide feed­ jor defense system, from first recognition of a mission back. Skill in receiving communications (listening and need to deployment of a successful operating system, per­ reading) is emphasized along with skill in delivery (speak­ haps a decade or more later. The example chosen for the ing and writing). class scenario is based on the actual acquisition history Communication difficulties include perception, cog­ of a major weapon system, suitably modified to con­ nition, semantic problems, unconscious distortion, and form to current acquisition policy and practice. The key individual differences in receiving and processing infor­ lessons learned are generally applicable to any major sys­ mation. The need to identify the knowledge base, cul­ tem acquisition by the federal government. tural or individual biases, viewpoint, and area of interest The student plays the role of the system prime con­ of the recipient(s) is discussed. Techniques for effective tractor's program manager, managing a larger and more oral and written communications are presented in the complex program than heretofore. The primary focus, context of problem situations involving communications however, is now outward: the interactions of the con­ for various purposes (e.g., assigning work, reporting tractor's program manager with his customer and coun­ results, assessing performance, responding to complaints terpart, the government program manager. The develop­ and grievances) that call for the student in his role as ment of a cooperative and synergistic relationship among a supervisor to write letters, prepare internal mem­ the procuring agency, government laboratories, univer­ oranda, make formal and informal presentations, pre­ sity (or other nonprofit) laboratories that advise and sup­ side over or participate in meetings, and engage in port the government, and industrial contractors is essen­ one-on-one discussions. Writing assignments are dis­ tial to conduct successfully a major system developmen­ cussed and speaking assignments are delivered in class tal program. The contractor's program manager must for group evaluation and videotaped for self-evaluation. understand the difficult job of his government counter­ The emphasis throughout is on communication effec­ part and must help him to keep the program moving for­ tiveness, rather than simply the mechanics of speaking ward. Federal acquisition policies and procedures are and writing. presented, not just as dry legal documents, but to un­ Financial and Contract Management derstand their rationale and the ground rules and con­ Financial and Contract Management, also required of straints within which both the government and the all students, is intended to give the student a working contractor's program manager must work. vocabulary and a sufficient background to deal comfort­ The responsibilities, strategies, and activities of both ably with the financial and contractual aspects of his the government and the contractor's program manager managerial job, and to interact with his peers in account­ are traced through the acquisition life cycle from mis­ ing, finance, and contract administration. The student sion needs and operational requirements through devel­ is taught the basics of financial and management ac­ opment, production, and deployment. Topics covered counting and the contracting process. Financial subjects include government acquisition organization; the plan­ include elementary accounting principles; assets, liabili­ ning and budgeting cycles; the origination of new pro­ ties, and owner's equity; direct and indirect costs; and grams; system acquisition planning and contracting strat­ revenues and profits. The use of fmancial reports, indices egies; and program decision milestones and reviews. The to financial positions, and financial management tools student exercises concern the actions to be taken, the pit­ are discussed. falls to be avoided, the problems to be solved, and the Contract management introduces the principles of decision makers to be convinced so that the program will contract formation and the distinctive features of con­ pass each decision milestone and move to successful tracting with the federal government. Subcontract man­ completion. agement (e.g., request for proposal, competitive negoti­ Software Engineering Management ation techniques, contract financing and cost reimburse­ Software Engineering Management may be taken to ment, and technical oversight of the subcontractor) is fulfill the advanced course requirement for the project discussed, with emphasis on techniques for the timely management option and is a popular elective for other resolution of technical, cost, or schedule problems. students.

Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1 989) 171 Thompson and Kossiakojj All contemporary high-technology systems include cial, personnel, and legal areas; and STA's customers, embedded computers for their operation and control. as well as with his own subordinate managers. Topics As the power of computers has grown exponentially, so presented include establishing technical, organizational, have the magnitude and complexity of the software used and business objectives and strategies; planning and im­ in their operation. The development and testing of soft­ plementing new product development; conducting in­ ware are frequently the pacing items in the performance, house research to exploit new technology and meet new schedule, and cost of current military, space, or other customer needs; and resolving significant problems and complex systems. Project managers must understand soft­ conflicts affecting his department. The role of the se­ ware requirements and software development, and must nior manager as a problem solver and as a leader in es­ be able to deal with software professionals. tablishing values, setting goals, facilitating change, and This course is intended to give students a broad, gener­ providing an atmosphere conducive to creativity and al understanding of basic software design principles and productivity is emphasized. to familiarize them with software development and test Interactive discussion of the scenario problems is sup­ activities and products, as well as with the jargon of the plemented by extensi e readings and lectures on manage­ trade. The principles and disciplines learned in prior ment principle and practices. courses are applied to the software development process, from requirements definition and analysis to introduc­ Computer Resource Management tion to the user environment, user support, and life cy­ cle maintenance. The scenario problem used here is the Computer Resource Management, an elective ad­ development of the software employed in an event-driven vanced course a ailable to all students, is particularly real-time system. Such a software system cannot be treat­ recommended for students in the organization manage­ ed as an independent entity, but must be specified and ment option. designed in the context of the requirements and design The acquisition and use of complex, expensive com­ of its parent system in its real-time operating environ­ puter facilities and equipment are among the major re­ ment. sponsibilities of senior managers in high-technology en­ Methodology and tools are discussed, such as struc­ terprises. Managers who must make these decisions sel­ tured analysis and design, architecture and modulariza­ dom have adequate background experience to evaluate tion, use of program design languages, and automated the claims and counterclaim of vendors or of their own tools for detailed design. Federal and industry standards in-house experts in this complex and rapidly changing and specifications are presented, with particular atten­ technology. The aim of the Computer Resource Manage­ tion to Ada (the DoD software standard). Other topics ment course is to help the student acquire the level of include configuration and interface management; verifi­ computer literacy needed by a senior line manager. He cation and validation; software development and test fa­ should become familiar with the jargon and understand cilities and tools; and progress measurement, documenta­ the key technical concepts, management issues, and prob­ tion, and program maintenance. The student plans a lems that frequently arise. software development program with activities, products, The rapidly advancing computer technology offers milestones, reviews, schedule, and cost, from concept continually increasing potentials at generally decreasing definition to in-service maintenance. cost, and management must tread a fine line between premature procurement and obsolescence. A balance Management of Technical Organizations must also be achieved among a wide range of equipment, Management of Technical Organizations is a required applications, and user. Sensitive technical, organization­ course for students electing the organization option and al, and personnel issues arise in areas of hardware and an elective for other students. It focuses on problems software control, software de elopment ersus purchase, in the management of high-technology organizations at user support services, and user charges. These are among the senior technical management level. The STA scenario the issues presented in the course. is again used, but now the student is promoted to the Centralized general-purpose, special, and dispersed role of the newly appointed chief engineer, the senior computer configurations are discussed. Their respecti e technical manager in his company. He must accomplish advantages and disadvantages are presented, together with another transition, from manager of professional workers their applicability to science, engineering, and fmancial to manager of managers, where his effectiveness depends and business management. Staffmg, training, organiza­ on his ability to lead and to persuade others to follow. tion, and the interactions among computer profession­ The scenario carries the student through his first year als, engineering users, and managers are addressed. as chief engineer of a department of several hundred per­ Technology trends such as distributed systems, parallel sons engaged in applied research, product development, processing, and intelligent work stations are presented. and engineering support in an environment of rapidly The ST A scenario problem puts the student in the role advancing technology. He is presented with typical prob­ of the engineering manager responsible for computer lems requiring a variety of technical, business, organiza­ resources and technical applications, dealing with tech­ tional, and personnel decisions and actions. His sphere nical, personnel, and business problems and management of activity is enlarged as he interacts with corporate top issues. The student is also expected to become familiar management; his corporate peers in the marketing, fman- with the computer resources of his own employer.

172 Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, umber 2 (19 9) The Master's Degree Program in Technical Management System Modeling and Simulation that are most likely to radically change industry and so­ System Modeling and Simulation is an advanced ciety; to explore several examples of those technologies course and is an elective for all students. It addresses and assess their management implications; and to help the fundamental characteristics of models and simula­ the student learn how a manager can keep up with tions, their development and use as aids in system de­ change and judge which new developments are most like­ velopment and operational evaluation, and the manage­ ly to have a major impact on his organization. ment issues involved. A review of the technical basis of microelectronic Simulation is the process of designing a model of a devices offers the background for projecting further ad­ real system and conducting experiments with the model vances in computer use, breadth of application, and con­ in order to understand the behavior of the system or tinuing reductions in cost. Areas of application addressed e aluate various strategies for its operation. As high­ include computer-aided design, manufacture, and en­ technology systems have become more complex and their gineering; office automation; factory automation and ro­ development cycles longer and more expensive, it has botics; artificial intelligence and expert systems; neural become increasingly advantageous to test requirements, nets; and laboratory, special-purpose, and personal com­ functions, conceptual designs, and interactions of the puting. Other subjects such as recent advances in materi­ y tem with its operational environment by means of als technology are also introduced. modeling and simulation, often long before a complete Through reading and interactive discussion with spe­ physical embodiment of the system exists. cialists, the students become acquainted with each tech­ Since models are simplified, imperfect representations nology and the effect it is having in their own parent of reality, modeling is both a science and an art, com­ organizations. Students also prepare term papers address­ bining a rigorously disciplined approach with experience, ing the technology, applications, impact, and manage­ judgment, and healthy skepticism. The project or en­ ment issues in a technical area that is new to them. These gineering manager should be able to recognize when papers are presented and discussed in the final class simulation is useful and cost-effective; choose the type sessions. of model; ensure that design, analytic, and operational CONCLUSION expertise are used; see that documentation, configura­ tion control, and cost control are maintained; and make The success of the JHU/ APL Technical Management use of the results. Program since its inception indicates that it is meeting This course is intended to give the manager sufficient the needs both of the individuals to whom it is addressed familiarity with modeling and simulation so that he can and of their employers-the many private industrial recognize both their value and their limitations and man­ firms, government laboratories, and not-for-profit or­ age their use optimally in system development, test, and ganizations engaged in research, development, and en­ evaluation. Topics presented include types of simulation, gineering in the greater Washington-Baltimore area. languages, probability, operations research, wargarning, aids to modeling, verification and validation, reviews, and credibility of results. THE AUTHORS The students acquire hands-on experience with a simu­ lation developed specifically for this course. Working in ROBERT J. THOMPSON was born in San Francisco and graduat­ small teams, they prepare a plan, conduct the simula­ ed from UCLA. During World War tion, analyze the results, and report their conclusions II , he conducted research on rock­ regarding the characteristics, potentials, and limitations ets at Allegeny Ballistics Laborato­ of the simulation itself, as well as the utility for speci­ ry. He subsequently completed his fied missions of the system being simulated. Ph.D. in physical chemistry at the University of Rochester. Dr. Thomp­ Advanced Technology Seminar son carried out research and en­ The Advanced Technology Seminar is an elective ad­ gineering of rocket propulsion systems at the MW Kellogg Co., vanced course for all students. While the entire techni­ Bendix Aviation, and Rockwell In­ cal management curriculum stresses that management of ternational, where he served succes­ high-technology enterprise essentially involves manage­ sively as Vice President and Research ment of change and innovation, this course specifically Director of the ROcketdyne Division and Vice President and General addresses the impact of technological advances on an Manager of the Solid Rocket Divi­ organization's products, processes, and personnel and sion. He joined APL in 1974 as Assistant to the Director, later served facility needs. The manager must understand the poten­ as supervisor of the Technical Information Branch, and is now on the tials and the promise as well as the problems and limi­ staff of the Technical Services Department. Dr. Thompson has been active in both the Technical Management Program and the Johns Hopkins tations of emerging technologies. He must anticipate APL Technical Digest since their inception, and is now also helping to their impact on the effort he manages, including the edit the new APL Technical Review. products, the development and production processes and facilities, marketing and customer relations, and the in­ ternal organization and personnel. The course objectives are to present the essential fea­ tures and management aspects of emerging technologies ALEXANDER KOSSIAKOFF's biography can be found on p. 161. fohns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 10, Number 2 (1989) 173