UC Merced The Journal of California Anthropology

Title The Cahuilla Use of Piyatem, Larvae of the White-Lined Sphinx Moth (Hyles lineata) as Food

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Journal The Journal of California Anthropology, 5(1)

Authors Fenenga, Gerrit L Fisher, Eric M

Publication Date 1978-07-01

Peer reviewed

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The Cahuilla Use of observe and record the human use of insects. One such individual was William Green­ Piyatem^ Larvae of the wood Wright. Wright made many important White-lined Sphinx Moth discoveries and collections of butterflies and other insects in Califomia during the late {Hyles lineata)^ as Food nineteenth century. His data may generally be considered reliable, although he evidently was GERRIT L. FENENGA known to be somewhat eccentric. In Septem­ ERIC M. FISHER ber, 1884, Wright pubUshed an article entitled "A Naturalist in the Desert" in the popular The importance of insect resources to serial Overland Monthly (Wright 1884:279- indigenous peoples is relatively weU known. 284). This short paper contains a number of Historical and anthropological hterature in­ observations which substantiate existing eth­ dicates California Indians utilized insects or nographic data regarding Cahuilla Indian insect exudates as food,' for ornamentation,^ village locations,^ agricultural methods,^ eth- for medicinaP or ritualistic reasons,'* as items nobotanical practices,'*' and social customs." of economic and commercial value,^ and for Specificahy, however, it contains a detailed technological purposes.^ Generally, however, graphic description of Cahuhla caterpillar ethnoentomological documentation consists exploitation. This particular paragraph of of casual or minor observations included in Wright's article is worth reprinting here for historic or ethnographic accounts or of brief several reasons: (1) identification of the insect mention in cultural trait or word lists, without and its host plant are included; (2) the use of precise identification of the insects involved. this insect, the White-lined Sphinx Moth, Some articles have dealt specificahy with the Hyles lineata (Fabricius), shown in Fig. 1, has use of insects by California Indians (Essig seldom been recorded previously in an ethno­ graphic context in CaUfornia or elsewhere; and 1931:12-47; Barrett 1936:1-5; Woodward 1938: (3) Wright's description has not received 175-180; Heizer 1950:35-41). Barrett neglect­ attention and might be of interest to Cahuilla ed, however, to include proper indenti- scholars. fication of his "armyworm."^ This problem is common to most existing notes on the Wright's observations concerning this aboriginal use of insects. Primarily, this is due subject are as follows: to the extraordinarily great number of insect In an hour we came to the caterpillar species that exist. For accurate identification, pasture.'^ The sand is dotted with mats and specimens usuaUy must be submitted to ento­ patches of a procumbent plant,'^ much mologists who specialize in insect classifica­ resembUng in flower the common sand tion; few of the earlier ethnographers followed verbena, Abronia, on which vast armies of this procedure. In addition, insects were often caterpillars—the larvae of D. linearis^*— are feeding; they are huge worms three and described by informants, but never actually four inches long. Another smaU army of seen by the ethnographer. This might have Indians—[men, women, and children]— been the result of the seasonal unavailabihty of are out gathering them as though they were the species of insect, or due to the particular huckleberries, for use as food. The Indians interests of the recorder. Occasionally, ethno­ do not notice us, but go on with their graphers did have opportunities to collect gathering. Seizing a fat worm, they puU off specimens and have them identified, or, better its head, and by a dexterous jerk the viscera yet, entomologists themselves were able to are ejected, and the wriggUng carcass is put CAHUILLA USE OF PIYATEM 85

•JFr Fig. 1. Piyatem: Larva of White-hned Sphinx Moth {Hyles lineata). Actual length is 8.5 cm.

into a small basket or bag, or strung upon She remembered that her grandmother strings and hung upon the arm or about the went out in the spring toward the hills, and neck, till occasion is found to put them into they would gather the worms, kiUing them a large receptacle. 1 got three of these by pinching off the heads. The worms were gathering baskets. One is funnel-shaped, roasted on a comol 'griddle' and either holding a quart or two; another is like a immediately eaten or stored. Sometimes large, flat saucer, and the third is similar they were parched over hot coals, which but with a deep rim. At night, these Indians dried them out and allowed them to be carry their prey home, where they have a stored longer without turning rancid [Lan- great feast.'^ Indians from a long distance do and Modesto 1977:110]. come to these worm feasts, and it is a time of great rejoicing among them. The larvae In April, 1976, Philip J. Wilke, Univershy that are not consumed at the time (and they of California, Riverside, collected specimens eat incredible quantities), are put upon of Hyles lineata which were identified by Mrs. ground previously heated by a fire, and Modesto as piyatem.^'' She also provided an thoroughly dried, when they are packed additional method of preparing this foodstuff, away whole, or pulverized into a meal stating that they were skewered on an arrow- [Wright 1884:283]. weed (Pluchea sericea Nutt.) stem, after pull­ The use of caterpillars and other insects by ing off the head, and roasted. the Cahuilla and their neighbors is weU docu­ The striking similarities between these mented (Drucker 1937:9; Bean and Saubel different accounts of piyatem exploitation 1963:63-64; Bean 1972:61). One particular attest to the importance and desirability of this caterpUlar, as described in several sources, species as a food source to the Cahuilla. The appears to be the species observed by Wright. availabihty of this insect, however, is some­ Bean (1972:61) states: what unpredictable. In certain years, in desert areas of the southwestern United States, A worm called piyatem [piyaxtem]— "outbreaks" of this species occur and within a possibly an army worm—was a favorite local area larvae can be found swarming over treat of the Cahuilla. The worms appeared the ground and vegetation in countless num­ at the surface of the ground in abundance bers. These outbreaks usuaUy happen in the after warm spring rains, and were collected spring, but otherwise are sporadic, sometimes in large quantities, prepared by parching, occurring in consecutive years, sometimes and stored for future use. Their arrival was separated by periods of three or more years. celebrated by a first-fruit ritual as were those of other insects and worms .... The exact cause of this phenomenon is unknown, although it likely involves some Mrs. Ruby E. Modesto, Cahuilla consult­ combination of abundant desert vegetation ant,'* substantiates the use of piyatem, de­ and low numbers of larval parasites and scribing its use as follows: predators. Grant (1937:356) has shown a 86 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY correlation with rainfall. Outbreaks frequently ment of Anthropology, University of Cali­ occur in a spring preceded by a wet winter fornia, Riverside, and Mr. Harry W. Lawton, foUowing a dry year. The Cahuilla were fully University of California, Riverside, provided conscious of the relationship of piyatem avail­ encouragement and critical editorial commen­ abihty to other environmental factors. Evi­ tary on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Dr. dence for this is provided by Mrs. Modesto's Wilke also provided access to pertinent data observation that piyatem appeared in great coUected during his anthropological research numbers in years when there was a good in the Coachella Valley. Finally, we would like bloom of spring flowers. This is perhaps also to express our gratitude to Mrs. Ruby E. the reason Drucker's Desert and Mountain Modesto for the Cahuilla identification of Cahuilla informants told him "rainbow shows piyatem, and for her sincere interest in pre­ where caterpillars fall" (1937:26). Bean (1972: serving the cultural heritage of her people. 135-159) discusses at some length the acute awareness the Cahuilla possessed in regard to Berkeley, California the delicate balance of their ecosystem, and University of California, Davis how they attempted to maintain this balance NOTES through the mechanisms of various rituals. 1. Ethnographic evidence for the collecting, Our purpose in writing this paper was cooking, and eating of insects in California may be twofold. First, we wished to call attention to an found in a number of papers. Primary sources overlooked minor source of Cahuilla ethnohis­ include many of the University of California Cul­ tory. Second, we were concerned with clarify­ tural Element Distribution Lists, the Handbook of ing the ethnographic record in regard to the the Indians of California (Kroeber 1925), and most identification and utihzation of piyatem. In general culturahy specific ethnographic works. A researching this subject, it has become appar­ few historic accounts also contain some informa­ ent to us that the relatively uncharted field of tion on this subject (Leonard 1839:38; Hutchings ethnoentomology has considerable potential 1888:428-429; and others). Summaries, from many for adding to existing knowledge of California sources, on the aboriginal use of insects as food are Indian life. Hopefully, this minor contribution given by Bodenheimer (1951) and Taylor (1975), will stimulate further research into this topic. while Hitchcock (1962) treats several aspects of insect utilization by North and South American ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Indians. Archaeological data substantiating insect consumption in California are more hmited, but do This paper was made possible through the exist. For instance, larvae of a species of crane fly interests and cooperation of a number of (TipuUdae) comprise 25% of a single human individuals. We are indebted to Dr. Lauren D. coprolite found in historic or late prehistoric con­ Anderson, Professor Emeritus, Department of text at Bamert Cave in Amador County (Nissen Entomology, University of California, River­ 1973:66-68). Equally relevant to this topic is the side, for the identification of Hyles lineata. The fact that certain CaUfornia groups, notably the figure was very kindly drawn by Janice Findley Tubatulabal, viewed the eating of insects with Fisher. Larvae of H. lineata were provided by repugnance (VoegeUn 1938:12), ate them only in Dr. Ronald E. Somerby, California State fimes of stress (Kroeber 1925:84; Latta 1976:169- 170), or as in the case of the Yurok practice of eating Department of Food and Agriculture, and body lice, consumed them purely for ideological information and Uterature by Dr. Charles L. reason (Heizer and Mills 1952:131). Hogue and Mr. Juhan P. Donahue, Entomol­ ogy Section, Natural History Museum of Los 2. In 1775, Pedro Font noted of the Colorado Angeles County. Dr. Philip J. Wilke, Depart­ River Yuma: ". . . they wear about the neck good- CAHUILLA USE OF PIYATEM 87 sized strings of the dried heads of animals that look kutsavi exploitation and discusses the distribution like tumble bugs, which are found here" (Font of its use. Other insects mentioned as trade items by 1973:251). The remains of a necklace fashioned, at Davis include caterpillars of the Pandora Moth least in part, of beads made from the legs of beetles (Coloradia pandora Blake) and grasshoppers (1966: (probably Tenebrionidae), was discovered with an 21,32). historic interment at Isabella Meadows Cave, an archaeological site in Monterey County (Meighan 6. An exudate produced on Creosote Bush 1955:10). Also worthy of consideration here is the (Larrea tridentata Cov.) by the lac insect Tachardi- relatively frequent use of insect motifs as design ella larreae (Comstock) (as Carteria larrae) was of elements in basketry and in rock art in certain areas importance as a cementing agent to aboriginal of California. peoples to whom it was available (CovUle 1892:361; Colton 1944:1-24; and others). The Kamia of the 3. A number of general references to such Imperial Valley are reported to have used grass­ practices exist. Some specific examples have been hoppers, which they did not eat, for fish bait recorded (Freeland 1923:60; Benedict 1924:384- (Gifford 1931:13). 385; Barrett and Gifford 1933:192; Blackburn 1976: 79; and others). 7. Barrett's "armyworm" probably refers to the larvae of a species of Spodoptera (Noctuidae); 4. The antinic or "ant ordeal" appears to have however, the name armyworm can be applied been associated with initiation and the toloache equaUy weU to species of several other genera of the (jimson weed) ritual, as the distribution of these same moth family. institutions approximate each other (Kroeber 1925: 8. Aboriginal villages seen by Wright can be 672; Strong 1929:317). Its greatest expression was, substantiated from a variety of ethnographic, his­ however, to be found among the Luiseno. The toric, and archaeological sources (Strong 1929:39, practice of ant ingestion was known among several 89; Wilke and Lawton 1975:30, Fig. 6; Lando and Yokuts groups (Wukchamni, Yaudanchi, Modesto 1977:99, Fig. 2). Villages specifically Yauelmani, and Paleuyami), the North Fork noted by Wright are Agua Caliente, Indian Wells, Mono, some of the Northern Miwok, the and Torres (1884:280, 282, and 283). Khanemuk, the Tubatulabal, and the Kawaiisu (Blackburn 1976:79). Ant ingestion served both 9. Wright comments on the agricultural fields medicinal and ritual purposes, sometimes in con­ near the viUage of Torres at the mouth of Toro nection with acquiring power and in vision quests Canyon, and indicates alfalfa, corn, beans, and (Blackburn 1976:79). The importance of insects to peppers were being cultivated at that time. Wright the mythology and world view of various CaUfornia also describes briefly the aboriginal wells at both groups has been discussed by Essig (1931:41-47). Torres and at Indian Wehs (1884:282, 284). Also of possible significance is Drucker's (1941: 10. The use of the Chuparosa plant (Beloperone 171) observaUon that the Pima (Arizona) "name of californica Benth.) as a source of red dye for the caterpillars means 'shaman's ornaments' sug­ painting faces and objects was also observed by gesting some ritual importance of these creatures." Wright (1884:281). 5. In his analysis of trade routes and economic 11. Wright makes minor references to mortuary exchange in aboriginal California, Davis presented customs (1884:281) and to bathing at Agua CaUente a total of nine references to insect foods being (1884:280-281). imported or exported (1966:17). The most impor­ 12. This location is probably somewhere in the tant "commercial" insect was undoubtably kutsavi, area just southeast of La Quinta. the larvae of a small fly (Hydropyrus hians [Say]). Capt. J. W. Davidson, while at Owens Lake in 13. The plant described here is the desert Sand- 1859, saw".. . hundreds of bushels of this food ..." verbena (Abronia villosa Wats.), abundant in (Wilke and Lawton 1976:30). Heizer (1950:35-41) sandy areas below 3000 feet in elevation throughout presents other important early descriptions of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. 88 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

14. Wright's "D. linearis" refers to Deilephila Blackburn, Thomas lineata, as Hyles lineata was then known. This 1976 A Query Regarding the Possible Hallu­ moth, a member of the family Sphingidae, has also cinogenic Effects of Ant Ingestion in gone under the generic names Sphinx and Celerio South-Central CaUfornia. Journal of (Hodges 1971:153). It is an abundant and common­ CaUfornia Anthropology 3(2):78-81. ly seen insect, and its larvae are known to feed on a Bodenheimer, Friedrich S. wide variety of plants. Although H. lineata is found 1951 Insects as Human Food; a Chapter of the throughout most of North America, larval "out­ Ecology of Man. The Hague: W. Junk. breaks" occur only in the desert areas of its range. Colton, Harold S. 15. Note reference to the first-fruit, thanks­ 1944 The Anatomy of the Female American giving ritual (festival) as described for the Cahuilla Lac Insect Tachardiella larrea. Flagstaff: (Bean 1972:143-144, 148). Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 16. Mrs. Ruby E. Modesto is a member of the 21. A'wilem 'dog' clan of the Desert Cahuilla. She is the Coville, Frederick Vernon granddaughter of Francisco Nombre, one of 1892 The Panamint Indians of California. WilUam Duncan Strong's most important Desert American Anthropologist (o.s.) 5:351- Cahuilla consultants. 361. 17. According to Mrs. Modesto, p/ya/ew is the Davis, James T. plural of piyakhut. 1961 Trade Routes and Economic Exchange among the Indians of California. Berke­ REFERENCES ley: University of California Archaeolog­ ical Survey Report No. 54:1-79. Barrett, S. A. Drucker, PhiUp 1936 The Army Worm: A Food of the Pomo 1937 Culture Element Distributions: V, Indians. In Essays in Anthropology in Southern California. University of Cali­ Honor of A. L. Kroeber, R. H. Lowie, fornia Anthropological Records 1(1). ed., pp. 1-5. Berkeley: University of Cali­ fornia Press. Drucker, PhiUp 1941 Cuhure Element Distributions: XVII, Barrett, S. A., and E. W. Gifford Yuman-Piman. University of California 1933 Miwok Material Cuhure. BulleUn of the Anthropological Records 6(3). Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee Essig, E. O. 2(4). 1931 CaUfornia Indians in Relation to Ento­ Bean, LoweU John mology. In A History of Entomology, 1972 Mukat's People: The Cahuilla Indians of pp. 12-47. New York: The Macmillan Southern CaUfornia. Berkeley: Univer­ Company. sity of California Press. Font, Pedro Bean, Lowell John, and Katherine Siva Saubel 1973 The Colorado Yumans in 1775. In The 1963 Cahuilla Ethnobotanical Notes: The Ab­ California Indians: A Source Book, R.F. original Uses of the Mesquite and Screw- Heizer and M. A. Whipple, eds., pp. 247- bean. Los Angeles: University of Cali­ 254. Berkeley: University of California fornia Archaeological Survey Annual Press. Report 1962-1963:55-74. Freeland, L. S. Benedict, Ruth Fulton 1923 Pomo Doctors and Poisoners. University 1924 A Brief Sketch of Serrano Cuhure. of CaUfornia Publications in American American Anthropologist 26:366-392. Archaeology and Ethnology 20:57-73. CAHUILLA USE OF PIYATEM 89

Gifford, E. W. Leonard. Clearfield, Pennsylvania: D. 1931 The Kamia of Imperial Valley. Smith­ W. Moore. Reprint 1966, Readex Micro­ sonian Institution, Bureau of American print Corporation. Ethnology BuUetin 97. Meighan, Clement W. Grant, K. J. 1955 Excavation of Isabella Meadows Cave, 1937 An Historical Study of the Migrations of Monterey County, CaUfornia. Berkeley: Celerio lineata lineata Fabr. and Celerio University of California Archaeological lineata livornica Esp. (Lepidoptera). Survey Report No. 29:1-30. London: Transactions of the Royal Ento­ Nissen, Karen mological Society 86(15):345-357. 1973 Analysis of Human Coprolites from Heizer, Robert F. Bamert Cave, Amador County, CaU­ 1950 Kutsavi, A Great Basin Indian Food. fornia. In The Archaeology of Bamert Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers Cave, Amador County, California, by No. 2:35-41. Robert F. Heizer and Thomas R. Hester, Appendix V. Berkeley: University of Heizer, Robert F., and John E. Mills CaUfornia Archaeological Research Fa­ 1952 The Four Ages of Tsurai: A Documen­ cility. tary History of the Indian VUlage on Trinidad Bay. Berkeley: University of Strong, WiUiam Duncan California Press. 1929 Aboriginal Society in Southern Cali­ fornia. Berkeley: University of Califomia Hitchcock, Stephen W. Publications in American Archaeology 1962 Insects and Indians of the Americas. and Ethnology 26. Reprint 1972, Ban­ Bulletin of the Entomological Society of ning, California: Malki Museum Press. America 8:181-187. Hodges, R. W. Taylor, Ronald L. 1971 The Moths of America North of Mexico. 1975 Butterflies in My Stomach: or. Insects in Fasicle 21: Sphingoidea. Middlesex and Human Nutrition. Santa Barbara: Oxford: E. W. Classey, Ltd. and R. B. D. Woodbridge Press. Publications, Inc. Voegelin, Erminie W. Hutchings, J. M. 1938 Tubatulabal Ethnography. University of 1888 In the Heart of the Sierras, etc. Oakland: California Anthropological Records 2( 1). Pacific Press Publishing House. Wilke, Philip J., and Harry W. Lawton Kroeber, A. L. 1975 The CahuUla Indians of the Colorado 1925 Handbook of the Indians of California. Desert: Ethnohistory and Prehistory. Smhhsonian Institution, Bureau of Ramona, California: Ballena Press An­ American Ethnology Bulletin 78. thropological Papers 3:9-43. Lando, Richard, and Ruby E. Modesto Wilke, Philip J., and Harry W. Lawton, eds. 1977 Temal Wakish: A Desert CahuUla Vil­ 1976 The Expedition of Capt. J. W. Davidson lage. Journal of California Anthropology From Fort Tejon to the Owens Valley in 1859. Socorro, New Mexico: Ballena 4:95-112. Press PubUcations in Archaeology, Eth­ Latta, Frank F. nology, and History 8. 1976 Tailhoh Tales, as Related to Frank F. Latta by Thomas Jefferson Mayfield. Woodward, Arthur Santa Cruz: Bear State Books. 1938 The "Honey" of the Eariy California Leonard, Zenas Indians—A Strange Ethnological Error. 1839 Narrative of the Adventures of Zenas The Masterkey 12(5): 175-180. 90 THE JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA ANTHROPOLOGY

Wright, William Greenwood and doses of a beverage extracted from the 1884 A Naturalist in the Desert. Overland roots of Jimson weed. Shamans administered a Monthly 4(21):279-284. tobacco concoction to girl initiates (Dubois 1908:94), who underwent ordeals differing from those in boys' initiation. The groundpaintings illustrated by Spark­ man (1908:Plate 20) and Dubois (1908:Fig. 2) A Material Representation were a component of Luiseno ritual; they were of a Sacred Tradition symbohc representations of the Luiseno uni­ verse (Dubois 1908:88) and the ideal develop­ CHARLES N. IRWIN ment of an individual in his or her quest to learn group mores and to reach an upper realm This paper suggests an explanation of a of spiritual fulfillment after death. The "paint­ circular rock artifact found in northern San ings" formed part of the Chinigchinich com­ Diego County and Orange County. The plex including the Jimson weed ceremony and importance of the object lies in its resemblance the ant ordeal: they were used to instruct to the groundpaintings (or sandpaintings) em­ youthful inhiates about the origins and struc­ ployed by the Luiseno and other southern ture of the universe. The attributes of the deity, California Indians in rites of passage, includ­ Chinigchinich, found expression in the ground­ ing the Chinigchinich initiation complex, an paintings as in other ritual elements of the saga of boys' and girls' initiation. The "punishers," idea suggested by Paul Chace (1972). It is the who occupied positions around the center of author's objective to suggest correlations the painting, were "Chinigchinich" animals between this symbol and the groundpaintings such as the rattlesnake, the bear, "panther," as well as the function of the artifact in a socio- and the black spider, and were capable of religious context. inflicting misfortunes upon ritually wayward Every human society has a world view that individuals (Sparkman 1908:Plate 20). The includes the structure of the universe and paintings were also used in such mortuary earth, the origin and history of the society, and rituals as the Unish matakish, during which the its aspirations. World view embodies space- clan or "party" chief buried the feathers of a time coordinates and embraces symbolic con- deceased Chinigchinich initiate (Dubois 1908: ceptuahzations of values. 92, 93). The doctors or shamans made these World view has been expressed in rites of abstract and colorful sacred symbols in the passage surrounding birth, adolescence, mar­ ceremonial brush shelter (wamkish or van- riage, and death. Among southern California quechy on ritual occasions. societies, such as those of the Diegueiio, Luiseno, Juaneiio and Gabrielino, world view The groundpainting illustrated by Spark­ was reflected in rites of passage, including the man had three nearly complete concentric Chinigchinich initiation rites for adolescent rings: each was broken at the same location or boys and girls. The ritual dances and costumes the "North." Beginning with the outermost, worn by youthful initiates and by older func­ the broken rings symbolized "Milky Way," tionaries in the religious system were analogous "night," and "blood."^ A complete circle lay at to the dance and costume of Chinigchinich the center.3 According to Sparkman (1908: "who taught the elders how to dance" (Boscana Plate 20), the same groundpainting was used in 1970:12). The tortures and privafions endured both boys' and girls' initiation. by males included whipping, ant bites, fasting, Dubois' monograph contains two varying