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Home , Urban agriculture

Urban and the Future of Farming in the Anastasia Calhoun

Instructor Werner Lang

csd Center for Sustainable Development The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA

Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming in the United States

Anastasia Calhoun

Fig. 01 Diagram of the Obamas’ White House

Introduction against starvation. The escape from this existence began 10,000 years The procurement of is perhaps ago with the domestication of the most basic necessity of life, and and animal species. This revolution yet what we eat and the way we eat spread throughout the world until has never been so hotly debated. all but a handful of hunter-gatherer Authors like Michael Pollan and tribes remain today.1 Morgan Spurlock expose realities of our current system of food production The exact origins of agriculture are that can make readers feel squeamish unknown since the development of at best and, more frequently, mor- farming predated the advent of writ- ally outraged. So these questions beg ing. It is believed that agriculture to be asked: How did we get to this developed simultaneously in multiple point and in what direction should we sites throughout the world, including head? This paper will examine the the Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, development of agriculture and look Egypt, India, China, parts of Africa, at the role can play and several regions in the Americas. in creating a new paradigm for food There is no consensus amongst re- production in the United States. searchers as to the exact cause of this development. However, either because The Origins and Development of of an increase in population or popu- Agriculture lation density, the carrying capacity of the immediate environment was For most of his history, mankind has surpassed.2 Because planted supported himself through the hunting yield far more tons per acre than wild of wild animals and foraging for wild roots and berries, agriculture was . Since little food was grown and a far more efficient way to support stored, life was a constant struggle larger populations with more food for The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming

The development of that occurred between 1943 and the 1970’s became known as the . The implementation of energy- techniques such as the use of , synthetic nitrogen , and hybridized variet- ies resulted in unprecedented crop yields. Worldwide grain production increased by 250% between 1950 and 1984, while the world popula- tion merely doubled. While the use of these techniques has radically dropped food prices and increased in western countries, it has done so at a high cost to the environment, public health, and economic security for agricultural workers.6

Problems of

Land degradation is one of the most troublesome outcomes of modern farming techniques. This can pres- ent itself in the form of erosion, deforestation, acidification, saliniza- tion, and nutrient depletion. Second- ary effects of these processes can add to environmental degradation. For example, erosion of nutrient-rich contributes to the eutrophica- tion process of algae. Under these Fig. 02 Illustration demonstrating the increase in wheat production since 1961 circumstances, the algae population rapidly explodes, decreasing the wa- less work. and organized irrigation. Agricul- ter’s oxygen content , resulting in fish tural efficiency continued to improve kills, loss of bio-diversity, and the By 6,000 BC, mid-scale farming through the Middle Ages with the contamination of drinking water. (6) was firmly established in Egypt, and development of irrigation systems agriculture had developed in the based on hydraulic and hydrostatic production in particular Far East with the cultivation of rice principles, a three-field system of is a massive contributor to global and highly organized systems of net , and the moldboard warming. It uses 30% of the land fishing. These new systems allowed plow.4 The rapid rise of mechaniza- surface of the planet and is re- for a population boom that continues tion in the 19th and 20th centuries sponsible for 18% of the world’s to this day.3 By 5,000 BC, the Sume- allowed farming to be performed gas emissions relative rians had developed agricultural increasingly efficiently and at larger to carbon dioxide emissions. Addi- techniques including large-scale scales.5 tionally, it generates 65% of human- intensive agriculture, monocropping, related nitrous oxide, which has 296

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neighborhoods, where cheap, fast, nutrient-depleted food abounds. Be- cause it is almost impossible to find fresh produce, these neighborhoods have to come to be known as “food deserts”.10

The Green Revolution also made a significant socioeconomic impact on . Since industrialization required higher startup costs than more traditional farming techniques, farmers often went into debt, which in many cases resulted in the loss of their farmland. Because wealthier farmers had better access to credit and land, the Green Revolution in- Fig. 03 Industrial farming creased class disparities. 11

One of the greatest challenges facing industrial agriculture is its reliance on fossil fuels. Direct consump- tion on includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate vehicles and machinery. Indirect consumption is mainly due to the manufacturing of and pesticides. Finally, since industrially produced food travels an average of 1,500 miles from farm to fork, transportation is a major consumer of fossil fuels in this system. For this reason alone, it is evident that this current system of food production cannot be sustained as oil reserves are depleted. The question is wheth-

Fig. 04 garden in Munich er we will implement new methods of food production before the world- times the global warming potential contamination by salmonella and e. wide famines become a reality. of CO2, and 37% of human-induced coli are becoming increasingly com- methane. It also produces 64% of mon.8 The World health organization Why Urban Agriculture? the ammonia, which contributes to attributes 220,000 deaths per year to acidification of ecosystems.7 poisoning, and long-term Urban Agriculture provides a vi- exposure to pesticides has been able alternative to today’s standard In addition to environmental damage, linked with higher cancer rates. 9 methods of food production. Urban industrial agriculture is implicated And the most ironic of health prob- Agriculture is the growing, process- in multiple public health problems lems, is the simultaneous increase ing, and distribution of food through including pesticide and food poison- of obesity and malnutrition. There intensive plant cultivation and animal ing, increased cancer risk, obesity, are communities across America, husbandry in and around cities.12 and malnutrition. Food recalls due to most often low-income, inner-city

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Because the initial development of residents would improve with access als, which can also help to reduce cities 10,000 years ago was a direct to more nutritious food and oppor- stress and anger. Green spaces result of agriculture, it is only natural tunities for exercise associated with create a sense of community through that agriculture should be intrinsic . Gardening 3-4 times per providing a place for social gather- to towns and cities and contempo- week has the same health benefits ings. In general, when the food secu- rary society. Opportunities for urban as moderate walking or moderate bi- rity of a community increases, crime, agriculture are almost endless as cycling.14 The ability to influence their health care costs, and requirements this type of agriculture can occur on immediate environments creates a for city services decrease.15 virtually any scale and in any loca- sense of empowerment in individu- tion, from a window box garden to a multi-acre site. They can be located in greenbelts around cities or in vacant inner-city lots. They can be privately owned, commercial enter- prises, municipally run, or non-profit endeavors.

The benefits to the environment and to society offered by urban agricul- ture are just as numerous as the many physical forms it can take. An increase in green spaces results in cleaner air, lower summer tem- peratures, humidity regulation, and the reduction of greenhouse gases. It also provides noise filtering and promotes biodiversity. Urban agricul- ture can use its own waste and that

of its community to create more food Fig. 05 Urban farming in through the composting of organic matter and processing of .

Purchasing food that is locally grown decreases energy needs and costs associated with long distance travel and refrigeration. Fruits and veg- etables shipped between states can spend 7-14 days in transit. Nearly 50% of food is lost before it ever hits the shelves.13 Because of this, most varieties of produce sold in stores are selected based on their ability to handle extended travel. Growing locally would allow for greater variet- ies of crops that are selected for their taste and nutritional qualities rather than their shelf-lives.

The physical and mental health of Fig. 06 Intercultural garden in Munich

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Fig. 07 Urban farming in Africa Fig. 08 Urban Farming in Tokyo

Fig. 09 Urban farming in Fig. 10 in El Paso Finally, urban agriculture can provide connections. Maintaining regional Urban Agriculture in Munich numerous economic benefits to a and local farm to consumer enter- community. In addition to the obvious prises helps keep the entire industry Munich provides examples for reduction in food costs, it can provide accountable for the , multiple types of urban agriculture opportunities for entrepreneurship increasing the likelihood that food which can serve as useful examples and create local jobs. The full eco- is produced and consumed in sus- of systems that could be imple- nomic potential of urban agriculture tainable ways and helps support the mented in the United States. The becomes apparent when consider- local economy. City of Munich owns approximately ing the possibilities for regional food 5,000 acres of farmland and 12,000

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The farms currently feed about 10,000 Munich residents using a system similar to the Community Supported Agriculture farms in the United States. Fresh local fruits, vegetables, and dairy products are delivered to subscribers’ doors on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. Residents can also obtain these goods three days per week from the shop located on the farm. The farms also supply food to the cafeterias at local kindergartens.

Allotment are a collection of parcels of land that are rented by individuals or families and are the most widely-used community agriculture typology in Munich. There are approximately 100 different allot- ment gardens in Munich with 35,000 users.16 These plots are cultivated individually rather than collectively tended, as in other types of commu- nity gardens. They range in size from 500 to 4,000 square feet and often contain a small shed for tool stor- age and shelter. The are organized in an allotment association which leases the land from owner, who may be a public, private, or ecclesiastical entity. The gardeners have to pay a small membership fee and must abide by the organization’s Fig. 11 campaign poster circa WWII by-laws.

Originally called “gardens of the acres of forest. In addition to these began acquiring land about 100 years poor”, gardens of this type originated municipal farms, there are over 800 ago to allow for urban growth and is in Germany in the 19th century and participatory gardens in Munich one of the few remaining German cit- were developed in poor, immigrant where approximately 50,000 people ies to own public farmland. The land neighborhoods as a means to pro- work collaboratively. Munich is one of serves multiple functions including vide food security for neighborhood the few remaining German cities to food production, research of soil and residents. This concept was further own its own farmland. The Stadgüter water quality, education, rehabilita- developed during the First and Sec- München is a collection of urban tion of native habitats, and as an area ond World Wars when food security farms owned and operated by the city for leisure. Additionally, lands that was a problem facing the country as of Munich, half of which are ecologi- are unsuitable for food production a whole. While food production is still cally certified. The land consists of a due to environmental contamination a considerable benefit of this type of greenbelt surrounding the city and are used for biogas production. garden, they are now used primarily twelve other farms in the area. Munich

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as a place for community interaction and recreation.17

Krautgartens came from Vienna to Munich in 2004 as a response to the high-demand and limited availabil- ity of allotment gardens. The herb garden parcels are smaller than those typically found in an allotment garden and appeal to a new demographic of people. The land is rented from May to November and then returned to the at the end of the growing season. There are currently twelve krautgartens with about 2,000 users in Munich.18

The first intercultural gardens were established in Germany in 1996 as a means to promote relationships between refugees, immigrants, and native-born residents. The gardens provide an avenue for community participation and are seen as an ideal Fig. 12 Urban garden created in a bomb crater in circa WWII opportunity since many immigrants and refugees come from small farm- ing communities and can apply their farming knowledge in Germany. Like the other types of garden already mentioned, the land is divided into parcels for growing vegetables and herbs, including varieties from im- migrants’ countries of origin. These spaces are also used as a recreational area for children and a place to hold community events and meetings.19

Munich also has about 300 educa- tional gardens located at more than 40% of its schools, 3 therapeutic gardens found at nursing homes, and another 5,000 gardeners in private residences.20 In addition to these more conventional types of community gar- den groups, Munich has two groups of Guerilla Gardeners consisting of about 40 participants. Guerilla gardeners can now be found worldwide and are a group of rogue gardeners that inde- Fig. 13 Victory farmers

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pendently green public spaces without that will loan or rent tools at a rea- ers to pool their orders. approval and at their own expense. sonable price. • “Buy Local” and “Slow Food” cam- They typically focus on greening paigns are increasing the demand for neglected and impoverished urban Marketing of locally-grown locally produced foods. spaces. They establish relationships can be challenging when in competi- • School boards and health agencies with local residents and businesses tion with wholesale distributors. can work with farms to bring local and encourage their participation in food into institutions. the project through the maintenance Solution: of the space.21 • Food buying groups and coopera- New urban farmers may lack the tives are popular ways for consum- knowledge and skills required to Potential Criticisms of Urban Agricul- ture

While not intended to be a compre- hensive list, the following are some obstacles and potential criticisms that could be encountered regarding urban agriculture:

Many involved in urban agriculture do not own the land they use to grow food. Without title or long-term leases, they run the risk of losing their investments.

Solution: • Some sites are operated under usufruct agreements, meaning that as long as the property is well main- tained, the growers maintain the legal right to use the property.22 • Areas such as rooftops, roadsides, and institutional property rarely have other uses. • Many types of urban agriculture can be mobile or require little investment. These types are well-suited for short- er-term or more uncertain leases.

Start-up costs can be prohibitive for people on limited incomes. Often these are the same people at which community gardens are directed.

Solution: • Financial support can be found through grants, microcredit loans, community donations, etc. • Many communities have tool banks

Fig. 14 Rooftop garden in Brooklyn

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can teach canning techniques, often employing the knowledge of elderly members of the community.

Many areas of city land can be con- taminated.

Solution: • Raised beds can be used so that growing soil is separate from con- taminated ground soil. • Low-cost soil testing is available to determine whether or not a site is contaminated.23 • Sheltered production methods can be used such as , indoor production, hydroponic growing me- diums, etc.

Gardens could be subject to vandal- ism and crime.

Solution: • Incorporate youth programs to provide constructive activities and leadership opportunities. • Community gardens help cultivate good relationships with neighbors and law enforcement, creating a “hu- man fence”. • Higher foot traffic from community gardens can increase the safety of sparsely populated areas by keeping “eyes on the street”.

The only way to grow enough food to feed the world’s population is through industrial agriculture.

Fig. 15 Urban goat living in Oakland Solution: • Small farms can be 4-100 times produce successful crop yields. In many climates, food production more productive in total output per is not always viable as a year-round acre than industrial farms.24 Solution: source of food security. • Nonprofit organizations are avail- Small-scale and sustainable farm- able to train groups in urban agricul- Solution: ing techniques are too expensive. ture techniques. • The use of green houses, waste • Many successful gardening pro- heat, etc., can extend the growing Solution: grams in schools educate youth on season considerably. • Growing your own food organically proper gardening techniques. • Urban agriculture educators is less expensive than buying indus-

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trially produced foods at retail prices. were planted producing 9-10 million PrimerCFSCUAC.pdf • The price tag on industrially pro- pounds of fruits and vegetables per 13. ibid. duced foods does not reflect the added year, which is about 44% of the total costs of environmental clean-up and amount of fresh produce in the United 14. ibid. healthcare. Growing food in a sustain- States.10 Examples like this and those able way will decrease the overall cost found in Munich demonstrate that 15. ibid. of living. massive, large-scale change is pos- 16. Ella von der Haide, “Urbane partizipative sible and that urban agriculture is a Gartenaktivitäten in München 2009 Neue Räume Is an agricultural revolution pos- viable alternative to current methods der Begegnung und Subsistenz, der Partizipa- sible? of food production. tion und des Naturerlebens für alle”, http:// www.anstiftung-ertomis.de/opencms/export/ sites/default/download/studie_urb_lw.pdf According to John Jeavons and Ecol- ogy Action, a human being can feed Notes 17. Landesverband Bayerischer Kleingärtner himself on as little as 700 sq. ft. of e.V., Geschichte, http://www.l-b-k.de/ 25 1. Jared Diamond, “The Worst Mistake in Human garden space. Granted, most people 18. http://www.anstiftung-ertomis.de/opencms/ would prefer a diet with more variety History”, Minnesotans for , http:// www.mnforsustain.org/food_ag_worst_mis- export/sites/default/download/studie_urb_ than this size of space allows, but a take_diamond_j.htm. (accessed June 27, 2010) lw.pdf comfortable existence would be pos- 2. History of Food and Agriculture, Pre-agricul- 19. Stiftung Interkultur, Home Page, http://www. sible. If one adds the space available stiftung-interkultur.de/home in residential yards, public parks, tural times, http://www.museum.agropolis.fr/ english/pages/expos/fresque/la_fresque.htm commercial green spaces, etc., there (accessed June 27, 2010) 20. http://www.anstiftung-ertomis.de/opencms/ are 7,000,000 acres of existing green export/sites/default/download/studie_urb_ lw.pdf space in cities.26 If all of these spaces 3. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agri- culture (accessed June 27, 2010) were used for food production, we 21. Guerilla Gardening Munich, Über Uns, http:// could feed 434,000,000 people - about 4. ibid. guerillagardeningmunich.weebly.com/ 40% more people than currently live in 5. ibid. 22. http://www.foodsecurity.org/PrimerCFS- the United States today. Millions more CUAC.pdf could be fed if land area occupied by 6. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ rooftops, about 30% of the average Green_Revolution 23. ibid. city’s total land area, were turned into A Nation of Farmers: Defeating 7. ibid. 24. Sharon Astyk, areas for food production. The amou- the Food Crisis on American Soil (New York: New ont of land area available for farming 8. Bryan Walsh, “Getting Real About the Society publishers, 2009), http://reader.eblib. consinues to climb when consider- High Price of Cheap Food”, Time maga- com.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/ (accessed July 5, ing the 130,00 to 425,000 brownfields zine, http://www.time.com/time/health/ar- 2010) identified by the U.S. General Account- ticle/0,8599,1917458,00.html (accessed July 5, 25. ibid. ing Office as areas that could be safely 2010) converted to agricultural purposes 9. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 26. ibid. when properly redeveloped.27 Green_Revolution 27. http://www.foodsecurity.org/PrimerCFS- CUAC.pdf The reality is that in the not-so-distant 10. The New York Times Editorial, “Fresh Food for Urban Deserts”, http://www.nytimes. past the United States has shown its com/2009/03/21/opinion/21sat4.html 28. Sprouts in the Sidewalk, “World War II: Vic- ability to truly effect a radical change tory Gardens the Second Time Around”, http:// in food production. At the beginning of 11. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ sidewalksprouts.wordpress.com/history/wwii/ World War II, victory gardens emerged Green_Revolution Figures as a way to produce food and reduce 12. Community Food Security Coalition’s North demand on materials used in food American Agriculture Committee, “Urban Agriculture and Community Food Security in the Figure 01: Good, Inc., Obama’s Presidential Gar- processing and canning. The USDA den, JPG, http://user.cloudfront.goodinc.com/ estimated that in the final three years United States: Farming from the City Center to the Urban Fringe”, http://www.foodsecurity.org/ community/etling/trans0609thefirstgarden.jpg of the war over 20 million garden plots

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Goat, JPG, http://jordaneshay.files.wordpress. zine, http://www.time.com/time/health/ar- Figure 02: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, com/2009/08/goat-on-stairs.jpg ticle/0,8599,1917458,00.html (accessed July 5, Chart 4: Africa Missed Out on the Green Revolu- 2010) tion, GIF, http://www.gatesfoundation.org/annu- References al-letter/pages/2009-agricultural-development- 12. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agri- africa-asia.aspx 1. Astyk, Sharon A Nation of Farmers: Defeating culture (accessed June 27, 2010) the Food Crisis on American Soil (New York: New Figure 03: Social Entrepreneurs, Cornfield, JPG, Society publishers, 2009). http://reader.eblib. 13. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://socialentrepreneurs.enchantingchal- com.ezproxy.lib.utexas.edu/ (accessed June 27, Green_Revolution (accessed July 5, 2010) lenge.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/corn- 2010) field_istock.jpg 2. Community Food Security Coalition’s North Figure 04: City Farmer, Urban Agriculture American Agriculture Committee, “Urban Notes, German Allotment Garden, JPG, http:// Agriculture and Community Food Security in the www.cityfarmer.org/germanAllot.html United States: Farming from the City Center to the Urban Fringe”, http://www.foodsecurity.org/ Figure 05: China Daily, Urban Farming in Cuba, PrimerCFSCUAC.pdf (accessed July 5, 2010) JPG, http://www.chinadaily.net/world/images/ attachement/jpg/site1/20090812/0013729e4114 3. Diamond, Jared, “The Worst Mistake in Hu- 0bec98f45b.jpg cuba man History”, Minnesotans for Sustainability, http://www.mnforsustain.org/food_ag_worst_ Figure 06: Stiftung Interkultur, JPG, http://www. mistake_diamond_j.htm. (accessed June 27, stiftung-interkultur.de/ 2010)

Figure 07: Le Centre de recherchés pour le 4. Guerilla Gardening Munich, Über Uns, http:// development international, Urban Farming in guerillagardeningmunich.weebly.com/ (ac- Africa, BMP, http://www.crdi.ca/uploads/user- cessed July 7, 2010) S/1150816664306_urban_farming_in_africa. bmp 5. History of Food and Agriculture, Pre-agricul- tural times, http://www.museum.agropolis.fr/ Figure 08: Metro Tokyo, Urban Farming in Tokyo, english/pages/expos/fresque/la_fresque.htm JPG, http://www.metro.tokyo.jp/ENGLISH/ (accessed June 27, 2010) PHOTO/2006/IMG/181104.jpg tokyo 6. Landesverband Bayerischer Kleingärtner e.V., Figure 09: Flickr, Urban Farm in Detroit, JPG, Geschichte, http://www.l-b-k.de/ 9accessed July http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2522/3795573819_ 7, 2010) d8bb079b37.jpg 7. The New York Times Editorial, “Fresh Food Figure 10: Valcent Blog, Vertical garden for Urban Deserts”, http://www.nytimes. in El Paso, JPG, http://blog.valcent.net/ com/2009/03/21/opinion/21sat4.html (accessed wp-content/uploads/2009/01/veggiegrow_ July 6, 2010) oct_10__2007_005.jpg 8. Sprouts in the Sidewalk, “World War II: Vic- Figure 11: Clemson Cooperative Extension, Vic- tory Gardens the Second Time Around”, http:// tory Gardens making a Comeback, JPG, http:// sidewalksprouts.wordpress.com/history/wwii/ blog.valcent.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/ (accessed July 7, 2010) veggiegrow_oct_10__2007_005.jpg 9. Stiftung Interkultur, Home Page, http://www. Figure 12: Sprouts in the Sidewalk, Garden Built stiftung-interkultur.de/home (accessed July 7, out of a London Bomb Crater, JPG, http://side- 2010) walksprouts.wordpress.com/history/wwii/ 10. Von der Haide, Ella, “Urbane partizipative Figure 13: Sprouts in the Sidewalk, Victory Gar- Gartenaktivitäten in München 2009 Neue Räume deners, JPG, http://sidewalksprouts.wordpress. der Begegnung und Subsistenz, der Partizipa- com/history/wwii/ tion und des Naturerlebens für alle”, http:// www.anstiftung-ertomis.de/opencms/export/ Figure 14: Urban Garden Casual, Rooftop Farms sites/default/download/studie_urb_lw.pdf (ac- in Brooklyn, JPG, http://urbangardencasual. cessed June 27, 2010) com/2009/09/11/rooftop-farms-in-brooklyn- new-york/ 11. Walsh, Bryan, “Getting Real About the High Price of Cheap Food”, Time maga- Figure 15: Farmer, Dwarf Nigerian

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