Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming in the United States Anastasia Calhoun Instructor Werner Lang csd Center for Sustainable Development The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming in the United States Anastasia Calhoun Fig. 01 Diagram of the Obamas’ White House Garden Introduction against starvation. The escape from this existence began 10,000 years The procurement of food is perhaps ago with the domestication of plant the most basic necessity of life, and and animal species. This revolution yet what we eat and the way we eat spread throughout the world until has never been so hotly debated. all but a handful of hunter-gatherer Authors like Michael Pollan and tribes remain today.1 Morgan Spurlock expose realities of our current system of food production The exact origins of agriculture are that can make readers feel squeamish unknown since the development of at best and, more frequently, mor- farming predated the advent of writ- ally outraged. So these questions beg ing. It is believed that agriculture to be asked: How did we get to this developed simultaneously in multiple point and in what direction should we sites throughout the world, including head? This paper will examine the the Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, development of agriculture and look Egypt, India, China, parts of Africa, at the role urban agriculture can play and several regions in the Americas. in creating a new paradigm for food There is no consensus amongst re- production in the United States. searchers as to the exact cause of this development. However, either because The Origins and Development of of an increase in population or popu- Agriculture lation density, the carrying capacity of the immediate environment was For most of his history, mankind has surpassed.2 Because planted crops supported himself through the hunting yield far more tons per acre than wild of wild animals and foraging for wild roots and berries, agriculture was plants. Since little food was grown and a far more efficient way to support stored, life was a constant struggle larger populations with more food for The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming The development of agricultural technology that occurred between 1943 and the 1970’s became known as the Green Revolution. The implementation of energy-intensive farming techniques such as the use of pesticides, synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, and hybridized crop variet- ies resulted in unprecedented crop yields. Worldwide grain production increased by 250% between 1950 and 1984, while the world popula- tion merely doubled. While the use of these techniques has radically dropped food prices and increased food security in western countries, it has done so at a high cost to the environment, public health, and economic security for agricultural workers.6 Problems of Industrial Agriculture Land degradation is one of the most troublesome outcomes of modern farming techniques. This can pres- ent itself in the form of soil erosion, deforestation, acidification, saliniza- tion, and nutrient depletion. Second- ary effects of these processes can add to environmental degradation. For example, erosion of nutrient-rich topsoil contributes to the eutrophica- tion process of algae. Under these Fig. 02 Illustration demonstrating the increase in wheat production since 1961 circumstances, the algae population rapidly explodes, decreasing the wa- less work. and organized irrigation. Agricul- ter’s oxygen content , resulting in fish tural efficiency continued to improve kills, loss of bio-diversity, and the By 6,000 BC, mid-scale farming through the Middle Ages with the contamination of drinking water. (6) was firmly established in Egypt, and development of irrigation systems agriculture had developed in the based on hydraulic and hydrostatic Livestock production in particular Far East with the cultivation of rice principles, a three-field system of is a massive contributor to global and highly organized systems of net crop rotation, and the moldboard warming. It uses 30% of the land fishing. These new systems allowed plow.4 The rapid rise of mechaniza- surface of the planet and is re- for a population boom that continues tion in the 19th and 20th centuries sponsible for 18% of the world’s to this day.3 By 5,000 BC, the Sume- allowed farming to be performed greenhouse gas emissions relative rians had developed agricultural increasingly efficiently and at larger to carbon dioxide emissions. Addi- techniques including large-scale scales.5 tionally, it generates 65% of human- intensive agriculture, monocropping, related nitrous oxide, which has 296 2 The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming neighborhoods, where cheap, fast, nutrient-depleted food abounds. Be- cause it is almost impossible to find fresh produce, these neighborhoods have to come to be known as “food deserts”.10 The Green Revolution also made a significant socioeconomic impact on farmers. Since industrialization required higher startup costs than more traditional farming techniques, farmers often went into debt, which in many cases resulted in the loss of their farmland. Because wealthier farmers had better access to credit and land, the Green Revolution in- Fig. 03 Industrial farming creased class disparities. 11 One of the greatest challenges facing industrial agriculture is its reliance on fossil fuels. Direct consump- tion on farms includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery. Indirect consumption is mainly due to the manufacturing of fertilizers and pesticides. Finally, since industrially produced food travels an average of 1,500 miles from farm to fork, transportation is a major consumer of fossil fuels in this system. For this reason alone, it is evident that this current system of food production cannot be sustained as oil reserves are depleted. The question is wheth- Fig. 04 Allotment garden in Munich er we will implement new methods of food production before the world- times the global warming potential contamination by salmonella and e. wide famines become a reality. of CO2, and 37% of human-induced coli are becoming increasingly com- methane. It also produces 64% of mon.8 The World health organization Why Urban Agriculture? the ammonia, which contributes to attributes 220,000 deaths per year to acidification of ecosystems.7 pesticide poisoning, and long-term Urban Agriculture provides a vi- exposure to pesticides has been able alternative to today’s standard In addition to environmental damage, linked with higher cancer rates. 9 methods of food production. Urban industrial agriculture is implicated And the most ironic of health prob- Agriculture is the growing, process- in multiple public health problems lems, is the simultaneous increase ing, and distribution of food through including pesticide and food poison- of obesity and malnutrition. There intensive plant cultivation and animal ing, increased cancer risk, obesity, are communities across America, husbandry in and around cities.12 and malnutrition. Food recalls due to most often low-income, inner-city 3 The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming Because the initial development of residents would improve with access als, which can also help to reduce cities 10,000 years ago was a direct to more nutritious food and oppor- stress and anger. Green spaces result of agriculture, it is only natural tunities for exercise associated with create a sense of community through that agriculture should be intrinsic gardening. Gardening 3-4 times per providing a place for social gather- to towns and cities and contempo- week has the same health benefits ings. In general, when the food secu- rary society. Opportunities for urban as moderate walking or moderate bi- rity of a community increases, crime, agriculture are almost endless as cycling.14 The ability to influence their health care costs, and requirements this type of agriculture can occur on immediate environments creates a for city services decrease.15 virtually any scale and in any loca- sense of empowerment in individu- tion, from a window box garden to a multi-acre site. They can be located in greenbelts around cities or in vacant inner-city lots. They can be privately owned, commercial enter- prises, municipally run, or non-profit endeavors. The benefits to the environment and to society offered by urban agricul- ture are just as numerous as the many physical forms it can take. An increase in green spaces results in cleaner air, lower summer tem- peratures, humidity regulation, and the reduction of greenhouse gases. It also provides noise filtering and promotes biodiversity. Urban agricul- ture can use its own waste and that of its community to create more food Fig. 05 Urban farming in Cuba through the composting of organic matter and processing of grey water. Purchasing food that is locally grown decreases energy needs and costs associated with long distance travel and refrigeration. Fruits and veg- etables shipped between states can spend 7-14 days in transit. Nearly 50% of food is lost before it ever hits the shelves.13 Because of this, most varieties of produce sold in stores are selected based on their ability to handle extended travel. Growing locally would allow for greater variet- ies of crops that are selected for their taste and nutritional qualities rather than their shelf-lives. The physical and mental health of Fig. 06 Intercultural garden in Munich 4 The University of Texas at Austin - School of Architecture - UTSoA Urban Agriculture and the Future of Farming Fig. 07 Urban farming in Africa Fig. 08 Urban Farming in Tokyo Fig. 09 Urban farming in Detroit Fig. 10 Vertical farming in El Paso Finally, urban agriculture can provide connections. Maintaining regional Urban Agriculture in Munich numerous economic benefits to a and local farm to consumer enter- community.