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Level 200 DRAWING & PAINTING

Faculty of Art, Ontario College of Art and Design University

TECHNICAL HANDBOOK

Prepared by: John Deal and Michèle White

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1) TECHNICIAN'S INTRODUCTION P.4

2) WHAT IS PAINT? P.10

3) TYPES OF PAINT P.12

4) PAINTING TERMS P.13 (1) General (2) Colour

5) COLOUR IN PAINT P.16

6) PIGMENTS P.19 (1) General (2) Classification (3) Characteristics

7) TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT P.22 (1) Brushes (2) Knives and Spatulas (3) Palettes (4) Easels (5) Lighting (6) Additional

8) SUPPORTS / SUBSTRATES P.25 (1) Flexible (a) Fabric (i) stretchers and strainers (ii) Strainer and Braced Panel building 101 P.26 (iii) stretching canvas P.33 (b) Paper (i) watercolour paper and stretching (ii) distemper and tinting paper (c) Acetate and Mylar

(2) Rigid supports P.37 (a) Types

(3) Priming P.39 (a) Size (b) Grounds/ Primers (i) acrylic gesso (ii) chalk ground full-oil ground (iii) half-oil ground (iv) alkyd and lead white grounds (v) metalpoint ground

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9) SYNTHETIC PAINTS: P.47 (1) Vinyl Resins (2) Alkyd Resins (3) Acrylic Resins (a) colours (b) mediums (c) processes

10) OIL PAINTS P.60 (1) Oil Colours (2) Vehicles (3) Mediums (4) Supports, Size, Primers (5) Processes

11) WATER MIXABLE OILS P.65 12) OIL TEMPERA P.65

13) COPYART P.67 (1) History (2) Technical information (3) Processes (including transfers)

14) MIXED MEDIA P.72

(1) Collage/Assemblage (2) Photomontage (3) Materials (4) Processes

15) FRESCO P.77

16) METALPOINT P.78

17) EGG TEMPERA P.79

18) ENCAUSTIC/WAX P.83

19) VARNISHING P.89

20) BIBLIOGRAPHIES P.90 (1) Paint (2) Colour (3) Copyart and Collage (4) Other

21) PRECAUTIONS FOR THE USE OF ARTISTS’ MATERIALS P.96

22) WHAT IS A CRITIQUE? P.99

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1) Technicians’ Introduction

Welcome to DRPT. This is a highly diverse department covering a wide array of artistic practices and philosophies. The department facilities are comprised of 11 studios including a new Digital Suite, Buildshop (equipped with a Spray Booth), two large dedicated 4th Year Studios, a specialized Materials and Processes studio as well as some storage space.

Some materials are available for purchasing through the Technicians office: 1x2x72” white pine $3 1x2x96” white pine $4 Approx. 24” x 36” x !” Luan Ply $4 TuffBack/Stencil Rite $3 / 4 sq ft. ‘D’ Rings $.50 Twisted Picture Hangers (30 lb cap.) $.50 Beeswax (400gr.) $5 Microcrystalline Wax (450gr.) $3

Tools and some hardware will be available in the Buildshop, Rm. 475, when a monitor is present. Hammer Screwdriver Measuring Tape Clamp Carpenters Square Chisel Gusset Nails Glue Staple Gun ‘OLFA’ Utility Knife

Specialized tools are available upon request Power Drills Jigsaw Router Framing Square Protractor Pantograph Drywall Blades Pliers 48” Level 12” Level Calipers Rubber Mallet

If you are enrolled in one of the Anatomy Sections, you may borrow a skeleton for 3 hrs. Skeletons must remain in the department and must be booked in advance. Skeletons will only be signed out when available.

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The Digital Suite in room 440, across for the Faculty of Art office, offers Digital Printing. Students must provide their own paper or materials. There are several different materials that can be used. Consult with the Technician or Class Assistant regarding acceptable materials. Epson Archival Inks are used in printing.

Digital Printing $5 / sq ft.

Read the Signs If signs are posted, READ THEM! They are not decoration. All DRPT signs posted by the technician will carry the OCAD DRPT.

Restricted Chemicals — Do NOT use:

Turpentine Toluene Acetone Xylene D-Limonene Aerosol cans (Spray Paint, Fixative or Damar Varnish Adhesive)

These chemicals have been determined to have dangerous health risks to you and others around you. There are alternatives. Ask if you don’t know what they are.

There is NO spraying permitted anywhere on Campus except in the Spray Booths. There are Spray Booths located in room 475, 132 on the 1st floor (near the Wood Shop) and in room 517 on the 5th floor.

Label your Containers If you decant any chemical into another container, you must label it. It is very important that we all know what a substance is. It is even more important that you can identify which chemical is in which jar. A common accident that plagues artists is the accidental drinking of solvent. Do all you can to avoid this! You should find WHMIS labels for your containers in each of our studios. If labels are unavailable, use a piece of masking tape to identify it. Most importantly, if you are using a water or juice bottle, strip off the label and apply your own so that there can be no mistake as to the contents.

Waste Disposal, Cleaning Brushes Oil doesn’t mix with water. More-over, solvents and oils that are dumped down the drain enter into our water supply, contaminating our environment and ecosystem. We each have a role to play in the preservation of our environment. You can help. Do not put clumps of paint (oil or acrylic) or liquid oils/solvents down the drains. If you paint with oils there are a few different methods to clean your brushes. However, it is important that you make note that there are oily waste containers and liquid waste canisters in each studio. These are to be used to dispose of your oils and solvents. 6

Here are a few cleaning methods:

A) The solvent free process: • Thoroughly wipe away the residue remaining in the brushes with a paper towel. You can use a bit of vegetable oil to help with this step. • Wash them in a reusable container using biodegradable soap. This can be reused and hydrated many times. • The remaining wash-away product is low toxicity compared to solvents. • Dispose of your oily paper towels in the oily waste containers.

B) Mild Solvent use: • Wipe away the oil paint remaining in the brushes with a paper towel (dispose of your paper towels in the oily waste container.) • Using a mixture of equal parts Linseed Oil, Stand Oil, and Gamsol or Aboveground brand Mineral Spirits, rinse your brush until relatively clean. It is often a good idea to have two containers of the cleaning mix; one for the initial dirty clean, one for final clean. • Wipe all remaining residue off with a paper towel and again dispose of in the oily waste container. • If required, add a small amount of water to some laundry soap or dish detergent in a small container and rinse your brush.

C) Oil and Solvent use: • Thoroughly wipe away the oil paint remaining in the brushes with a paper towel (dispose of your paper towels in the oily waste container.) • Apply a small amount of vegetable oil to a cloth or paper towel and knead the oil into the brush, wiping away any paint that comes out. • Continue until little or no paint appears on the towel. • Rinse the brush with a small amount of soap and water in a container until it appears cleaner. Wipe out the container or let dry and reuse at a later time. • If required, use a small amount of Gamsol or Aboveground brand Mineral Spirits as a final cleaning solution for your brushes.

Please note: Gamsol and Aboveground Mineral Spirits are considered the safest solvent available. D-Limonene and Turpentine are the worst (which is why they are not permitted).

There are many options for brush cleaning. The above-listed are considered healthy, effective and relatively inexpensive. If you are unclear about any of these processes, discuss it with your Instructor or Technician.

All oily liquid waste should be disposed of in the oily waste canister located in each DRPT studio. All oily rags need to be put into the oily waste container. Do not throw your oily rags into the garbage.

Additional note: Leaving dirty solvents for a couple days will allow the sediment to settle. You can pour off the relatively clean solvent solution into a fresh container and dump the sediment 7 into the oily waste canister. All solvents are flammable. Be sure that you are not using these products around sparks or open flame. Linseed and stand oil can spontaneously combust. Be sure to dispose of them properly.

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Student Storage In many of the studios as well as in rooms 464 and 475 we have space available for students to store their work temporarily. These spaces are often open to the public and you are advised to use them at your own risk. Please be respectful of other people’s property. All students in DRPT have to share these facilities. Please make Special note: Due to space restrictions, all student work must be removed at the end of the semester. Any work left behind will be considered abandoned and will be discarded if it cannot be recycled. No exceptions will be made. Furthermore, if you have completed a project and the work does not need to be stored on campus any longer, please remove it to make room for new assignments.

Music/Noise If you want to listen to music, use earphones. Otherwise, ensure that you are not disturbing anyone else in the area and keep the volume low. This is not your living room. Others are using these spaces as well.

Shop Dress Code This is mainly to address the shop dress code in other areas of the school. If you are planning to enter the Woodshop, Plastics, Metal or any shop with machines, be sure to tie back long hair. You must NOT wear open-toed shoes or high-heeled shoes or loose clothing. Check with each shop regarding the particular dress code that they uphold. Be nice to the Technicians. They work hard to keep you safe.

Shop Tools (returning to proper shop) If you need to borrow tools from another shop, you MUST return them. There are toolboxes available to sign out (hammer, measuring tape, saw and chisel Clamps, staple guns and portable corner vise are also available.)

Encaustic Guidelines Room 466 is our encaustic and alternative practices room. If you are in 4th-year, special guidelines are enforced when using wax in shared spaces. Please be sure to discuss this with your advisor and with the Technician.

Trip Hazards If you are using extension cords or need to run a cable across the floor, please try to keep it as close to the wall as possible. If running the cord across a walkway is unavoidable, tape the cord to the floor to avoid tripping hazards. Please see the Technician if you need help. Do not leave items in walkways. Put them on tables or close to the wall. Use common sense. If it looks like someone could trip and fall, they probably will. Tripping hazards are one of the most common causes of accidents in the workplace.

Graffiti These studios do not belong to you and not everyone wants to know what you think or see your tag. We take graffiti seriously at OCAD and you can be suspended if you are caught intentionally 10 defacing school property. We are open to proposals for installations and temporary murals but, you must discuss this with your instructor, the Program Chair or Technician.

Clutter in the studios When we get working, we can often forget about keeping our areas clean. ‘Clean’ also means different things to different people. Our cleaning staff is reluctant to move what they perceive as ‘art work’ (to avoid any wrongly discarded work.) So, please do your best to keep our studios clean. Throw out any food, drink or materials that you no longer want. We have a rodent problem in these old buildings and we don’t want to encourage mice.

Blocking Hallways/Walkways If you are stretching canvas or building a large stretcher and there is not enough room in the classroom, first look for room in the Open Studio, room 475. If none is available, please try to find a studio that does not have a class running to do your work. If you must use a hallway to do this work, make it brief and ensure that you are not creating major obstacles for others. In the event of an emergency, be absolutely sure that you remove the object you are working on from the hallway.

Site Installation If you are interested in installing work around the campus please see refer your questions to Campus Service located on the first floor of 115 McCaul (The Red Building.) Displays on the walls in the department are organized by individual faculty or the Technician to showcase work produced by DRPT students. Focus is placed on 4th year Thesis/Advanced Studio students for display in the general hallways and completed class projects in the glass vitrines along the West corridor. Selection of work is at faculty discretion.

2) WHAT IS PAINT?

Paint: first principles from Introduction to Paint Chemistry and Principles of Paint Technology

All objects are vulnerable at their surfaces. It is the surface of any article that makes continual contact with the corroding (or oxidizing) air. The surfaces of objects left in the open bear the brunt of the sun, rain, fog, dew, ice and snow. Under these conditions iron rusts, wood rots (or shrinks and cracks) and road surfaces crack and disintegrate. These, and more sheltered objects, suffer the wear of daily use, scratches, dents and abrasions – at their surfaces. To prevent or to minimize damage, (we) apply to these surfaces various coatings designed to protect them. Coatings can also be used to decorate articles, to add colour and lustre and to smooth out any roughness or irregularities caused in production. Thus the function of any surface coating is twofold: to protect and to decorate.

There are many surface coatings that do this: wallpaper, plastic sheet, chrome and silver plating. No coating material is more versatile than paint, which can be applied to any surface, whatever its shape or size, by one process or another. Paint is a loosely used word covering a whole variety of materials: enamels, lacquers, varnishes, undercoats, surfacers, primers, sealers, fillers, stoppers and 11

many others. It is essential to grasp at once that these and other less obviously related products, such as plasters, concrete, tars and adhesives, are all formulated on the same basic principles and contain some or all of three main ingredients.

First a pigment may be included. Pigments have both decorative and protective properties. The simplest form of paint is whitewash and, when dry, whitewash is nothing more than a pigment – whiting (calcium carbonate) – spread over a surface. It decorates and to some extent it protects, but it rubs off. So most paints contain the second ingredient…a film-former or binder, to bind together the pigment particles and hold them on to the surface. If the pigment is left out, the film-former covers and protects the surface, decorating it by giving it a gloss or ‘sheen’. It is difficult to attach coatings that are not fluid to any but the simplest of surfaces: those that are flat or gently curving. The fluidity of paint permits penetration into the most intricate crevices. It is achieved by dissolving the film-former in a solvent, or by colloidal suspension of both pigment and film-former in a diluent. Thus the third basic ingredient of paint is a liquid. Often the film-former/liquid mixture is called the vehicle for the pigment.

If the pigment is omitted the material is usually called a varnish. The pigmented varnish – the paint – is sometimes called an enamel, lacquer, finish or topcoat, meaning that it is the last coat to be applied and the one seen when the coated object is examined.

Painting is the application of a medium to a surface. Artists’ mediums (or media) such as oils, acrylics or watercolours consist of colouring agents or pigments and a liquid. The pigments used in each type of artists' paint are generally the same, although their quality may differ. What differentiates one type of paint from another is the liquid used with the pigment.

Water and stones. Those are the unpromising ingredients of two very different endeavors. The first is painting, because artists’ pigments are made from fluids (these days usually petroleum products and plant oils) mixed together with powdered stones to give colour. All oil paints, watercolours, gouaches, and acrylics are made that way, and so are more solid concoctions including pastels, ink blocks, crayons, and charcoal. They differ only in the proportions of water and stone – or to put it more accurately, medium and pigment. To make oil paint for example, it is only necessary to buy powdered rock and mix it with a medium, say linseed oil, so that it can be spread with a brush.

James Elkins, What Painting Is, Routledge, 1999

Definition:

1. Paint is made by suspending dry, insoluble pigment in a liquid vehicle, called a binder. 2. The term vehicle is used because it carries the pigment and allows it to be spread onto a surface. A vehicle has four equally important functions; the first concerns the liquid paint and the other three concern the dry paint film. These are as follows: i) Executive: The vehicle keeps the paint fluid so that it can be applied and manipulated as 12

required. ii) Binding: The vehicle holds the pigment particles together in a continuous layer. iii) Adhesive: The vehicle secures the pigment layer permanently to the surface to which it's applied. iv) Optical: Colours in pigment form are affected by a liquid vehicle and look different from their dry state. However, the liquid vehicle must display the nature of the colour optimally. 3. Artist’s quality paint must have all of these characteristics in balance.

How the vehicle affects colour: A pigment’s colour varies with the vehicle it’s suspended in. For example, colour in oil paint is deeper and more intense than in aqueous paint like acrylic or watercolour. This results because oil is a medium of high refractive quality with a higher degree of gloss on the surface. Besides influencing the colour effects of various pigments, the vehicle determines its other visual properties. The binding vehicle of each type of paint combines with pigments to produce paints with individual characteristics i.e. oils, watercolours, acrylics, gouache. A pigment that gives opaque effects in one medium may be semi- opaque or transparent in another.

3) TYPES OF PAINT

ACRYLIC: Acrylic paints are made with plastic resins dispersed in water. As the water evaporates, the acrylic molecules come together, adhering to one another and the surface. The medium is properly called acrylic vinyl polymer emulsion paint. Pigment is “ground” in colloidal water dispersions of acrylic vinyl polymers. Painting with acrylics involves diluting the colours with water and/or mixing them with polymer mediums and gels, which perform a function similar to that of solvents and oils in oil painting. When the paint dries, the particles coalesce to form a clear, insoluble paint film. Acrylic painting is often done on a surface primed with acrylic gesso. ALKYD RESIN: This is a ready-for-use, oleoresinous, synthetic product caused by a reaction between the esterification of a polyhydric alcohol with a polybasic acid. The most commonly used form is an oil-modified alkyd with a percentage of oil in it. It is compatible with oil paint, miscible with turpentine and mineral spirits, has a satiny gloss finish, is manipulated easily with a brush, and is considered permanent.

CASEIN: Crude curd from skim or whole milk is mixed wet with dry pigment and applied to panels or heavy paper. Casein has a heavy, robust body conducive to impasto technique, but may also be thinned to perform like watercolours. Quick drying with a matte or semi-matte finish, it may be glazed or overpainted with oils after sizing. Generally, casein is coarser, less sensitive than gouache. Pre-made casein tube colours are also available.

DISTEMPER: A weak solution of warm animal skin glue or size is mixed with dry pigment to create effects similar to those in gouache. However, unlike gouache, which remains water-soluble permanently, distemper can form layers of paint film, which are relatively insoluble. Size was used by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and throughout the middle ages for wall decorations and painting on parchment i.e. illuminating manuscripts. It is still used today by some scenic painters and decorators.

ENCAUSTIC/WAX: Dry pigments, pigment ground in oil or commercially prepared oil paints are mixed with melted wax and applied to a wax ground or unprepared surface. Traditionally, beeswax was used and later replaced by bleached beeswax (white instead of brown.) Today, synthetic waxes, such as microcrystalline, are more commonly used. Examples of wax painting have been found dating from the 3rd century B.C.

FRESCO: Painting is done on freshly applied, wet lime-plaster surfaces with colours made by grinding 13 pigments in water or limewater. The dampness of the plaster causes a chemical reaction to take place and the colours become integrated with the surface (usually a wall). The binding medium is the crystallised carbonate of lime, which is slowly formed by the combination of the carbonic acid gas in the air with the lime. This method was used at Pompeii and for the frescos of the Italian Renaissance.

GOUACHE: Pigment is ground in the same vehicle as watercolour, but with a larger percentage of vehicle i.e. gum arabic and an addition of inert pigments such as chalk or blanc fixe to create an opaque effect. It can have total hiding power or be used in a transparent wash. Gouache does not depend upon a reflective white ground as watercolour does, but has a light-reflecting quality due to the white additive.

OIL: Pigment is ground and suspended in an oil vehicle i.e. linseed, walnut or poppy oil, and used on a slightly absorbent surface (usually primed canvas, linen or wood). It may be modified with turpentine or mineral spirits, oil, varnish, the combination of all three as a medium or glaze, or with synthetic painting mediums, such as alkyd resin. Through exposure to air, oils oxidize in a chemical transformation that causes the paint to harden into a film. Water-soluble oils are a new product on the market for the past few years. They perform like oil paints but mix and clean up with water.

TEMPERA: The type of binder, which serves to “temper” dry pigment making it workable, qualifies this term. Egg tempera: Pigment is suspended in an egg/water vehicle and applied to a chalk ground (gesso). Referred to in early records of painting (Pliny, A.D. 23-79) and in medieval manuscripts, it was the most common painting medium until the 15th century. Oil tempera: This medium uses egg/oil/water emulsion, as a vehicle for dry pigments, and an oil/varnish/spirit mixture, as a glaze, employed together on a slightly absorbent surface (oil ground). Transparent glazes are used to modify semi-opaque emulsion layers.

WATERCOLOUR: Pigment is ground with water-soluble gums (usually gum arabic). When moistened with water, it forms a transparent glaze that is applied in washes to white or tinted paper. Gum arabic is a vegetable product obtained from a North African tree.

4) PAINTING TERMS

The following are some common terms that apply to painting. Additional terms are defined throughout the body of this text. Look for italics.

1) GENERAL TERMS

Alla Prima or Direct Painting: Literally, “at first”; to paint spontaneously completing the picture surface in one session or while the paint remains wet.

Blending: The physical fusion of adjacent colours to give a smooth often tonally gradated transition between areas of a painting.

Body Colour and Glaze: The two basic systems of colouring in painting. Body colour refers to the use of comparatively thick layers of opaque paint, where the admixture of white obtains values. The term glaze refers to the use of transparent colour, where values are obtained by using the white of the ground. A simple oil painting glaze medium may be made as follows:

1 oz. stand oil or sun-thickened linseed oil 1 ! oz. dammar varnish or solution OR alkyd resin 6 oz mineral spirits or turpentine

This medium may be used with tube oil colours (either directly or after they have been laid out on paper to 14 remove some of the surplus oil), dry pigments or pigment pastes. The quantities of each ingredient may vary in a glaze according to individual preference. Some artists use several glaze mediums of different strengths and ingredients per painting. Always adhere to the fat over lean rule in oil painting. Glazes with larger percentages of oil may only be used over glazes with less oil.

Chalking: Powdering of the paint surface due to breakdown of the binder, overpigmenting or underbinding.

Chiaroscuro or Tenebroso: Techniques used to explore the dramatic tonal contrasts between light and shade. Noted exemplars include Caravaggio and Rembrandt.

Cleavage: Generic term for any separation within or between layers of a painting. Cleavage within a single layer usually takes the form of cracks, while cleavage between layers represents a form of delamination, resulting in conditions such as lifting or flaking. Blind cleaving is a blister-like condition similar to cleavage except that the paint may not be cracked on the surface.

Covering power: The extent of the area over which a given amount of paint or varnish will spread, providing a satisfactory coating when applied in a normal layer.

Cracking or Craquelure: A network of fine cracks visible in one or all of the ground, paint or varnish layers of a painting. It is a consequence of the aging of painting materials (and a resulting loss of plasticity), but can also result from damage (careless handling – rolling, for instance) or defective materials. Also caused by shrinkage, and by the movement of the ground, the paint film, and/or the varnish.

Cusping: A wave- or garland-like pattern at the outer edges of a stretched canvas, caused by the increased pull or tension at points of attachment to the stretcher.

Calligraphic: An adjective applied to the handling of a tool. In painting, it can mean free and loose brushwork, or marks that are like handwriting.

Diluent: Liquid used to thin the consistency of a prepared colour i.e. mineral spirits for oils, water for acrylics. Fat over Lean: This rule applies to oil painting in layers. Any mixture with a higher proportion solvent (mineral spirits or turpentine) will dry more quickly than one with more oil and/or varnish. Mineral spirits/turps combined with oil paint dries due to a combination of evaporation (vaporization of the liquid) and oxidation (absorption of oxygen from the air). The more fatty ingredients added, the more the mixture dries as a result of oxidation, a much slower process. Lean mixtures, painted over the slower drying fatty mixtures, will result in unequal rates of paint film formation and, consequently, cracking or flaking. The lower layers will crack the upper layers to allow drying to occur.

Mineral spirits or turpentine also has the effect of a solvent and will lift off areas of paint below, if a surface is still tacky. It is advisable to reserve the mixing of solvents with tube oils for underpainting areas of tone and colour at the beginning of a painting. Even so, the proportion of solvent should not be so excessive as to destroy the binding and adhesive functions of the oil content in the paint. This is a common mistake inexperienced painters make. Either use less solvent (and maintain sufficient oil content from the tube colour for the underpainting to adhere to the ground) or use a balanced painting medium (such as the glaze medium above) to produce the underpainting.

Film: A thin, continuous layer of paint (medium and pigment combined), medium or varnish.

Frottage: Max Ernst first introduced this process of pressing or rubbing canvas over or onto texture, coating the surface with paint and then scraping it away with a palette knife.

Glazing: See Body Colour and Glaze above.

Granulation: Granular effects on the surface of a painting, which may be caused by flocculation (pigment 15 settles to the bottom) or by differences of specific gravities in pigment mixtures (each pigment has a different weight.)

Grisaille: From the French, painting in shades of grey; a method of painting full modelling in black and white; generally called monochrome painting when a colour other than grey is used. Usually, transparent colour is applied over the grisaille in thin layers or glazes.

Ground: An opaque layer traditionally applied to a support such as canvas in order to provide a suitable surface for painting. The colour and texture of the ground can influence the final appearance of the painting.

Hiding power: Degree of opacity in paint or pigment, its ability to mask or conceal underpainting.

Impasto: Paint applied in strongly textured, thick layers. The technique was traditionally used to highlight features or to emphasize form.

Imprimatura: From the Italian meaning first coat; a thin translucent to opaque layer applied over the ground to modify its colour or to act as a preliminary paint layer.

Indirect Painting: A method where the painting is built up in layers, usually over more than one session.

Infilling: Generally, filling in an incised line or sgraffito, or any depression on the painting surface, to create deliberate contrast or to match the existing surrounding field.

Medium: 1. The liquid constituent of a paint, in which the pigment is suspended; or a liquid with which paint may be diluted without decrease in its adhesive, binding, or film-forming properties. 2. The mode of expression employed by an artist: etching, painting, sculpture, etc. 3. The actual instrument or material used by an artist: oil paint, chisel, needle, etc. In general usage, the plural form of 1. is correctly “mediums”, that of 2. and 3. “media”.

Modelling: Indicating the three-dimensional shape of an object by the appropriate distribution of different tones or values.

Paint Quality: One of the desirable visual attributes of a finished painting; the term does not refer to good or bad ingredients. Paint quality refers to the intrinsic or the material success of a surface effect; it implies skilful handling and fully realised use of the medium and is a technical matter apart from aesthetic or appreciative categories.

Palette: Surface on which a painter mixes colours; range of colours chosen for use in a painting.

Porosity: A measure of absorbency of a surface or substance.

Sgraffito: From the Italian meaning scratch, generally linear marks incised into the wet surface of gesso or paint using the brush handle or any pointed tool. The effect is to expose the layer beneath or to create an incision which can be infilled with further paint.

Scumbling: Consists of working a layer of paint over another layer of a different colour or tone so that the lower layer is not entirely obliterated; results in an uneven, broken effect.

Sfregazzi: Italian for light rubbing; generally refers to shadows applied as a glaze over light areas.

Sfumato: From the Italian meaning softened, developed by Leonardo da Vinci; making very gradual transitions from light to dark often through thinned grey transparent glazes. The edges of form are subtly 16 blended to imply a sense of movement.

Tooth: Degree of roughness or coarseness on the surface, which assists in the application and bonding of a coat of paint.

Underpainting: Preliminary painting over which other paint is applied.

Viscosity: The internal friction of a fluid, which influences its rate of flow or causes it to resist changes of form; the stickiness of fluids.

Wrinkling or reticulation: This can be caused by an excess of binder or vehicle in the paint film, or by an inferior binder, or, in oil paints by excessive use of a drier.

(2) COLOUR TERMS: Other terms are defined throughout the text.

Broken colour: Colour toned down by mixing in other colours that modify it; in comparison with flat or pure colour.

Cast: Describes a slight complexity or subtlety of colour; a tendency towards another colour, not sufficient to classify it as a definite shade i.e. two yellows may be the same shade yet only one may have a slightly reddish cast.

Flat colour: An area of unbroken, single hue and value.

Hue: The generic colour identification of a substance i.e. the hue of an apple is red.

Local colour: The true or actual colour of an object; as distinguished from the colour effect it produces when viewed as a part of a whole composition, or when influenced by light or atmospheric conditions in nature, or, in a painting, by the technique of the painter. Shade: Pure colour + black; describes a degree of variation in colour i.e. darker or lighter/ more reddish or less reddish. In any system of colour gradation, a step in the scale may be called a shade. Using shade, painters can make deep, luminous paints using whites and tints for accents. Light is captured in the paint layers so they glow.

Tinge: Staining or permeating by a colour; usually implies a faint, weak, or partial coloration.

Tint: Pure colour + white; the modification of a colour by the addition of other colours. The tinting strength of a pigment is its degree of power to colour white paint. Tints can make the brightest paintings. When light hits the painting it bounces directly off the surface.

Tone: Pure colour + white + black; using tone, painters can build paintings by value of pure light tints and grey.

5) COLOUR IN PAINT

The painter's concern for colour may take a number of forms – aesthetic, psychological, physical, symbolic. To use it effectively, certain basic technical points about the physical behaviour of materials need to be understood. These notes outline a few rules of physics and optics governing the behaviour of colour when used in painting.

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Definition:

1. Colour is not a standard property of a substance. It isn't one of its definite, unalterable attributes, such as weight, hardness, or crystalline structure.

2. It is an effect produced by a substance, under certain circumstances, on the vision of the viewer.

3. The term ‘colour’ refers to all sensations, aroused in the mind of a normal observer, by the response of the retina of the eye and its attached mechanisms, to the radiant energy of certain wavelengths and intensities.

Pigments and light: When daylight passes through a prism, it is separated or broken up into a number of coloured rays, creating the familiar spectrum of rainbow hues. This demonstrates the theory that white light is made up of a mixture of these component rays, each having a definite wavelength that can be measured.

Because of its physical, chemical, or crystalline properties, every substance has the property of selectively absorbing some of these wavelengths from the white light. Ultramarine blue, for example, absorbs all, except the blue portion, of the spectrum, a percentage of which it reflects back, producing the sensation we perceive as blue. Cerulean blue absorbs less of the spectrum; it reflects back, together with blue portions, some of the waves that give the green sensation, so we perceive it as a more greenish blue pigment. Coloured bodies don't all reflect the same percentage, or amount, of light. They all vary, and some are much less reflective than others.

Colour variation: Colour, not being a standard property of a substance, is subject to much variation. External conditions may alter the colour effects of a pigment i.e. the quality and degree of intensity of the light in which it is viewed. Bordering colours may alter each other. The principal cause for variation in the colour effect of a pigment is the influence of the medium surrounding it. Additionally, each pigment impedes light to a different extent, a property that may be measured. The colour of a pigment depends upon its absorption of light i.e. yellow pigment absorbs most of the blue-violet light, and reflects green and red light. This combination of green and red light rays produces the yellow colour effect. The groups of atoms responsible for pigment colours are known as chromospheres; secondary groups that intensify colour are known as auxochromes. Subtractive and additive colour: The mixing of coloured paints or pigments comes under the description of subtractive mixture, so called, because the more hues in the mixture, the more colour is subtracted or absorbed from white light. Each pigment in the mixture absorbs or subtracts from white light its characteristic quota, so that only the hues reflected in common by all the component pigments are transmitted to the eye.

The additive method of colour mixing is a term applied to the mixture of coloured beams of light, as if each separate colour of the spectrum were focussed on the same spot. In the subtractive method, a paint mixture of the three primary colours – red, yellow, and blue – will produce black. In the additive method, the three primaries are beams of magenta, cyan-blue, and yellow light, which, if focussed or projected on the same spot, will produce white light by being added to each other.

The subtractive principle of colour mixing is the one of practical interest for the painter.

Value: Black pigments absorb virtually all the visible components of light, and reflect back little; white pigments absorb scarcely any, and reflect almost all. Mixtures of the two, or greys, will perform according to their proportion. The degrees of reflection are known to scientists as brightness and to painters as value.

Intensity and saturation: Degree of chromatic reflection. Chromatic colours react to light in the same way as achromatic colours (black, white, and intermediate greys). A pale or light colour reflects white light from its surface, along with the coloured rays, while a deep-toned, or intense, colour reflects less. Saturation is a term that refers to the degree of vividness of hue of a colour.

The behaviour of light waves: When beams of white light hit the surface of a painting, three things happen to them. 1. Absorption: the ground absorbs some of the waves. 2. Reflection: some are reflected by the surface (as by a mirror), back through the paint film to the eye. 18

3. In the case of transparent or translucent layers, such as occur in glazing, some of the light gets transmitted through the paint where it strikes the ground. 4. In the case of a transparent, or translucent, layer of paint over an opaque, or reflective, ground, some waves are absorbed, and some are reflected back.

The white ground brings the effect of colour to the eye. Whether paint is used thinly or thick and opaque, the white, reflective ground usually influences the final result. With coloured or dark grounds, consider the alteration of pure colour that results from its appearance on top of a base colour that is not white.

Specular reflection: Another sort of reflection, called specular, refers to surface effect: gloss (or shine) and matte (or dull). A highly specular, or mirror-like, surface will bring out the final degree of intensity, or saturation, of paint. The reflection from this surface differs from the diffusion (scattered reflection) of light by a less glossy surface, which owes its reflective power to its brightness or whiteness. Completely lustreless surfaces are called matte, or flat. Those with a faint, smooth sheen are called semi-matte, or eggshell. Semi-gloss results. A matte finish can result when a surface, instead of being smooth, has a texture of microscopic roughness. Watercolour paper, for instance, when viewed under a microscope, is a mass of interlaced fibres of rough texture. Light does not reflect back directly from a rough surface as from a mirror, or highly polished, surface. First, it is reflected back and forth among the myriad tiny facets of the irregular, or coarse, surface particles. The total light reflected from the surface comes from all angles, resulting in diffuse reflection of light and a matte effect. A watercolour, gouache, or pastel work is also matte or lustreless because of the roughness caused by the tiny particles of pigment lying on its surface.

A normal painting – and especially a varnished painting – is glossy, because there is surplus vehicle surrounding, or overlaying, the pigment particles, encasing them in a film, flowing out to a smooth surface. Even where coarse brush strokes build up the paint to a, seemingly, rough texture, it’s a natural property of fluid oils and resins to flow out and dry to a smooth, shiny surface. Roughness of surface can result in an oil painting, or some of its areas, drying without gloss (a condition known as sinking in). Other causes can also produce this effect: an over-absorbent ground that drains vehicle out of paint, over-dilution with solvents or over-pigmentation in the manufacture of the paint.

Refractive index: When two substances of varying refractive indexes meet, the difference between their refractive indexes determines the amount of white light reflected at the points where they meet. Greater differences result in brighter, or whiter, optical affects. Closer refractive indexes result in less light reflection, and greater light absorption. The substance will, as a result, appear to be deeper, or more intense, in colour. For example, an ultramarine blue pigment particle has a refractive index of 1.50 in the dry state surrounded by air (which has an index of 1.00). It has a bright but pale, almost azure hue, as compared with the deep-toned, dark, navy blue appearance of the same pigment ground in linseed oil (which has a refractive index of 1.48).

In the case of ultramarine in oil, the indexes are very close to each other so that less light is reflected, and more is absorbed. When the same pigment is ground in casein or gouache vehicle, the intensity of the dried paint film is somewhere in between that of the dry pigment with its high reflection of white light, and that of the deep toned oil colour, with its high absorption of light. Wet gouache looks almost as deep as wet oil paint, but, because the bulk of the gouache liquid (water) evaporates on drying, whereas nearly all the oil vehicle is still present in dry oil paint, the appearance of the dried paint is quite different. In dried oil paint, pigment is surrounded and locked in a film of dried linseed oil.

In water-based paint, there is no large surplus of medium present, and no corresponding encasement of the pigment in medium. There is sufficient binder present to bind the pigment particles together and hold them permanently to the ground. Consequently, the pigment is exposed to the air instead of surrounded by a coating of oil. Water-based paints require powerful glues or adhesives compared with linseed oil.

Variations in gloss and opacity: Just as colour and gloss are affected, the transparency and opacity of pigments can vary greatly, depending on the surrounding medium. Alumina hydrate, an opaque, white material in the dry powder state, becomes transparent if it is mixed with oil because the refractive indexes of the oil and the pigment are close. When surrounded by paint vehicles, pigments of low refractive index are more transparent than those with a higher refractive index. As a general rule, there is also a direct relationship between the weight, or specific gravity, of a pigment and its opacity. For the most part, the light, fluffy pigments are transparent, while the heavy, solid ones are opaque. The opacity of most dense pigments can be reduced under certain circumstances.

A familiar example of the effect of diffuse reflection is snow, which appears white because the light is diffusely reflected from the myriad planes and facets of its particles, whereas, its substance (water or ice), when viewed in the mass, is clear and transparent. 19

Conclusions: Besides influencing the colour effects of the various pigments, the surrounding medium of each paint also determines its other visual properties. The binding vehicles of oils, watercolours, tempera and gouache all combine with pigments to produce paints with their own characteristics. The same pigment that gives an effect in one medium may behave differently in another.

6) PIGMENTS

(1) GENERAL:

Pigment is a colouring material derived from a wide variety of substances – organic, inorganic, natural and artificial. The physical properties of a pigment are internal to the material itself. Colour is the most important physical property of a pigment. Colour characteristics depend upon colour absorption, which is determined in part by the size, shape and texture of the pigment grains. The refractive index of a pigment (the measure of the light-bending power of particles as light passes through them) is important. The power of a pigment is proportional to the refractive index of its grains. In The Artists’ Handbook Ralph Mayer states that, to meet the requirements for paint, a pigment should:

1) be smooth, finely divided powder; 2) be insoluble in the medium in which it is used; 3) withstand the action of sunlight, without changing colour, under the conditions to which the painting would, normally, be exposed; 4) not exert a harmful chemical action upon the medium, or upon other pigments with which it is mixed; 5) be chemically inert, and unaffected, by materials mixed with it, or by the environment; 6) have a proper degree of opacity, or transparency, to suit the intended purpose; 7) be full strength, and contains no added inert, or loading, ingredients; 8) conform to accepted standards of colour and colour quality, and exhibit all the desirable characteristics of its type; 9) should be purchased from a reliable manufacturer, which tests its colour, selects from worldwide sources, and can provide information about pigment origin, quality, composition, etc.

A pigment is solid material in the form of small, separate particles. In their dry state, these particles exist in two main structural forms: as aggregates – in which primary particles or crystals are joined at the crystal faces; and as agglomerates – which are looser structures of aggregates.

Particle shape and size: The manufacturer determines the final particle size of any pigment. Whether the pigment is the product of a chemical reaction, or is mined, crushed, and graded, it is washed repeatedly and ultimately pressed free of water and dried. The “primary particle size”, actually a range of sizes, is determined during the chemical reaction, or at the grading stage. Though the pressed and dried pigment is always broken up into a powder, this is to facilitate packaging, and to place the pigment clusters in a size range that industrial equipment can further reduce with efficiency. This is the state in which artists buy their dry pigment.

Shape and size affect the appearance of the paint – large particles tend to produce a matte, grainy texture – as well as properties such as light-fastness, opacity, consistency, flow, and brushability. In addition, size determines whether the colour is coarse, or fine. It can affect stability: the smaller the particles, the slower the rate of settling for a given specific gravity in a liquid paint. Different pigments have quite different particle characteristics (depending on their chemical group).

In the most general terms, the synthetic pigments (those precipitated in a chemical reaction) are predominantly crystalline 20 or amorphous. These are usually the many coloured pigments that the artist uses. The white pigments and extender pigments come in all shapes. The earths, though coloured, are platier in structure since they are combined with clays.

Wetting and dispersion: Before pigment can be applied or manipulated, it is dispersed in a binding medium. Well- dispersed paint consists of a complete and continuous suspension of pigment in vehicle. A perfectly dispersed pigment is one in which each particle is separately and closely wetted by a completely enveloping film of medium, and air is displaced from the particle surface. Dispersion is an application of sufficient force to separate the agglomerates and aggregates, ideally reducing them to their primary particle size.

Preparation of dry pigments: Each pigment is separately mixed by palette knife on a ground glass slab or plate, with enough distilled or tap water to form a thick paste. The addition of a few drops of isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol or surfactant such as water tension breaker (WTB) or acrylic flow release (AFR), at any point in the “grinding” process, will aid with resistance. The mixture is then worked with a muller over the glass until a uniform, smooth, and even paste results. The paste is then stored in an airtight container topped up with water to prevent it from drying out and hardening. It may, at this stage, be mixed with a vehicle or binder to make paint.

Oil absorption: The oil absorption of a pigment is the minimum amount of linseed oil that can be worked into a given weight of pigment (100 grams) so as just to form a coherent paste. This varies considerably from pigment to pigment, and depends on the way the oil penetrates the pigment mass – the gaps between the particles and the irregularities in the individual particles – to form a complete coating. Such a paste is putty-like in appearance, and the amount of oil or medium used to bring it to this state, bears no resemblance to the amount necessary to make it workable for the artist. A number of factors affect the oil absorption, including particle shape, the specific gravity of the pigment, and the fact that variations in the volume of 100 grams can be considerable for different pigments.

(2) THE CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS:

Pigments may be classified according to colour, use, permanence, etc. but they are usually classified according to origin:

A. Inorganic: derived from natural minerals or ores, commonly referred to as earth colours – heavy, dense, matte and opaque; light does not penetrate through; low chroma or “muddy” when mixed together i. native earths: ochre, sienna, umber etc. ii. calcined native earths: burnt sienna, burnt umber ii. artificially prepared: cadmiums, oxides, cobalts, titaniums etc. B. Organic: formed as a result of complex carbon chemistry - translucent, light transmitting, high gloss in paint; high chroma, bright and clean when mixed together i. vegetable: indigos, madders etc. ii. animal: Indian yellow etc. iii. artificially prepared: alizarin crimson, anilines, quinacridone, pthalo, Hansa etc.

Artificial mineral colours are usually the most permanent for all uses. The synthetic organic pigments are usually the brightest, and most intense. Some are very permanent, but many historically used pigments are fugitive, and bleed in some mediums. Metals react with other chemicals to form metallic compounds – oxides, carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, and other salts – that are used as pigments. The hazard to the artist is greatest when fumes are created through heating metals i.e. cadmiums and cobalts. Almost all traditional pigments are minerals, or metallic compounds, such as the earth colours (from iron oxides). Some traditional pigments, such as rose madder, are based on animal or plant materials.

Organic pigments are organic molecules containing chemical groupings that absorb certain wavelengths of light, or colour, but not others. The hazards of organic pigments have not been adequately investigated. Handle all pigments with caution since some of their long-term effects are not yet fully known.

Mass and undertone: Also known as dichroism. The full strength surface colour of a pigment, viewed by reflected light, 21 is called its mass, or top, tone. Its colour effect, when spread out thinly, is called its undertone. Undertone is discernable when transparent colour is spread out on glass and viewed by transmitted light, or when opaque colour is diluted with a lot of white. Some pigments have undertones that are distinctly different from their top tones. Others display little, or no, difference.

(3) CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON PIGMENTS ON THE PALETTE

Native earths: yellow ochre an earth of the clay type; contains varying proportions of hydrated iron oxide; best quality mined and refined in France; great variety of shades ranging from a pale, broken yellow to brown; permanent; tinting strength varies, as does hiding strength, depending on manufacturer; moderately transparent in thin layers; one of the oldest traditional pigments used by artists raw sienna similar to ochre, but more transparent, and of a deeper, more subtle tone; ideal glazing colour; appears bright golden yellow when thinly applied on a white ground; darkens in oil; best quality from Siena, Italy; relatively good tinting strength; low hiding power; average drier raw umber similar in composition to raw sienna, but contains more manganese; a dark brown with a slightly green gold undertone; best quality found in Cyprus; darkens in oil; high tinting strength; good hiding power depending on variety; not very transparent; permanent; rapid drier

Calcined native earths: (roasted in ovens) burnt sienna a rich orange brown; can be a strong colorant; low hiding power; typical glazing pigment; permanent; average drier burnt umber slightly more reddish than raw umber; fairly high tinting strength, and good hiding power; permanent; rapid drier

Greens: viridian a furnace product – hydrous chromic oxide; a bright, clear, transparent, emerald green of great transparency, and purity; deep green, with a bluish tinge and blackish-green when applied opaquely; excellent tinting strength; low hiding strength; permanent; average drier, but dries slowly and wrinkles if applied too thickly chromium not the same as chrome green; a high temperature oxide furnace product - anhydrous chromic oxide; cool, slightly grey, olive green; great tinting strength, and good hiding power; somewhat lighter, and more opaque, than viridian; not transparent; permanent; good drier

Blues: ultramarine originally made by grinding semi-precious stones (lapis lazuli,) and refining by a complex process; since 1828, an artificial product - complex silicate of sodium aluminium and sulphur; a deep, rich blue of uniform hue, but can be manufactured in a range of shades from greenish to deep blue, and includes red varieties; high tinting strength; typical, and excellent, glazing pigment with low hiding power; permanent; slow drier cobalt blue a furnace product - combined oxides of cobalt aluminium; the terms light and dark indicate different degrees of saturation of the same pigment; somewhat similar to ultramarine, but with a lighter, and brighter, top tone, and a greenish undertone; not very good tinting strength; moderate hiding power; fairly good transparency; permanent; average drier; one of the most expensive pigments cerulean blue calcinated cobalt sulphate; slightly cooler than cobalt blue, with a greenish tinge; has a slight tendency to settle out; limited tinting strength, and moderate hiding power; not as transparent as cobalt blue; permanent; average drier

Prussian blue compound of iron and cyanogen; a strong, coppery sheen with extraordinary tinting strength, and good hiding power, though very transparent; can be used in any form of opaque painting, but should be avoided in extremely thin glazes; appears blackish-blue in opaque application in oil; fairly permanent; slow drier pthalo blue a complex, organic compound (copper pthalocynaine); may be used as a substitute for Prussian blue, though lighter, and sometimes more, greenish; has many similar qualities; high tinting strength, and 22

good hiding power, yet relatively transparent; absorbs light almost completely in the red and yellow, and reflects only the green and blue bands; permanent

Cadmium colours: reds, oranges cadmium sulphide, a metal closely allied to zinc; present day pigments co- precipitated with barium yellows sulphide produce a variety of shades from lemon yellow to deep orange, vermilion to deep maroon; bright, very opaque, and permanent to light; high refractive index, therefore good hiding power and fairly high tinting strength; average driers. Because the real stuff is toxic and expensive, many manufacturers also produce cadmium hues, synthetic substitutes.

Alizarin synthetic dyestuff (anthracene, a coal tar crimson: derivative), the first of the natural dyestuffs to be made synthetically; known as madder in its natural organic form; a cool, crimson red with a bluish undertone; one of the best, and most beautiful, glazing colours, but extremely powerful, and concentrated; permanent; slow drier

Whites: titanium titanium dioxide or "titanox"; extremely dense, powerful, opaque white; is the pigment with the highest reflectivity of light; gives best results with water mediums; soft, and chalky, paint films in oil; good tinting strength; surpasses obscuring power of all other whites; permanent; poor drier in oils, so it usually contains admixtures zinc zinc oxide, Chinese white, permanent white; considered semi-opaque in oils; doesn't turn yellow in oil; useful for translucent light values, where low hiding power is an asset; poor brushing quality; tinting power with white pigments is called reducing power - has good reducing power; permanent; slow drier, but does allow for wet-in-wet work White lead poisonous; also known as Cremnitz white; basic lead carbonate; has a tendency to yellow in oils; or flake turns brown when acted upon by air with sulphur fumes; superior qualities in grinding, drying, brushing, white flexibility, and durability to all other whites; not recommended due to toxicity

7) TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

(1) Brushes:

Artists’ brush sizes range by number from 000 (small) to 24 (large). Larger sizes are indicated in inches or centimeters on the handle. Brush sizes are not necessarily internationally standardized. Handle lengths vary; regular and short are standard. Scenic artists’ brushes come in extra long lengths and artists modify brush length with extension rods i.e. bamboo stalk, dowel.

Common Brushes Types: Bristle: animal, nylon, and other synthetics Hair: sable, other animal, synthetic sable i.e. sabeline

Brushes commonly used for work in oil or other heavy-bodied paints are long-handled flats, brights, or rounds, in either hair or bristle. Generally, hair or pure bristle is used for oil or watercolour painting and nylon or synthetic brushes are used for acrylics. However, many artists now use synthetic brushes for all painting processes due to their affordability and availability. The following diagrams illustrate the most common brush types and shapes.

Hair brushes: The finest are made of 100% Russian kolinsky, collected from the tip of the tail where the hairs are longest. Real sable hairs taper from the base, swelling into a belly, and then to a fine, scopic point. Set into a ferrule, their natural curve brings them together in a point with a characteristic spring.

Sable or sabeline brushes are commonly used for watercolours and in oil painting, mainly for glazing and applying fine 23 lines and details. ‘Sable’, not a standard term, refers to a class of which weasels, minks, ermines, martens and kolinskies are members. Some brushes labeled sable are made of camel, squirrel, dyed white ox hair, Russian fitch, goat hair, badger hair, or American skunk. Sabeline, the most commonly available synthetic substitute, is less expensive with commensurately reduced qualities.

Other brushes and tools: Artists have invented, appropriated and adapted all sorts of tools and implements to apply paint: decorators’ and sign writers’ brushes, toothbrushes, dental and sculpting tools, printmaking brayers, plant misters, sponges and sponge brushes, window squeegees, rollers, scrapers, combs, etc.

Brush care: Don't leave brushes sitting in solvent (mineral spirits, water). The bristles or hairs bend badly or fall out because the glue in the ferrule has been loosened. Brushes are cleaned after each day's painting and often throughout a sustained painting session when they clog. Wipe the brush on a rag or paper towel. Use the correct solvent for the type of paint and remove as much of the color as possible. Use mild soap and lukewarm water; lather up the brush and swirl it in the palm of the hand. Rinse and repeat until no color remains in the brush.

Some pigments stain. This is not serious, but remove all other traces of paint from the brush, especially where the heel is inserted into the ferrule. Rinse, shape the brush and put it away flat to dry. Don’t store upright; moisture gets down inside the ferrule and spreads the hairs or bristles and loosens the ferrule from the handle. Stored carefully, brushes retain their shape. Brushes may be restored with hair conditioner especially if bristles or hairs become splayed out or bent from careless storage. Before reuse, rinse out the conditioner. Cheap brushes don’t wear well. Well cared for, good quality brushes can last many years, even with daily use.

(2) Knives and Spatulas:

Painting knives are for applying paint, particularly to achieve impasto effects, and for scraping paint off paintings in progress. Palette knives are for mixing colours and cleaning the palette. Spatulas and scrapers are for mixing pastes and scraping paint in volume. All these tools can be used interchangeably. A palette knife has a handle and a flat blade that extends out from the ferrule then bends down and out to keep the knuckles from getting in the paint. Painting knives come in various shapes and sizes. In either case, the blade should be tempered steel, so that it is both stiff and flexible.

Spatulas and scrapers can be used in large-scale works or whenever a large volume of paint is to be moved around.

(3) Palettes: wooden: These palettes traditionally replicate the colour of an imprimatura common in some painting techniques, and are available in various shapes, sizes, types and colours of wood. Used resting on the forearm, wooden palettes have a hole for the thumb and an indentation for the palm. Rub with linseed oil before first use to cut oil pigment penetration. Clean and scrape regularly to avoid contaminating fresh colours. Not commonly used in contemporary practice anymore. paper: Conveniently disposed of but ecologically wasteful, paper should have a wax coating to prevent leaching out of the vehicle from the pigment. glass: The ideal palette for correct colour mixing. With white paper under the glass, colours look as they will on a primed canvas. Obvious safety issues: not recommended as a portable palette, edges should be bevelled, ground, or heavily taped. Easy to clean by soaking in warm water and lifting with a scraper or palette knife. ceramic: Small ceramic or porcelain dishes or cups are standard palettes for many water-based paints (watercolour, gouache, egg tempera, etc.) 24

plastic: Plexiglas, Lucite, and other hard, sheet plastics are fine until their surfaces become badly scored. Light and portable as well as easy to clean, this is the best type of permanent palette for use with acrylics. Lately, clear plastic cartons have been used to package eggs. These are ideal for all water-based processes and fine for oils.

Saving paint on a palette: Paint laid out on a palette will develop a dry outer skin as it begins drying. Skinned-over oil paint will lose its adhesive and binding properties; breaking the skin and thinning the paint with a medium or diluent will not restore these properties. The paint should be scraped off the palette and discarded.

If leftover paint must be saved, seal from exposure to air: 1) transfer blobs of paint to a strip of glass and leave immersed in water till next use OR 2) press plastic wrap closely over each area of paint

(4) Easels: A large variety of easels can be purchased or built for studio or field use. Studio easels should be sturdily built of hardwood, steel, or aluminum, with heavy metal fasteners, and be versatile enough to handle a variety of sizes and weights of picture supports. Field easels (the French landscape easel) are traditionally made of hardwood and have stainless steel inserts and brass fittings; plastic and soft aluminum versions are more economically available.

(5) Lighting:

Cool north light is useful for lighting setups in the studio. Relatively steady low-level light, it casts no strong, constantly changing shadows. However, alone it is generally not enough light to paint by. Studio lighting is often a combination of fluorescent lights, incandescent spots, and halogens. If painting for a lifetime, the lighting in the studio should be good, bright when needed, and adjustable. Many galleries still light work with incandescent spotlights though halogen light is increasingly available. Full spectrum bulbs are recommended for the truest colour.

(6) Additional Tools and Equipment:

Palette cups, dippers: small metal or plastic cups that clip onto a standard palette, for holding thinners, mediums, oils or water; some have lids.

Cans, bottles: to hold mediums, varnishes and solvents for washing brushes. Be sure these have air-tight lids and label them carefully with the contents and date, and store where they won’t be a fire or health hazard.

Brush washer: used in oil painting to rectify the brush cleaner (usually mineral spirits); some have a spiral ring attached above to hold brushes in the cleaner, or to rest wet brushes in when not in use; because the paint is heavier than the cleaner, it settles below a perforated shelf in the brush washer, leaving sludge undisturbed at the bottom and clean solvent above. mahlsticks: a wooden, metal, bamboo, or plastic pole with a soft-covered tip at one end, used to steady the painting arm when working over large or wet areas of a painting; some come in a foldable or retractable format, which may be less sturdy. airbrush: spraying tool used with water-based paints, such as acrylic and ink, but not usually with oil or enamel paints; 25 works by focusing compressed air through a nozzle and mixing that air flow with liquid.

8) SUPPORTS/SUBSTRATES

A support or substrate is the backing to which paint is applied. Not just the chemistry of paint makes it act or feel a certain way. The tooth, texture and absorbency of the support contribute to what is called "drag" or manipulability in the paint. Supports are generally flexible (bendable) or rigid (less bendable or unbendable). Permanence is also a factor in selecting the support.

(1) Flexible:

(a) Canvas: is the most common flexible painting support since the 15th century. Cotton or linen, it is stretched over a wooden frame, called a stretcher or strainer. Its light weight and colour, portability, and easy restoration give canvas advantages over many other supports. Canvas comes in different weights, and in widths ranging from 36 to 54” (100 to 140 cm). Seven-foot widths are rare. Special looms can produce widths up to 26 feet. Price increases with width. Weight describes thickness, referring to the weight of a square yard of material i.e. 1 square yard of 7-oz. cotton duck weighs 7 ounces. The common weight for an average canvas size (30 x 40”) is No. 10.

Cotton duck: A popular type of canvas, it ranges in weight from 5 to 24 oz. Canvas is available in a variety of weaving styles, however the range of textures is limited and the quality of manufacturing varies widely. It is advisable to use artists’ canvas purchased from an art materials supplier. Make sure the surface is even, with no unsightly stitches, brown flecks, or threaded lumps.

Linen: Although superior in strength and longevity as a support, linen lacks the consistency of cotton. Portrait quality linen offers the finest and most consistent weave. Textures range from smooth, to medium, to medium rough and rough. Because the best linen is closely woven, the number of threads per square inch determines the cost. Linen holds little benefit over canvas for acrylic painting, and its high oil content may make it less suitable. It tends to sag or wrinkle in damp weather and will mold without occasional airing.

Jute: Used in applications that call for extreme texture as well as lower price, jute is not considered a permanent surface, as it becomes brittle on aging.

Synthetics: Many new fabrics have been developed concurrently with new types of paints. Synthetic textiles are exceptionally strong, long lasting, and even-textured, but sensitive to high temperatures. Sagging may occur at temperatures over 90F. Acrylic colours can be painted directly onto most synthetic fabrics, using techniques including watercolour, airbrush, block printing, silk screening, marbling etc. In order to be permanent, oil colours require a degree of surface absorbency and tooth, which most synthetics don’t have.

Knots, which can occur in any fabric, should be pressed forward with the fingers, and sandpapered off. Obstinate knots can be flattened with a hammer against a backing before the ground has completely dried. Snags can be pulled through to the back. Cutting them can leave a hole in the canvas.

Most fabrics shrink up to 5 % in both directions when wet. There is no need to wet canvas immediately before stretching. Many textiles always remain hygroscopic i.e. they tighten in warm air, and sag in moist atmosphere. Like wood, fabric also undergoes dimensional changes with changing atmospheric conditions, therefore expanding stretchers, with crossbars, are recommended. All vegetal textiles rot, and become brittle and powdery with age when exposed directly to oil. Sizing before oil priming reduces this. 26

Cotton and linen canvases are commercially available primed or unprimed, stretched or unstretched. In nearly all cases the priming is acrylic gesso, although in Europe and occasionally in North America glue sized, oil primed, archivally permanent pre-made canvases are available.

(i) Stretchers and Strainers:

Size, primer and paint are normally applied to stretched canvas. This ensures a tight surface, as the material is more difficult to stretch when coated. Strainers are non-adjustable; stretchers may be tightened and loosened. The mortise-and-tenon joints of the expanding stretcher should have spaces for wedges, or keys, yet be firm enough to hold the stretcher together. By driving in the keys, the fabric can be tightened at anytime without loosening the fastenings (tacks, nails or staples). Whether stretcher or strainer, it should be constructed so that only the fabric at the outer edge touches the bars to prevent marks that can't be covered in framing. Each bar should be bevelled on the inside, or have a raised narrow rim along the outer edge. Bars longer than 40 inches need to be supported by a crossbar, to prevent sagging.

Commercial Wooden Stretchers: A variety of wooden stretchers, strainers or bars are available commercially. These should be produced from kiln-dried wood to prevent warping. Check each bar carefully for warping. Although narrow, light bars are adequate for small paintings (up to 24 inches), use wider, heavier bars for large works.

Studio-Made Strainers: To make your own strainer use well-dried, straight pieces of wood. There are many different designs for producing wooden strainers.

(ii) Strainer and Braced Panel building 101:

For the purposes of this guide a 48”x48” strainer with cross braces will be used. I will also be describing the process one would expect to undertake with the facilities found in the Drawing and Painting Department. Much of this will remain the same whether you choose to use the Moreso Guillotine, a mitre saw or a mitre box. There are alternative methods that one can use at home that I will glance over at the end.

Figure 1: Moreso Guillotine

If you are making a different size than what is detailed in this guide be sure that you know your dimensions and have worked out a building plan for yourself so that you have an assessment of the materials and the time/labour required. 27

Before purchasing your materials, draw out a plan and a cut list. Take into account the common lengths provided (96” and 72” through DRPT Rm. 481) and use your materials economically by placing cuts effectively. Building more than one support at a time will save time.

Before measuring your length, cut a 45 degree mitre at the end.

Tip: Do this at one end of all the full lengths that you will be using to build your frame

In order to limit any ‘ghosting’ use beveled wood to build the outer frame. ‘Ghosting’ occurs when the loaded brush is drawn across an edge under the canvas. This changes the pressure are reduces the amount of paint laid onto the surface at the point of contact creating a noticeably lighter area in the painting field.

Building the exterior frame

Using beveled wood for the outer frame place the wood with the high edge of the wood against the fence of the Guillotine. This will ensure that the mitre cut in the right direction.

Figure 2: Note: If you do not follow this rule you will wind up with the high edge on the Cross section, inside of the frame which will give you an odd angle at the edge of your canvas. Beveled Wood This is an easily avoided common mistake.

Measure the length of wood along the outer edge to 48” from the mitred end, mark and cut. Repeat this step until you have 4 pieces of equal sized wood. This will be your outer frame. Figure 3: Measuring Tip: You can simply place your pieces back to back and transfer the measurement.

Place two joining sides into the corner clamp with the high edge on the outside and fit the mitre joints snugly together. Once you have them in place, tighten the clamp. Using a gusset or any right angle, check to ensure that the inside corner is at a 90 degree angle. Figure 4: Corner Adjust if this is not the case. Release one side of the vice and dab a little Clamp/Angle Vise glue on the joint. Replace the wood into the clamp and tighten.

Note: The main point here is that the joint is square. If the sides do not meet exactly, don’t fret, it will be covered by canvas and no one will be the wiser.

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Hammer at least one nail on either side of the joint. Release the clamps, turn over so that the beveled side is facing down and clamp in vice. Check the angle of your corner again to ensure that it is still true. Dab a little glue along the corner to help affix your gusset.

Make a gusset Take a small piece of scrap wood (roughly 8” long), mitre both ends on the flat side (this should end up looking like a wide trapezoid.)

Place a gusset on the back corners so that it is flush and there is plenty of room to the face of the support. Nail in place. After this, you have completed half of your outer frame. Tip: Put this half of your frame aside. Repeat this step with the remaining outer sides. Combine these two halves (glue, clamp, nail.) It is helpful to have a partner to help with this step otherwise the end can rest on a table or other support.

Repeat the above steps for the other half of the outer frame.

You have completed the outer portion of your strainer. Now it’s time to place and fasten your braces.

Maintenance: It is important to maintain the Angle Vise. Be sure to wipe away any glue on the Vise so that it does not harden. Keep a wet towel with you while working to wipe up glue as you go. When the glue hardens it builds up on the vise and will put the joint out of square.

About Bracing

As a rule of thumb, after you exceed 24” it is important to use braces. Braces give structural support to the outer frame. Once canvas is stretched and sized/primed it will begin to tighten. If there is no bracing in place, there will be nothing to support the frame and it will bow making your overall canvas look shoddy and unprofessional.

Note: You should begin using multiple braces and cross-braces (requiring a lap joint) when building supports are larger than 36” x 36”. When in doubt, err on the side of caution. You wouldn’t want to go through all the labour to build your support only for it to look wonky and not be able to support your artistic efforts adequately. Remember, your audience is sensitive to subtleties in your materials that you shouldn’t glance over. You could lose marks over a poorly built support.

A 48” x 48” strainer should have a double cross-brace for optimum support but, a single cross-brace will suffice. 29

To place your braces, find and mark the midpoint of all sides if using only one cross-brace or section into thirds if placing a double cross-brace (for single this will be at 24”, double is 16”).

Fitting and Fastening your Braces

Because some bowing can occur along a length of wood it is best to try to correct this. Measure your brace against one side of your frame by placing the butt end of the wood against the opposite inside edge of the frame. Simply transfer the measurement by marking the wood using the frame as a guide. Cut the wood as true to square as possible. This end will butt up against the outer frame and be fastened in place for support.

Cutting Lap Joints A Lap joint is created by overlapping two pieces of wood that have an area of their material cleared to allow a flush join. To create the lap joint, overlap the intended pieces and mark the overlapping section by using the edges as guides. Cut the lap joint recess by making a series of cuts inside these areas (as indicate in the diagram to left). In order to ensure that the joints fit together nicely we will want to stop our cut shy of midpoint. Be careful not cut too far, this can compromise the strength of your brace and it could break. Clamp the piece of wood to the mitre box so that you are cutting down the depth of the wood.

After a few cuts have been made, turn the piece on its side so that you can chisel out the area. Clamp the wood with the grooves away from and cut away from the mitre side. Using a mallet to strike the end of the chisel begin chipping away at the end of the grooves and work towards the midpoint. This allows for better control of the cuts and better error prevention.

After completed, remove the wood from the mitre box. Clamp the wood against a table and use the chisel to clean up the area and clear out more if you haven’t reached the midpoint. Repeat these steps for each lap joint.

A note about chisels: Chisels have one straight side and one beveled side. When using a chisel, know that the chisel will follow the beveled edge. Place the beveled side against the part of wood that you want to keep so that you are chiseling away from it.

DO NOT USE CHISELS TO REMOVE STAPLES. This chips the edge 30

and greatly reducing their effective cutting and greatly increasing the risk of injury.

NEVER CUT OR CHISEL TOWARDS YOURSELF

Once all cuts are complete, begin assembling the inner framework. Place the wood so that its centre (width-wise) is at the midpoint made on the outer frame. To ensure that you are placed correctly, fit the lap joint together. The joining piece of wood should butt up against the inside of the outer frame. If it does, Great! If not, adjust to accommodate. Nail the first lap joint piece in place to the outer frame. Dab a little amount of glue into the recess of the lap joint.

Nail the paired piece to the outer frame so that the two intersect and the lap joint fits together. Continue until all the cross-braces are in place.

Tip: You can affix a gusset to the back of the lap joint so give it a little more support. This is easy to do with a little glue and a staple gun. You can also affix gussets over each butt joint keeping the right angle pointing inwards toward the centre of the strainer.

You are ready to stretch your canvas.

When buying canvas add 8-12” to the measurements (width and height). This provides ample material to hold onto as it is stretched over the frame. Lay the canvas on a flat surface or floor and centre the frame onto it, making sure that there is enough extra material on all sides to hold wrap around the frame without being too awkward. Starting in the middle of one side, using an Arrow brand JT-21 staple gun (or equivalent), place three staples approximately 1 to 1 !” apart. Do the same on the opposing side pulling the canvas taught. Rotate to either side and repeat.

Note: Don’t pull on your canvas too hard or you will have trouble later on. The canvas will shrink a little once it is primed, as explained earlier in this guide. If you followed the recommendations above, you may not experience bowing but your strainer will likely torque under the strain. The canvas should be taught, not tight like a drum but, almost.

Continue working in the same order (first side, opposite, rotate, opposite, repeat) pulling the canvas taught and towards the corners, placing staples every approximately every 2” until complete. Check your progress as you go. If buckling 31 occurs while stretching, back up and correct it. It is easier to do it now than after the surface has been primed and very difficult once it has been painted on.

Braced Panels

Types of Panels Firstly, there are three main types of panels that you could use: Luan, plywood and Masonite. Each has different characteristics. ‘Luan’ is a lightweight mahogany ply that can be cut with a utility knife (such as an OLFA knife.) Most people are familiar with standard plywood. However, there are different grades, thicknesses and types of plywood. Consult the local lumber yard or talk to a technician familiar with these products for more information. Finally there is Masonite, which is basically compressed pulp product. The first two will have a grain and the third will likely come with a flat, slick side and a bumpy, textured side (this is called ‘good- one-side’.) Luan is preferred for conventional panels as it is lighter than other plywood products as well as Masonite; it is easily cut to size without the use of power tools and does not buckle as readily as Masonite. Fir and poplar plywood products are best for mixed media applications where a project requires object to be attached to the surface or working into the material (such as gouging, burning or cutting.) Masonite presents a bit of a challenge as is can buckle when it gets wet. To counter-act this paint an ‘X’ on the back of the board before you gesso/prime the front.

There are few differences between building a strainer and a braced panel. Otherwise, they are fundamentally the same.

The main differences are: A. Non-beveled wood is used to construct the outer frame B. Bracing will be placed with the wider side touching and adhered to the back of the panel to support the field NOT the outer frame. Cross-Braces are not used; braces are placed parallel to one another where required. C. Gussets are unnecessary as the panel is rigid

Note: Panels are rigid surfaces that permit you to screw into them, print on them, gouge into them, etc. They are versatile and give you the opportunity to experiment in ways that a conventional strainer or stretcher will not.

Prepare the measurements and cut list for the support and panel. If using Luan ply, add " to !” to the dimensions, this will provide a margin for error and the excess can easily be trimmed scoring it several times using a utility knife and sanded 32 smooth. Select your support material and purchase. Check the measurements and corners to ensure your support the right size and square. Follow the same initial steps as indicated in the strainer building section. Tip: After the end of the length of wood has been mitred, measure it against the panel and transfer the measurement. Cut the corresponding mitre a slight bit shorter than measure (1/16”) to accommodate for outage during transfer. In this case it is better to have your support be slightly smaller that the panel if can’t be perfect.

The same rule of thumb for braces applies to panels depending on your material choice (the thicker the material the less important a brace becomes.) Luan, "” plywood and Masonite should receive a brace every 36”.

There are a few ways to affix the panel to the support. Always put a bead of glue around the outer frame and on any braces should they be required. Wipe away any drips on the side of the support. The most common way to secure the panel and support until the glue sets is to use clamps. If clamps are unavailable, bricks, books or anything heavy that can be placed on the surface around the edges of the panel to secure it to the supports will suffice.

Tip: Use a piece of wood approximately the same size as your edge and clamp this to the surface at either ends of the wood to distribute the pressure. The important point is that the panel adheres as much as possible to the support. Why not build two and clamp them together face to face. This way you will have total surface contact on both. If you don’t want two sell the extra!?

In a pinch you can staple the panel to the support to effectively hold them together. This is a ‘quick and dirty method’ that lets you move the panel without worry. Better still is if you build two at the same time and tape them face to face. The downfall to this method is that all the staples need to be removed before the surface is prepared. Additionally, it should be sanded to remove any loose fibres.

(iii) Stretching Canvas

Materials:

- canvas = area of stretcher + depth of stretcher bar + 3” (1! “ x 2) to fold onto back - stretcher bars and keys OR strainer - staples - canvas pliers (optional) 33

Process:

1. Use a T-bar or setsquare to set the bars at right angles.

2. Lay the frame, beveled side down, on the canvas. Leave at least an inch and a half folded over the edges onto the back, in order to hold the fabric firmly in hand or with canvas pliers.

3. Locate staples at the centre of each of the four sides, forming a diamond.

4. Remove these four staples one at a time and re-staple, pulling more firmly, but evenly on all four sides.

5. Proceed by pulling from opposite side to opposite side to keep the tension even, and move out from the first four staples, rather than going completely up or down one side. Place the staples evenly from side to side, anywhere from 1 to 3 inches apart depending on the size of the stretcher and the weight of the canvas.

6. At the corners, fold neatly. Staple firmly to prevent the corner edges from catching and tearing. Cut off any loose threads for the same reason.

(b) Paper:

Paper can be either machine- or hand-made, from either wood or cotton pulp. Permanent art papers are made from cotton rag, which is generally stronger and longer lasting. Papers designed specifically for painting include single and double plies and heavier supports called Bristol boards and paperboards. Although impermanent, strong brown Kraft paper can be stretched onto frames for a cheap, light painting support.

Laid Paper has distinctive horizontal and vertical lines embedded in the texture and predates the development of flattened or smooth paper surfaces, as early as the 2nd century B.C. Chinese hand-made laid paper technology travelled to Arabia in the 8th century and was established by the Moors in Europe in the mid 12th century. Fabriano in Italy established the first great western centre of papermaking in 1276. These mills still produce some of the world’s finest papers today.

Cotton or linen fibres are beaten to make them receptive to water. The resulting pulp slurry is poured over a screen and shaken to an even depth. The screen or wire cloth imparts a distinctive pattern to the paper. A low profile watermark is often embossed into the corner or edge during the felting process. After enough water has drained from the screen, the sheets are piled and interleaved with felt, then pressed until as much moisture as possible has been removed.

Painting on paper: All aqueous paints can be used directly on paper. Or paper can be primed with acrylic mediums and/or gesso to achieve good paint adhesion without absorption. This will seal the paper so that paint is not absorbed into the paper fibers. The lower the absorbency, the lesser the amount of paint required.

In airbrush technique, paper texture is important. Cold-pressed paper, for example, will accentuate the paint texture or grain of atomized paint dots from an airbrush. If using self-adhering frisket film, the paper must have the surface strength to hold up to the cutting and lifting of this film, as well as wetting. Test the paper or board before starting.

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(i) Watercolour Paper:

The best permanent paper for watercolour, and other water-based paint media, comes from cotton or linen rags boiled, shredded, and beaten to separate the fibres. The resulting smooth, flowing pulp is run over a fine screen in a thin layer, dried and pressed. To reduce absorbency, a weak gelatine or glue solution is added to the pulp.

The dried product is flattened by pressing using various surface finishes. Cold-Pressed (CP) and Not-Pressed (NP) papers have an open or coarse texture. Rough has a still coarser grain. Hot-Pressed (HP) has a smooth surface. Grain does not normally affect paint adhesion, but does affect light refraction, paint handling and manipulation, as well as the appearance of the medium. Fine papers generally are watermarked or embossed with a manufacturer's mark, which can be read on the front side. Some papers are only finished on one side. The reverse side may contain irregular spots, flaws, and blemishes that don't show up until painting, or the grain may not be the same. Otherwise, papers may be used on either side.

Paper is graded by the weight of a ream (472, 480, or 500 sheets). Common paper weighs 72 pounds. An intermediate weight is 90 pounds. 140 pounds is suitable for all-purpose use. Board-like sheets of 250 to 400 pound paper require no stretching, but are more expensive.

Sheets of paper come in standard dimensions: Royal 19 x 24" Elephant 23 x 28" Super-royal 19 1/4 x 27" Double elephant 26 1/2 x 40" Imperial 22 x 30" (standard size) Antiquarian 31 x 53"

Stretching Watercolour Paper:

Materials:

- watercolour paper (under 250 lb.) - a plywood board 2" wider than paper on all sides - a roll of brown paper tape approximately 2" wide - staple gun or tacks; white glue - a moistened sponge

Process:

1. Clean a water tray or tub of any dirt, oil or grease that could mark the paper, and fill with 2" or 3" of water. 2. Clean the board the paper will be stretched on. Remove old tape or staples where they will affect the paper. Markers, and old paint, can bleed through onto the paper. 3. Lay the board horizontally. Cut 4 lengths of brown tape several inches longer than the sides of the paper. 4. Lay the paper in the water for a moment to moisten it. Lift it out by the top corners allowing the excess water to run off into the tray. Soaking the paper dissolves the glue size, which is needed so the paper shrinks back to its original size. However, moistening it allows the size to expand for long enough to stretch the paper out for taping. 5. Centre the paper on the board. Gently, and quickly, pass the sponge from the centre of the paper out in a star shape until the paper is flat. If it continues to buckle do not keep rubbing the paper. The buckles flatten as the water evaporates. Rubbing the paper abrades the surface, affecting the work on top. 6. Moisten the tape quickly with the sponge. Don’t soak the tape or over-handle it, as this will weaken adhesion. Attach the long sides first’ placing half the tape on the paper and half on the board. Press the tape from the middle to each end firmly using the sponge. Repeat with the short sides. 7. If the tape doesn’t adhere evenly, run a line of white glue on the paper before covering it with the tape. Press the moistened tape down as before. The moistened tape can be stapled or tacked to the board as well. 8. If the paper shrinks before the tape dries put a small puddle of water in the centre. 35

9. Keep the board and paper horizontal through the drying process.

(ii) Distemper and Tinted, Toned or Coloured Papers

Materials:

-20 grams of glue crystals to 1 litre of cold water = 1oz to 4 cups - dry pigment as required

Process for distemper:

1. Prepare the glue size, soaking the crystals overnight and heating the mixture in a double boiler. See Glue Size. 2. Mix small amounts of dry pigment (or pigment paste) into warm glue until the desired colour saturation is achieved. Dilute the colour with more warm glue, or increase its intensity with more pigment. 3. Apply to a receptive surface using any variety of tools. Washes will dry very quickly like watercolours, and can be painted over immediately. Paint films sufficiently bound with glue will become water insoluble.

Process for tinting, toning or colouring paper:

1. Stretch good quality paper and allow to dry thoroughly. Or tack a heavier paper (200 pounds or more) to a board. 2. If using rabbit skin glue and pigment, prepare the glue size at the same strength as for distemper painting. Mix pigment into the glue. Stir the solution continually to prevent pigment from settling at the bottom. 3. If using acrylic colours or other water-based media, mix a wash of translucent colour using medium and solvent i.e. water. The use of water alone may result in too dilute a solution with insufficient binder and the colour will powder off the surface. 4. Apply colour to the paper. This can be done with a wide brush in even, single strokes or sponged on, applied with a rag, or sprayed on using a mister. Apply one or more coats of one or more colours. Alternating coats of complementary colours create an optical grey.

Paper treated in this way has a livelier surface than pre-coloured paper, is more lightfast, permits the choice of an exact colour, and is more economical. It has good tooth, imparted by the addition of pigment, which is excellent for charcoal, pastel, or work utilising other soft drawing tools. It is receptive to water-based paints (acrylics, watercolours, gouache, egg tempera, casein, etc.) and to wax if the glue coats are kept light and thin. The tinting medium, whatever the base, will act as an isolating coat, allowing for oil sketch work on this surface. Traditionally, the paper colour is kept at or below a middle tone, creating the mid-values in the work. Dark tones and highlights are added, the latter with conté or pencil crayon, gouache/white watercolour, pastel or oil stick etc.

(c) Acetate and Mylar:

Acetate is a transparent, flexible, somewhat brittle plastic, available in various thickness and surface textures. Matte surface (wet-media) acetate can be used for any media, but acrylics are recommended for their flexibility. Although not as transparent as the clear type, matte acetate's textured side will hold most media, requiring no preparation. Acetate is available in sheets and rolls, and is traditionally used in opaque and 36 transparent projection, transparent illustration overlays, and animation. It can be reversed or back-painted to provide smooth, glossy backgrounds for a variety of projects.

Mylar combines all the properties and uses of acetate with the added qualities of flexibility and strength. It won't stretch, crack or yellow, and is available in several surfaces, including smooth, photosensitive (for the reproduction of line drawings) and a wet-media form that needs no surface preparation. It receives oils and other painting media and is an ideal contemporary surface for metalpoint i.e. silverpoint drawing because its coated surface abrades the metal without any additional coatings such as gesso or whiting. Mylar is more expensive than acetate.

(2) Rigid supports:

Rigid supports are either required or preferable for some painting processes, such as egg tempera, or for painting dimensionally with thick, heavy paint, or where the painting includes heavy objects or collaged elements. Rigid boards can also be used with canvas, paper or other materials glued to the surface. For oil painting, priming and/or sizing are required to prevent leeching of the oils below the surface of the painting. Aqueous painting systems don’t require a size or primer on these supports, however an acrylic gel or medium promotes good adhesion. An acrylic sizing such as Golden’s GAC 100 is highly recommended for permanence and archival value because it prevents migration of matter and moisture from the substrate into the gesso and paint layers.

Wood: owes its strength and hardness to the quality of its fibres. Shrinking, and swelling –effects damaging to paintings on wood – occur as a result of the inevitable loss, and gain, of moisture due to the wood's cellular structure. However, today’s manufactured hardboard is an ideal support for paintings surpassing all kinds of plywood and even the old masters' solid-wood panels. Its homogenous structure is not as sensitive to climatic changes as wood.

Compressed hardboard or Masonite: MDF, or multi-density fibreboard, is a solid, durable support however heavy in weight. Masonite, a lightweight board, was first made in the U.S. in the 1920's from wood disintegrated into fibres by a steam-generated explosion. With the aid of various synthetics, this is compressed into sheets and heated. Manufactured for the construction industry, Masonite is available in tempered and untempered forms. Tempered is made with silicones and oils that can affect paint film. Untempered is the desired grade for permanency. The layers of a sheet of untempered Masonite should separate easily at the corner when tested with a thumbnail. Extra hard Masonite has been bound with ingredients that could leak up into the gesso and affect the painting later.

Regular Masonite is the most commonly used grade. Soft, porous insulation hardboard is subject to warping and not stable for permanent use. Thickness ranges from 1/8 inch (for small paintings) to 1/2 inch (for large paintings). One side is always smooth. The grid pattern on the reverse is not intended as canvas imitation, but is the result of the manufacturing process. Paint can be applied to either side. Primers may adhere poorly to the shiny side due to a residue of paraffin oil manufacturers use to treat their presses. Depending on the kind of wood used, the colour ranges from dark brown to pale ochre. Darker colours require more gesso for complete coverage.

Preparing Masonite for sizing and/or priming:

1. Sand the edges of the panel lightly to round the corners off. This reduces the possibility of cracking the ground if the corners get knocked. 2. Sand the glossy side to degrease the board and raise its fibers. Use a tack cloth to pick up sanding residue OR Clean and degrease with a light application of acetone. Wear barrier cream or protective gloves when using acetone and ventilate adequately. 3. Proceed to coat with size and/ or gesso.

Panels can warp if not cradled on the back – braced with an equal stress of horizontal and vertical wood strips 37 attached with glue. Attach with nails or screws if you are prepared to sink them, infill the holes and seal with a sizing to prevent rust. They still might pop up in future under stress. Large size paintings done on lightweight Masonite must be braced to avoid destabilization of the paint. Surfaces up to a square yard do not normally require supporting wood bars or battens on the back (cradling). Supports over two square yards are usually made from thick hardboard, if necessary supported by a framework.

Plywood: provides an excellent, if heavyweight painting support. Interior construction grades (either laminated with for instance mahogany or birch, or with ‘one side good’) are more costly but require less gesso and sanding to achieve a smooth, evenly absorbent surface. Exterior grade, rough surface plywood gives pronounced texture and is difficult to surface smoothly. Doorskin and flexible, moldable veneers, called contour ply, allow for lightweight, irregular or custom-shaped forms. MDO Board, or other varieties of plywood bonded with paper on one or both faces, is available from sign-making houses. It offers a very smooth surface quality hard to achieve with standard plywood.

Plexiglas, Lucite and plastic panels: are acrylic sheets manufactured in a variety of thickness. Sanding can provide adequate surface tooth for acrylic and other latex paint, enamels, alkyds etc. but not oils. Sand only those areas to receive paint, maintaining the transparency of the rest. Acrylic can be applied directly at this point, but better adhesion occurs when a coat of gel medium is laid down first. The type of plastic support used must be chemically inert so as not to react with the paint film over time.

Metal and glass: need to be sanded or sandblasted to provide enough texture for good paint film adhesion. Aluminum is the exception and should be etched with a 5% lye solution for 4 to 5 minutes. Oil paints adhere to these surfaces but require gesso for permanence. Glass can be acid-etched or textured with an abrasive gun using an aluminum oxide powder.

Canvas board: The commercially available product is not recommended for permanent work. It has a pronounced tendency to warp, and the glues used are impermanent. These are easily, and less expensively, made by gluing canvas to rigid, acid-free cardboard, Masonite, plywood or other panels with rabbit skin glue, GAC 100 or other acrylic mediums.

Cardboard: In general, this is an unsuitable support for permanence because the binding medium, used in the pulp layers with which the board is made, distorts the sheets causing eventual buckling. Most cardboard is very moisture-sensitive and rarely pH neutral. However, a full range of acid-free or pH neutral art boards is available on which to make art or for mounting and display purposes.

Foam-filled boards: i.e. Fome-Cor, are smooth and inert, providing a stable, uniform surface, but are highly susceptible to warping and impact damage.

Wallboard: i.e. drywall or sheetrock is not recommended because of its high susceptibility to moisture and impact damage.

Walls: must be grease, wax and oil free, with no loose debris or particles on the surface. The waterproofing, cement paint or silicone used on masonry walls during construction, can affect paint film permanence. Although acrylics can be applied directly to a masonry wall, best adhesion results when a layer of gel medium is applied with a trowel first. This provides a ground for the paint, and seals the rough texture of the wall, so less paint is needed and brush wear are less pronounced.

Fiberglas: panels or sculpture can be painted with acrylics if the surface is properly prepared. First, sand or sandblast the surface. Vacuum and use a tack rag to remove residual dust, then coat with a primer-sealer meant for use with aqueous media. After the primer is completely dry, test for proper adhesion. Sand and apply 38 acrylic gesso by spray or brush. Retest for adhesion. The surface is then ready for paint.

Other surfaces: should be tested for compatibility with the intended media. The type of surface and ground significantly effect the way the paint handles. Certain paint and surface combinations may react with one another either immediately or over time. For example, acrylics are chemically alkaline and will react with supports or grounds that are acidic.

Adhesion tests: When working with unknown surfaces, test first using one or both of the following procedures.

Method I 1. Apply paint to the prepared surface and let it dry thoroughly. Although acrylics dry to the touch in minutes, wait at least three full days for the acrylic to cure before continuing the test. 2. After the paint film has dried, score it in a crosshatch manner using a razor knife. 3. Apply masking tape firmly to the area. Burnish it down, and lift slowly. If paint comes off with the tape, surface adhesion is poor. Either a different surface preparation is necessary or the particular support is not suitable for the paint.

Method II 1. Paint a small area with acrylic paint or gesso. Allow to dry overnight. 2. Saturate the painted area with water for 15 minutes (use a wet cloth on vertical surfaces). 3. If the paint peels up when pushed, or shows bubbles, then adhesion is poor.

Any support can be used for acrylic paint application, if good adhesion can be assured whenever permanence is required.

(3) PRIMING:

Preparing the painting surface of the support is called priming. A ground, such as acrylic gesso, is applied to the surface of the support. Priming not only seals and protects the surface but also provides a surface that accepts the paint and imparts qualities to the finished painting. Acrylic gesso is the most common ground for acrylic painting, rather than a gesso formulated for other media, such as oil or tempera. Since its development as an art product, acrylic gesso is also most commonly used as a ground for oil painting. Prior to this, oils were painted on full-oil and half-oil gesso grounds described in the section on Grounds.

Priming brushes: A well maintained sole-purpose priming brush is a valuable tool. Hairs left behind in gesso are messy to pick out, leave an imprint that can be difficult to sand out and slow down the priming process. Even bristles lay down a smooth priming coat and can reduce or eliminate sanding later. Wash the brush between coats of ground to avoid a build-up of gesso at the ferrule and then thoroughly at the end of each priming session. Store flat in a sleeve to keep the hairs straight.

(a) Size:

Size is glue or medium, which seals and protects the support prior to priming or painting. It is not required in acrylic painting. It is required before oil ground and oil paints are applied to a surface. Additionally, it provides a measure of protection for the support and will reduce surface absorbency for acrylic painting without having to use gesso. Because of its transparency, it allows the natural colour of the support to appear. In general, size shrinks stretched fabric as it dries, tightening the stretched support. Some sizes can be used on 39 fabric or paper, without oil ground, before oil paints are applied.

Reversible Size: is easily removed when re-dissolved by its diluent. There are various natural binding materials that are soluble in water. These fall into two groups: those of animal origin – proteins, such as glue, gelatine and casein – and those of vegetable origin– carbohydrates such as starch, dextrin, and gums.

The chemistry of these materials is related to their colloidal behaviour (from the Greek word for glue). It describes a dispersion of particles, somewhere between a suspension and a solution, which is kept in equilibrium by electrical charges absorbed on the surface. Without these electrical forces, the particles would settle like a normal suspension. These particles and their absorbed charges are known as micelles. A colloidal suspension is known as a sol. The jelly, formed from solution, is known as a gel. Proteins: This complex group of compounds make up an important part of animal matter. Proteins are polymers consisting of chains of amino acids. The main types that may be encountered by the artist are:

albumen: egg yolk, part of the egg tempera medium collagen: bone or hide protein from which gelatine is extracted, used in sizing and priming for oil painting isinglass: extracted from the swim bladders of fish, used as a vehicle for watercolours mucoid and bovomucoid: more complex proteins found in egg white, used in some historical painting formulas phosphoprotein: such as that found in casein (milk-based)

Animal Hide Glue and Gelatine: Hide glue is an organic colloidal substance, of varying composition, obtained by drying solutions made from boiling prepared animal matter (skin, cartilage, bone) in water. Traditionally, animal hide glue has been used to size supports receiving an oil ground, and in making the ground itself. Rabbit skin glue, historically, has been considered superior. Other types of skin and hide glue, are acceptable. Gelatine is a purer form of hide glue made from selected and cleaned animal matter.

The glue comes in crystalline form, normally dissolved in the water in which it was soaked. It must never be heated except in a water bath to avoid overheating the bottom of the container. This is of extreme importance because at temperatures above 70C (158F) the glue begins to decompose, reducing the adhesive power, the elasticity and the jelly strength, and darkening the glue. At higher temperature, and also after frequent reheating, the quality of the glue is noticeably impaired. Hide and gelatine glues can yellow upon ageing and, when dry, may be attractive to moulds and insects.

Size reduces the absorbency of the support, and protects it from chemical interaction with the ground. It is not a coating, but a penetrating liquid employed to fill pores, to isolate coatings, or to make surfaces suitable to receive coatings. It is not intended to form a continuous, level film. It is not required for acrylic gesso priming.

Hide glue sizing: Animal hide glue size is prepared in a non-aluminium container as follows:

Materials:

For rigid supports - 70 grams glue crystals to 1 litre cold water = 2 ! oz to 1 quart

For flexible supports - 50 grams of glue crystals to 1 litre of cold water = 1 ! oz to 1 quart

Process: 40

1. Soak the crystals in the full amount of water until they are completely swollen, usually 4 or 5 hours. They may be soaked for longer, but should be refrigerated over long periods of time. 2. Warm the mixture in a non-aluminium double boiler until the solution is gently steaming and completely liquid. Stir regularly to prevent the formation of lumps. The glue must never boil. 3. Let the glue cool slightly, and apply with a brush, rag, or fingers. 4. For panels: size both sides, beginning with the back and edges. Leaving an inch or more of airspace underneath, prop the panel up evenly on its back in a horizontal position away from household heaters, direct sunlight, etc. to prevent warping. Superficially, the panel dries to the touch quickly. But it must cure for 8 hours or more before priming. 5. For canvas: size only the surfaces to be primed, NOT the back. Dry flat. Cure for 8 hours or more.

To test for the correct glue strength: Glue size that is incorrect in strength can create a variety of problems at various stages of the painting.

1. Let the melted solution cool overnight until it solidifies. 2. For a flexible support, the cold glue should have the consistency of applesauce. For a rigid support, it should appear more like Jell-O. When cracked open, the sidewalls of the crack should be rough and granular. 3. Add more water to weaken the size. Strengthen the size by soaking additional crystals and adding them to the mixture. 4. Reheat, cool and retest until the correct consistency is obtained.

Because glue loses strength under the action of heat, it is better to heat successive, small amounts than to cook large amounts for a long period. Also, glue solutions putrefy with time and lose their adhesive power. Store them in a refrigerator, labelled with the date they were made. Putrid glue should be disposed of, without smelling it.

Carbohydrates or non-animal based glues and pastes: As an alternative to animal-based products, vegetable-based pastes may be substituted, with considerably different results.

Starch Paste: is a polymeric carbohydrate that occurs abundantly in potatoes, rice, corn, wheat, and other grains. Pure starch is usually named after its raw materials. Starch is insoluble in cold water but, if the coldwater suspension is stirred into boiling water, the white starch thickens and turns into a translucent paste. Some types of starch will thicken immediately; others need to be boiled for a few minutes. Starch paste has relatively little adhesive power. With a little pigment added, it is used to make finger paints. If the starch contains as much pigment as it can comfortably bind together, distemper results.

Recipe for starch paste size:

1. Stir 50 grams starch (wheat, rice, corn or potato) into 50 square centimetres of cold water. Stir this suspension into 250 millilitres of boiling water until smooth. OR 2. Mix 1 part, by volume, of flour (wheat, rice, corn or potato) into 2 to 3 parts cold water, and blend into a smooth paste. Stir this paste into 3 parts boiling water, slowly enough to avoid lumps. Cool.

For brushing onto a support, thin 1 part of the paste with 5 to 10 parts cold water - or enough water to make the solution very thin. This size does not have to be heated, but should be made fresh every time.

Starch pastes or sizes are adequate, but inconsistently effective. They lose their adhesion after a long period; they decompose in storage; and they are susceptible to moulds and insects.

Methylcellulose: is methyl ether of cellulose, the basic constituent of plants. It comes in the form of a flaky, 41 somewhat spongy white powder, and is dissolved in cold water to make glue. It need not be heated to dissolve, remains liquid when cool, does not decompose in storage, and is not attractive to insects and moulds. The powder has a shelf life of about one year, after which its adhesive power diminishes. The prepared glue will have a longer life if made with distilled water.

Recipe for methylcellulose size:

1. Add 24 parts cold water to 1 part of the powder. Mix and stir into smooth syrup. 2. Thin 1 part of the syrup with 10 to 20 parts cold water.

Acrylic Solutions: Gelatine, starch, and methylcellulose are all hygroscopic to some degree. Acrylic resins are not. Polymerised acrylic resins are dissolved in a solvent to produce syrupy solutions. One variety that is reversible is Acryloid B-67MT, made by the Rohm and Haas Company, with the resin dissolved in mineral spirits. The solvents used in acrylic solutions can be health and fire hazards.

Recipe for acrylic solution size:

1. Thin the solution for brush application by adding about 5 to 10 parts by volume of solvent to 1 part acrylic resin solution. 2. For spray applications, further dilution is necessary. Do not heat the solution.

Irreversible Sizes:

Once dry, these sizes are not easily removed by their original diluents bur require stronger solvents. They protect the support, reduce its absorbency, do not shrink the fabric and are effective substitutes for hide glue.

Acrylic Emulsions: can be used as a protective sealer. Use full strength or diluted with up to 50% water. Apply with a brush or spray. The fabric support should be tightly stretched, and the size should not be heated. The size remains liquid, and does not decompose in storage. Store in a tightly covered plastic container to prevent evaporation, and avoid freezing. Metal containers will rust. Acrylic emulsions are considered relatively safe to use, but sometimes the vapours can produce an allergic reaction.

Poly vinyl acetate glue/emulsion: PVA size, diluted with water, is a contemporary pH neutral size that provides a sealing layer against reabsorbed atmospheric moisture. When exposed to water, PVA emulsion films cloud – turn from translucent to nearly opaque white – but they dry clear without losing their film properties.

Note: Neither the PVA, nor the acrylic emulsions, form perfectly continuous films when diluted for application as a size. They are apt to be full of pinholes; two coats are recommended.

(b) Grounds or Primers:

These are the surface preparations, to which colours is applied in the process of painting. The ground/primer is applied to a support before the painting is started. Its purpose is to isolate the paint from the support to: a) prevent chemical interaction; 42 b) provide a satisfactory painting surface; and c) heighten the brilliance of the colours.

The absorbency of a ground must correspond to the type of paint used on it and, above all, it must be durable, and not liable to flake or crack. The four chiefly used by painters are: acrylic ground commonly called gesso oil ground full chalk ground traditionally called gesso half-oil or emulsion ground alkyd resin ground

When making and applying a ground, flexibility and absorption are principle considerations. Ground can be rolled, brushed, or troweled on, in one or more coats applied at right angles or otherwise. It may be poured on, and then scraped back with a squeegee. For large areas, a very smooth finish can be obtained by spraying the primer on with a spray gun and compressor system.

Gesso is manufactured in various viscosities (fluidity). Thick ground provides a gritty, absorbent surface but is more prone to cracking. Multiple thin layers are technically more stable. Thin (semi- opaque) or thinly applied priming allows an under-image or surface to come through. Ground can be thinned with a 50/50 mixture of diluent i.e. water or mineral spirits and medium i.e. acrylic or oil. More dilution results in gesso that powders or cracks. The ground becomes more absorbent as the diluent is increased. Too much absorbency allows paint to sink in, and may require many layers of paint to build up opacity.

Priming a flexible support:

1. One layer of primer is technically enough for thin overpainting. More are required for an even, smooth, bright surface with less absorbency. Acrylic gesso layers can be applied in limitless number. 2 or 3 coats of oil ground on a glue-sized support are adequate; more may result in cracking. 2. Work the primer into the weave of the fabric or the grain of the paper. 3. Sand lightly with fine grit sandpaper when dry if required.

Priming a rigid support:

1. In a horizontal position, brush one coat of ground over the back surface and edges of the panel (glue-sized in the case of oil ground). The first layers may be applied with the hands to reduce pinholes or air bubbles. (Alternatively make an X from corner to corner in primer on the back if only applying a few coats of acrylic gesso to the front.) 2. Allow the surface to dry to the touch, reverse the panel and coat the front. 3. Apply a second coat at right angles to the first when the surface is matte. 4. For a luminous panel, repeat, applying no less than 5 and up to 8 coats front and back. For smaller panels it is possible to use half the number of coats on the back as on the front. However, warping can result when an even tension is not maintained. Number of coats required depends on the degree of whiteness and brightness required. More coats result in a brighter ground with more luminosity in the subsequent painting. There is more depth for sanding to a smooth finish. Too few layers can be sanded through leaving insufficient ground for painting.

Preparing a smooth surface: To develop a vellum-like surface

1. Sand between coats of gesso when each layer is dry to the touch. 2. Sand the topcoat using 100 grit sandpaper initially, then finer grades or emery cloths until it feels like ivory. 3. Rake the panel into a light source to check for sanding marks or irregularities. 4. Polish with a damp, worn, soft piece of cloth in a circular motion. The gesso takes on a paste-like consistency, filling 43

in any texture on the surface. 5. Burnish with the back of a stainless steel spoon.

Variations in priming processes: Use the following for creating surface variations:

1. application: with brush, sponge, spatula, rag, fingers etc. on the support or on top of other materials sized onto the support i.e. newspaper or paper (flat or scrunched up), fabric - gauze or cheesecloth, canvas, linen, cotton, or other (in single or overlapped layers, flat or dimensional), Masonite or other woods, etc. Collaged materials can be glued on with acrylic mediums. 2. manipulation: of the wet surface; of the partially dried surface; of the dried surface: a) with tools - combs, sgraffito or incising tools, fingers, sponges, rags, spatulas, stippling brushes, etc. OR b) through relief processes - impressions made with fabric, stamps, objects, etc. pushed in, and pulled out of, the wet surface; built up by leaving fabric, paper, newspaper, objects, etc. in the wet surface 3. additives: mix sand, marble dust, silica, or any inert granular material to the ground before, or during, application. Soak and drain the additives first, to prevent them from absorbing a lot of ground. These may be added to the whole surface or to parts, either free hand or masked off. 4. colouring: the ground may be pigmented with one colour; or multiple layers in multiple colours which may then be sanded, or incised through, to produce colour variations

Coloured gessoes: Acrylic gesso is available in traditional white as well as a variety of colours. Oil gesso can be tinted with pigment. Coloured gesso can be used to quickly establish the tone of a work. Middle value colours, such as neutral gray, provide an environment for applying colour. Colours can be mixed for greater selection. Coloured gessoes (gesso base ingredients mixed with i.e. alizarin, neutral gray value 5, burnt umber, pthalo blue light, unbleached titanium, and black) perform the same coating function as white gesso. The optical qualities displayed by subsequent layers of paint film will be, consequently, altered.

Absorbent Ground: an acrylic liquid surfacing medium that dries to a porous, paper-like surface. Use multiple coats over primed canvas or rigid substrates for staining and watercolour effects.

Base coat: a clear, primary coat (like a glue sizing or undervarnish) for any surface

(i) Acrylic “Gesso”

Most surfaces are suitable for acrylic painting provided they are clean, dust-free, and provide an adequate key or tooth. Because of its versatile paint film, acrylic painting may generally be done on rigid or flexible supports of paper, cloth, wood, metal, enamel, plastic, glass, ceramic, etc. There are very few surfaces to which acrylic paint will not adhere, other than oily, greasy, or waxy ones. Without a degree of tooth, the adhesion may not be permanent and without a white reflective surface optimal colour is not achievable.

Acrylic gesso primer is not a gesso ground in the conventional sense, but a mixture using the same acrylic polymer emulsion, which is the vehicle for the paints themselves. Titanium dioxide is added for whiteness, and a coarse extender, such as barite with magnesium calcium carbonate, is added to give the primer a degree of tooth.

Sandable Hard Gesso: is formulated with 100% acrylic polymer emulsion with high levels of titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate and talc to produce an easily sanded, smooth and even surface, for use on rigid supports only.

It isn’t necessary to use gesso for acrylic painting, provided that a continuous paint film is established over the whole surface. Unprimed canvas may be stained with acrylic colour but should be sealed with acrylic varnish, 44 to prevent discoloration, and deterioration from dirt and air. Acrylic colour can be used as a primer in place of coloured ground. Rhoplex or medium may be used clear or tinted as a primer.

(ii) Full Chalk or Traditional Gesso Ground:

“Gesso” is Italian for gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate), which occurs naturally near salt deposits. Calcined gypsum, also called plaster of Paris, when mixed with animal glue, makes a luminous painting surface for wood panels. Medieval painters applied as many as 10 coats of gesso on wooden panels. The ground is highly absorbent. Ideal for egg tempera, an insoluble bond between medium and ground is created chemically, making the painting permanent and more stable than oil paint on any support. To use this ground for oils, seal it with an isolating coat to reduce absorbency or surface paint loss may occur later. Chalk ground on canvas usually cracks due to brittleness. Flexible supports fixed to rigid ones are fine. On a rigid support, this ground is the most durable and brilliant white available. Excellent for egg tempera painting, it also provides a good surface for oils and oil tempera on board if adequately sealed before painting.

Applying an isolating coat: 1. Mix one part of dammar varnish or substitute alkyd resin i.e. Liquin with four parts mineral spirits, and brush this over the painting surface. A mixture of one part shellac in six parts of methyl alcohol is also a good sealer. 2. Allow to dry for 24 hours before proceeding.

Making the Gesso:

Materials:

- glue size – 70:1 strength (see Glue Size section) - 1 part calcium carbonate (whiting) - 1/5 part titanium dioxide (brightener) - untempered Masonite panel: 3/16" or 1/4" for smaller panels, 1/4" or 1/2" for larger panels to prevent warping OR any other rigid support

Process:

1. Use barrier cream on the hands to prevent drying and cracking. There are no toxic ingredients in the ground. 2. Place an amount of calcium carbonate in a large bowl, or on a washable surface, and form into a mound with a depression in the centre. 3. Pour a small amount of warm glue size into the depression and knead the whole with the fingers. If the mix is too dry, add more glue slowly. If too moist, add more chalk. Work until stiff dough is achieved, it slumps, and becomes very plastic (10 - 15 minutes). 4. Place the dough in the top of a non-aluminium double boiler on low heat and add more warm glue slowly until a light coffee cream-like consistency occurs. Knead with your fingers all the time to work out the lumps. 5. Make a paste with glue and titanium dioxide (up to 20% of the total dry ingredients) and work it into the solution 6. Warm the gesso before applying each coat but don't keep it over constant heat. Overheating causes excessive evaporation resulting in thickened gesso prone to cracking. Add water if too thick. Overheating also reduces the glue strength. Don't stir the ground rapidly: air bubbles resulting in pinholing on the surface.

Historically, painters and craftspeople used chalk gesso to create built-up, carved, relieved, or repoussé effects 45 not only in mouldings, ornaments, and decorations but also as fundamental elements of design. Comparatively simple elements, such as the jewels on costumes and the halos around the heads of saints, were modelled in the gesso before applying the paint or gold leaf, and very elaborate work was also done in which the entire composition was in relief.

(iii) Half-oil or Emulsion Ground:

Made with chalk ground emulsified by the addition of 25 - 50% (by volume) linseed oil, this ground has properties that are midway between pure chalk gesso and oil ground. The term ‘half-oil’ refers to the addition of up to half the volume again in oil, and to these properties.

Oil emulsion grounds are used on flexible or rigid supports sealed with one coat of glue size. Oily components are finely dispersed in glue size, forming plasticising particles that dry with little tension, and have the effect of sealers. This ground is ideal for oil (and oil tempera) painting. Acrylic gesso may not absorb oil paint sufficiently to insure a permanent bond. In terms of performance, permanency, or some painters’ requirements, acrylic gesso does not compare in quality to oil emulsion ground.

Materials:

- Glue size - 50:1 strength (see Glue Size section) - 1 part calcium carbonate (Atomite, etc.) - up to " part titanium dioxide - # to ! part linseed oil by volume i.e. to 1 litre gesso add # to !litre oil)

Process:

1. Make a chalk ground, increasing the white pigment to counteract the yellowing that an addition of oil will cause. 2. To a gesso the consistency of thin cream, add linseed oil slowly until the oil is evenly dispersed throughout the liquid. 3. As the oil emulsifies within the gesso i.e. is visibly absorbed, progressively add larger amounts of the oil, stirringly constantly. 4. If the watery and oily components separate, add egg yolks (without their sacs) mixed in a small amount of water to promote emulsification. This step may be done at any stage of the preparation.

Priming a rigid support:

1. Follow the process outlined above under Full Chalk Ground. 2. Apply 3 to 4 coats to achieve brightness. 3. The addition of oil makes this a difficult ground to sand between layers. In order to sand to a smooth surface apply additional coats and sand after the priming has hardened. 4. Drying time increases on wooden panels.

Priming a flexible support:

1. Size with the weaker glue size required for a flexible support (see Glue Size section). 2. Apply warm ground in thin coats to prevent cracking. The surface may be scraped with a rubber spatula after each 46

application to achieve a very smooth, thin ground. Note: This ground will crack if applied thickly. 3. 2 or 3 coats are sufficient to achieve good absorbency and brightness. 4. The surface may be lightly sanded.

(iv) Commercially Prepared Oil Ground:

Alkyd resin ground: is formulated from alkyd resin, titanium dioxide and barium sulphate (for extra tooth) or other whiting. One example, Gamblin Ground, makes canvas and linen stiffer than acrylic gesso and more flexible than traditional oil primers. Its high percentage of pigments makes only two coats necessary instead of the usual 3-5. More coats may be added for smoother painting surfaces. It dries faster than other oil grounds and is ready to paint on immediately.

Lead white ground: Frederix’ brand is one prepared primer for oil or oil tempera painting. For use on a flexible support, thin with mineral spirits to a milky consistency. Apply 2 or 3 coats over regular glue size. The lead white pigment in the ground is highly toxic. Avoid direct skin contact by wearing neoprene latex, NBR rubber, or nitrile gloves when opening, stirring, and applying the gesso. Do not heat directly under any circumstances (the fumes are also toxic), or inhale the dust during sanding. Get the paint can shaken on a commercial house paint-mixing machine before use because the lead white pigment drops to the bottom of can. This ground is not always stocked in art stores.

(iv) Metalpoint Ground

Materials:

-glue size – 40:1; see Glue Size section -1 part by volume of blanc fixe (barium sulphate) -1 part by volume of zinc white -1 egg yolk per 250 millilitres of ground

Process:

1. Follow the process for making in Full Chalk Ground . 2. Substitute zinc for titanium and blanc fixe for calcium. Their particle shapes are more conducive to the filing down process required to transfer metalpoint to the drawing surface.

Priming:

1. Stretch watercolour paper or use a Masonite panel, or other rigid support, sized with the correct glue strength. 2. Apply thin layers of ground evenly using the directions for priming either a flexible or rigid support. 3. Sand each layer between coats, when dry, with extra fine sandpaper if a smooth final surface is required. The last layer is not sanded because its tooth is required for the mark-making process. 4. The surface may be manipulated to create a texture if this is required in the design. The ground may also be coloured by adding pigment to the gesso (for a pastel shade), or by substituting coloured pigments for the zinc white in one, or all, of the layers. Dry pigment may also be rubbed into the dried ground with cotton balls until no excess colour appears on a fresh piece of cotton.

Many recipes call for the use of Formalin, the trade name for a solution of gaseous formaldehyde in water, as a hardener for metalpoint ground. Due to potential negative effects of exposure to formaldehyde, it is not 47 recommended within the context of this course.

Alternative Process (without the use of hide glue):

1. Stretch watercolour paper, or use a Masonite or other wood panel. 2. Apply a size coat of undiluted acrylic polymer matt medium. 3. Mix 20% zinc with 80% blanc fixe (barium sulphate). 4. Mix 1 part matt medium with 2 parts warm water to 1 part of the zinc and blanc fixe mixture. The consistency should be that of thin cream. Dilute with equal parts of medium and water, if the mixture is too thick. 5. Apply several coats (3 minimum, 10 maximum) to the sized substrate. 6. Sand between coats. This surface sands well with little dust from the sanding process. 6. Store solution in an airtight container, without refrigeration, for future use.

9) SYNTHETIC PAINTS

Synthetic materials (which can be altered to meet the requirements of paint binders) are a product of late 19th- and early 20th-century technology. Derived from petroleum by-products, natural gas or other organic sources, and from mineral sources, synthetic paint binders have opened up a range of possibilities for artists. Made from synthetically derived resins developed for industrial purposes, these binders have been adapted to artists’ materials

The developments in paint chemistry have improved performance and durability. Controllable drying time, water miscibility, elasticity, light fastness, versatility i.e. compatibility with a variety of surfaces and substrates, flow and viscosity, elemental resistance, etc. are demands put on paint as a result of 20th-century applications. The developments in artists' painting materials have involved the attempt to translate the qualities of traditional media, as well as to provide new behaviors, producing effects and results not usually possible with the traditional paint systems - principally oils. Even after nearly 60 years of continuous use and development, we should really consider many synthetic paints as experimental systems, which are being developed constantly through further research.

There are considerable differences between the earliest examples of synthetic paints and those available today and, again, those that will be available in the future. Artists have appropriated paints, and materials, from industry and other sources, for their own purposes. Synthetic paints are not a replacement for traditional kinds of paints. Each has its own properties and characteristics, which should be understood. Certain aspects of synthetic paint performance, such as drying time, gloss, texture, opacity, viscosity, clarity, flexibility, or convenience, may be seen as improvements in relation to the purposes to which paint is put.

Synthetic Paint Products: There are two kinds of resins: natural (oils, varnishes, balsams, etc.) and synthetic.

(1) VINYL RESINS: derived from ethylene, distilled from crude petroleum. The term vinyl also refers to many compounds that contain the vinyl group and include vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, and the polymerized variations of them, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyvinyl chloride acetate (PVCA). Other resins useful to artists are also relatives of vinyl: co-polymers (a combination of two polymers) of the PVAs and the 48

PVCAs, the acrylic resins, the methacrylate resins, the polystyrene resins, and so on. The chemistry is complex.

Most vinyls are characterized by their durable, non-yellowing (if they are not already yellowish) properties, and by the fact that they are soluble only in volatile and toxic solvents. This last factor should prohibit the prudent practitioner from using them in raw form. They are used in industry as coatings, plastics, and sheetings. Flashe, a water-thinned "vinylic" paint behaves like traditional gouache, although it is not re-soluble in water once it dries. The term "vinylic" refers to the source of all acrylic resins, the vinyl group.

The acrylics are a subgroup of the vinyls. a) ACRYLIC SOLUTION PAINTS (i.e. Magna) rarely used by artists today

Binder: acrylic resin - a solution of polymers, the principal monomer being an ester of acrylic acid. There are over 25 different acrylic solutions produced by Rohm and Hass, the principal supplier, only a couple of which are dissolved in a solvent considered safe for normal art use, without adding the burden of restricting, uncomfortable protective equipment. Rohm and Haas's American trade names for acrylic solutions dissolved in a solvent are the Acryloids. Most of these syrups are 45 to 50 % resin solutions in dangerous solvents like toluene or other aromatic hydrocarbons (Acryloid B-72).

Some are soluble in less dangerous solvents, such as mineral spirits, (Acryloid B-67MT) or VM&P Naphtha (Acryloid B-67 and Acryloid F1 0). Acryloid B-67MT is supplied as a solution of 45 % solids in mineral spirits, and is compatible with alkyds and alkyd-oil mixtures, aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents, and other paint system liquids. Its main industrial use is for plastic coating, or for inks and lacquers. The binder is a rapid drier, and forms films that are clear, non-yellowing, reasonably flexible, and adhesive. A heavy syrup, it is sometimes necessary to thin it a bit to be able to grind a paint easily by hand.

Supports and grounds: Adhesion is very good on most surfaces. Since there is no problem with the oxidation of the acrylic resin affecting the integrity or durability of the support (as there is with linseed oil), it can be used on unprimed supports.

Process: The same tools, brushes, and other equipment and accessories used in oil painting can be used with the acrylic solution paints. The techniques used in preparing the surface, and applying the paint, vary slightly from those of oils with a comparable range of effects. The dried paint film is more transparent and less yellow than linseed oil, making colours look more saturated and brilliant. Thickly painted passages will normally take less than two days to dry. There are also proprietary isolating varnishes, painting mediums and gel mediums for altering viscosity. Magna paints are oil-miscible, but this will contribute the faults of oil (slow drying, yellowing, eventual embrittlement), unless the mixture contains mostly acrylic resin. b) POLYVINYL ACETATE EMULSION PAINTS

The vinyl resins are of interest to artists when they are polymerized or co-polymerized and emulsified with water. In this form, they are safer and easily recognized, in their most common form, as white glue, the all-purpose adhesive for paper and wood marketed under many trade names. The polyvinyl acetate emulsions (PVAEs) form rather porous, though water- resistant, films. Manufacturers of artists' acrylic emulsion paints may use the PVAEs, or derivatives of them, in their co- polymer or ter-polymer (three polymer) emulsion vehicles. The published literature does not supply conclusive information about their durability.

c) POLYVINYL ACETATE SOLUTION PAINTS

There have been experiments with the straight PVA resin dissolved in solvents such as alcohol and toluene but their use is not recommended at this time.

49

(2) ALKYD RESINS:

When a polyhydric alcohol (commonly, glycerol) and a polybasic acid (commonly, pthalic anhydride, derived from coal or petroleum) are condensed together, the product is a complex ester called an alkyd. This plastic resin can be modified by the addition of synthetic or natural vegetable oils, for increased flexibility, for use as a paint binder.

The alkyd resins have been in commercial industrial applications for about 30 years in automobile finishes and interior house paints. In the late 1970's, Winsor & Newton introduced an alkyd-based artists' paint, modified with what it calls a "synthetic soya-bean type" drying oil, and thinned with mineral spirits or gum turpentine. PDQ (Paints Dry Quick) and other artists' paint manufacturers market a similar paint.

Alkyd paints offer the artist faster drying time than oil, though slower than acrylic emulsions; and the binders and mediums are clear and theoretically non-yellowing. However, artists have not taken up these paints in significant numbers. The exception is the popular substitution of alkyd resin, the base ingredient, for dammar varnish in contemporary oil painting practices. Although alkyd resins such as Winsor & Newton’s Liquin have irritating vapors, they are significantly less toxic and nauseating than dammar varnish vapors.

(3) ACRYLIC RESINS:

(a) Acrylic Polymer Emulsion Paints commonly used by artists

Definition: An emulsion is a liquid composed of two parts: an aqueous (watery) part, and an oily, greasy, resinous, or fatty part. Emulsions of two normally immiscible (unmixable) ingredients can be made with any two dissimilar ingredients, but artists' emulsions usually have water as one of the components. In an emulsion, small droplets of one liquid are dispersed uniformly throughout the other liquid. The dispersion is held constant by an ingredient called an emulsifier, a material that modifies the surface tension of the two liquids to stabilize the mixture. Acrylic polymer emulsion paints have come to be known simply as acrylics, though the term can mean either acrylic solution or acrylic emulsion Acrylics have been actively developed and refined since the 1950s. They have had as much significance for painting technique, as did the more gradual move from egg tempera to oil painting during the 15th century.

The most important aspects of the acrylic medium are its versatility – it can be used in very pale washes or glazes, or thickly impasted with rich textural effects. No special techniques are required in the overlaying of colours to insure that the dried film remains sound and free from cracking. From this point of view, the medium is simpler to use than oil colour. Since the paint dries quickly, colours can be overlaid more rapidly than in oil painting. On the other hand, there is less time for manipulation of the colour on the surface.

Comparing similarly impasted oil and acrylic paintings; the former shows a little more crispness and resonance of colour than the latter. Acrylic painting is sturdy and flexible. In addition to the more traditional transparent, opaque, and combined painting techniques, it can be scraped, squeezed, piped, thrown, sprayed, mixed with fillers for texture effects and even woven. Acrylic paintings suck up dust and dirt easily. Solvent soluble varnishes should be applied as a topcoat for later cleaning.

Acrylic emulsion paint does not bond permanently to oil paint. Some artists paint with oils over acrylic emulsion paint layers, and most paint with oils over acrylic gesso. 50

Composition and History: Acrylic emulsion paints are a subgroup of the vinyl resins. When the acrylic resin is polymerized and dispersed in water, the common name for the product is acrylic polymer emulsion. Artists' paint made with this binder, sold on an industrial scale under such trade names as Rhoplex, is exceptionally adhesive and durable. There are many different forms of Rhoplex: AC-33, AC-34, etc.

Acrylic polymer is an organic material. Its name derives from its basic constituent: acrylic acid. Polymerization of the acrylic acid molecule leads to various forms of plastics. These can be dispersed in water to form a type of emulsion. The most common forms of artists' acrylic colour are based on the polyacrylates and polymethacrylates. These are used in dispersion as the vehicle with which pigment is mixed.

Although Redtenbacher discovered acrylics in 1859, it was Otto Rohm who conducted the major work beginning in the early 1900's. Dr. Rohm produced the first commercial acrylic in 1928. The straight acrylic resins have been in use since the Rohm and Haas Company introduced them to industry in the early 1930s. In their solid form, these resins are familiar under the trade names Lucite and Plexiglas. The first accepted artists' paint application of the straight acrylic resin solution binder was in Leonard Bocour's Magna paints that appeared on the market in the late 1940s. Developed for Bocour by Sam Golden, these mineral spirits-soluble acrylics required continual research and development to create the product we know today. With the advent of acrylic water-borne (or water-based) coating in the 1950's, several artist paint manufacturers started testing and production of the latest ‘plastic paint’.

When acrylic resin is polymerized and dispersed in water, the common name for the product is acrylic polymer emulsion. The polymer is emulsified by surface acting groups (surfactants) in water. The acrylic is, often, mistakenly referred to as water soluble, when in fact water does not solubilize the acrylic at all. Surfactants permit dispersion of spherical acrylic solids in water. Without surfactants, the polymer would not disperse. Freezing vividly illustrates what occurs when water and polymer solids separate. A frozen, unprotected acrylic polymer takes on a cheesy appearance.

As water evaporates from a paint film during the drying process, the polymer spheres are drawn closer and tighter together. As the space between spheres decreases, incredible pressure arises. The effect of capillary forces results in the collision of acrylic polymer spheres. When the collision occurs, water and other volatiles are eliminated. The result is a honeycomb pattern of tightly compacted spheres. Solids, such as pigments, are trapped and bound in this honeycomb system.

Henry Levison's Liquitex paints were the first accepted acrylic emulsion paints. The dried paint films exhibit a tendency to absorb atmospheric moisture; they must be varnished with an acrylic solution varnish to protect them. The acrylic emulsion binders are also not as clear as the straight acrylic solutions, or even as clear as linseed oils even though they are advertised as such. Acrylic emulsion paint may look a bit lighter or a bit chalky compared to oil paint. And it dries darker than it appears when first laid down.

Binders: Artists paints based on acrylic emulsion binders are by far the most popular of the synthetics, mainly because of their easy cleanup, but also because of their versatility and flexibility. The binder is an acrylic resin emulsified with water. Of the more than 30 Rhoplex emulsions made by Rohm and Haas, Rhoplex AC-34 seems to be the most popular. When a thin film of the translucent, milky white liquid is painted out, it dries rapidly as the water evaporates to a relatively clear, tough, water-resistant layer. The dried films are not as clear as oil, acrylic solution, or alkyd films, but they are non-yellowing and do not get brittle with age.

The formulation of an acrylic emulsion vehicle is the most complex of all the synthetic vehicles. The vehicle does not have to be a straight acrylic emulsion, but can contain other kinds of emulsions in addition: combinations of acrylic emulsions, acrylic plus polyvinyl acetate emulsions, or even two different AEs plus a PV AE, depending on the specific requirements of the manufacturer. The terms co-polymer (two polymers) and "ter-polymer't (three polymers) seen on some labels make reference to this practice.

In addition to the variety of binders, a commercial vehicle can contain some, or all, of the following ingredients: Dispersants and surfactants: improve the wetting of the pigments by the vehicle and inhibit pigment flocculation Defoamers: inhibit foaming of the vehicle 51

Preservatives: prevent the growth of molds Glycols: provide freeze-thaw stability and flexibility Thickeners: increase the viscosity of the vehicle; lines of acrylic paints are now labeled ‘medium viscosity’ (for airbrush, watercolour, tempera techniques, etc.) and ‘high viscosity’ (for oil-like, impasto, knife manipulated techniques, etc.) pH balancers: adjust the alkalinity of the emulsion

Pigments: Pigments can’t be loaded into the vehicle to the extent they can in other paints, because of the character of the emulsion. For this reason, combined with the translucent rather than transparent nature of the film itself, colours in oil, alkyd, or acrylic solution paints may seem richer and higher in chroma than the same colours in acrylic emulsion paints. Some pigments can't be used in the acrylic emulsion because of their inability to form stable paints. A typical pigment list for a line of acrylic paints contains the following colours:

Reds: quinacridone Blues: pthalocyanine cadmium ultramarine naphthol cerulean iron oxide cobalt pyrrole anthraquinone Oranges: cadmium Purples: quinacridone pyrrole ultramarine dioxazine Yellows: cadmium Blacks: carbon arylide (Hansa) iron oxide (Mars) iron oxide bone or ivory azo titanate White: titanium zinc Greens: pthalocyanine chromium oxide opaque cobalt

Hand-making acrylic paint: Because of the difficulty adding small but precise volumes of a large number of important ingredients, there can be no assurance that acrylic emulsion vehicles compounded in the studio will perform as expected. The kind of latitude possible in making other paints is not permissible here.

(a) ACRYLIC COLOURS: come in a number of formulations that vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Generally, the most common are tube colours and jar colours. Jar paints have nearly overtaken tube paints, which were developed to replicate oil paint packaging and make the transition from oils to acrylics easier. Jar paints are more practical to the acrylic painter, often because the amount of paint used in contemporary painting techniques is greater.

Tube colours are thick and buttery in consistency and oil-like in performance. Artists who prefer the feel, pull, and look of a heavy-bodied paint continue to use them. They show brush strokes and knife marks, making them ideal for impasto painting. Sheen, consistency and handling characteristics similar to oil paint can be achieved with the use of mediums.

Jar paints are generally creamier to allow for easy thinning with water and/or mediums. They are appropriate for airbrush, fabric painting, watercolour techniques, mural painting, silk screening, calligraphy, printmaking, graphic design, illustration, ceramics, sculpture, photo retouching, and hard edge painting. Jar paints apply smoothly by brush without showing brushstrokes. The colours dry to a smooth, even finish that is slightly more matte than tube paints. They are excellent for work that requires large areas of flat colour and hard edges.

Viscosity:

Heavy Body Acrylics: smooth, thick, creamy consistency; excellent brushstroke retention Fluid Acrylics: consistency of heavy cream; even, flowing characteristics; excellent for dry-brush techniques, fine 52 detail, spraying and staining; unlike mixtures of heavy-bodied paints and water which produce weak colour and films by dilution, these contain higher pigment levels; high tinting strength, flexibility and adhesion Glaze Acrylics: allow more working time for applying thin glazes and bending colour Airbrush Acrylics Matte Acrylics: provide a uniform flat finish; dry to a matte finish without the decrease of colour strength that occurs with matte medium High Load Colours: have greater pigment content and offer intense colour in a gesso-like consistency; ideal as grounds, or when a denser, more opaque colour is required; great tinting strength Paste Paints: extremely viscous (clay-like), applied with a palette knife or trowel, may be layered, knifed or carved.

Nylon filament brushes are compatible with synthetic paints, as are a wide range of implements and tools. Plastic or glass provides mixing surfaces which clean up with soap and warm or hot water. It is advisable to note that the preservatives in some synthetic paints, which are there to increase the shelf life of the product, may be harmful to some people i.e. ammonia, formaldehyde.

(b) ACRYLIC MEDIUMS: are used with acrylic colours to produce different effects, such as impasto and glazes, and to achieve a desired working characteristic. Generally, they all increase the transparency of acrylic colours. Most are versions of the same emulsion used to make acrylic paint; they are suspensions of solid plastic particles in water. They refract light and are milky in appearance when in a liquid state. As the water evaporates, the acrylic particles join together to form a cohesive, clear film. It is normally safe to inter-mix them freely with the paint, and with each other. They are frequently formulated to perform as a varnish, or finish coat, for a painting as well.

Using acrylic mediums: 1. Do not overwork an area. There is a critical point where the acrylic particles come together to make a film. Over-brushing can lead to clouding, which cannot be changed or removed once dry. 2. Vigorous brushwork over textured areas can cause bubbles to form and dry in the painting.

Liquid Acrylic Polymer: includes gloss, semi-gloss and matte surface finishes. Generally these free flowing liquid emulsions are used for extending colours, glazing and making paint. The Golden brand line of acrylics includes the GAC series from 100 to 900, each formulated for different results. GAC 100 is ideal for diluting and extending colours, increasing flexibility and film integrity. GAC 700 is designed to be an ideal sizing coat on canvas, paper or board before the application of acrylic gesso. It prevents the migration of matter and moisture into the gesso or paint layers resulting in more archivally stable and permanent work. GAC 200 increases adhesion on non-porous surfaces, such as glass and is limited to applications on non- flexible or rigid supports. GAC 400 will harden flexible supports into dimensional shapes.

Gloss medium: the same acrylic polymer emulsion on which the colours are based. The acrylic polymer emulsion itself is usually internally plasticized to give greatest flexibility and this introduces softness to the film, which may lead to tackiness and dirt retention. The medium incorporates a harder resin to counteract these effects. This is a general-purpose liquid medium used to create glazes, extend colour, enhance gloss and translucency and increase film integrity. Equal parts of gloss medium and water produce a thinning medium for all colours. If water only is added to acrylic paint, it will eventually become dull and less flexible. Due to the fast drying nature of acrylics, numerous glazes can be applied in a day's working time. Each coat must be allowed to fully dry, to avoid clouding. Collage: This medium can also be used for collage work, with better results than PVA (white glue).

Decoupage: It is the preferred medium for making acrylic transfers. Apply 20 or more coats of medium over a photocopy (black & white or colour) or offset press image (from a magazine, postcard, etc.). If the source image already has a varnish 53 coat i.e. as with some magazines, postcards, etc., this process may not work. When dry, soak the film in water, thereby removing the paper and leaving the ink image locked into the acrylic. The transfer can then be used as is, or warmed and stretched. The image can be adhered to most two- or three-dimensional surfaces i.e. paper, cloth, wood, glass, plastic, metal, using gel medium. See also in Acrylic Techniques section.

Acrylic sheets: Similar to transfers, paint with medium added can be applied to glass and peeled off when dry. Soaking in water may be necessary. The flexible sheets of coloured plastic can be applied flat or dimensionally and permanently attached using gel medium.

Silkscreen blockout: Gloss medium makes a good, permanent silkscreen blockout that is resistant to inks and solvents.

Fixative: It can also be used as a fixative over soft drawing tool marks by mixing 50/50 with water and applying with an atomizer.

Matte medium: This is a gloss medium to which a matting agent has been added (usually wax emulsion of an inorganic matting agent such as silica that makes matte mediums thicker than gloss mediums). Mixing with paint extends colour, increases transparency, decreases gloss and increases film integrity. It can be mixed with gloss medium to vary surface effects from matte to gloss. Super loaded matte medium is pourable with an extremely high level of matting agent. This results in the greatest degree of gloss reduction when blended with other acrylics. Also useful as a ground in place of gesso.

Collage: It is an excellent adhesive, offering the strongest adhesive properties of any medium.

Fixative: It can be used as a fixative for graphic materials without increasing gloss or shine (mix with ! water).

Sizing: It acts as a serviceable size for canvas and can be substituted for the hide glue size traditionally used for oil painting, or a sizing agent in any situation. Size is an isolating barrier of clear film over a surface usually applied to protect the substrate from any absorption of subsequent films. While it is flexible enough to receive oil films and retain them while drying, it is questionable whether acrylic mediums or paints are absorptive enough to hold an oil film layer permanently.

Acrylic glazing medium: slows drying time and replicates the effect of oil glazing mediums.

“Solid” Acrylic Polymer: offers a range in consistency from pourable to moldable with various levels of transparency and finish (g1oss, semi-gloss, and matte). It may be used to create glazes, extend paint, build texture, change finishes and work as a gluing agent for collages.

Gel medium: Gel is an acrylic medium thickened by cellulosic or polyacrylic thickeners. It can be used to build surfaces, will maintain peaks, and give glass-like colour effects when mixed with acrylic colours – unique to this painting system. To obtain the depth of colour of oil paint, use either gel medium or heavy gel. Gel medium (as well as heavy gel, matte gel, and extender medium) can be used as a binder for powdered pigments, additives such as sand, sawdust, etc. and as an adhesive for attaching heavy objects to a surface. Applied in multiple layers, it will produce heavy glazes.

The medium retains characteristics of the applicator used with it and will extend drying time. The thicker the gel, the longer it will take for the water and solvent in the gel to dry. As drying times will depend on a variety of conditions (both mixing and atmospheric), it is difficult to give even approximate schedules. After a film has formed, drying of the acrylic below the surface must occur as a result of diffusion through the overlaying film. In thickening with gel, it should be noted that in especially thick mixtures, holdout i.e. the lack of penetration of paint into the support or the paint could occur. Extremely thick applications may remain milky if water is trapped within the film.

Self-leveling gel is the thinnest gel and is designed to produce an even film with excellent clarity. It dries to a flexible, high gloss film while imparting a leveling quality to other products.

Soft gel is light in consistency, pours out of the jar and can double as a non-removable varnish. It produces glazes, oil-like 54 luminescence and makes an excellent surface for wet blending colour on the support. It will not maintain peaks. It is useful to those who thin down their gels with polymer or water.

Regular gel is creamy and smooth, has the ability to hold good peaks and is generally used to increase transparency, or extend the paint without changing the consistency. It has the same body and viscosity as tube colours. It is mixed with colours to increase brilliance and transparency of colour while maintaining the working characteristics of the paint.

Heavy gel is formulated as a thicker, stiffer gel with a pastier feel to thicken colours. It maintains peaks and form more accurately than regular gel, yet remains flexible, even with thick, impasto work. The increased body of this glossy gel makes it good for oil-like brush and knife work. It adds density. It imparts increased brilliance and transparency as more is added. It extends the working time of paints longer than other gels.

Extra heavy gel has still firmer texture, holds stiff peaks, and stays securely fixed in place. Some companies mix extra heavy gel with molding paste i.e. Golden's Extra Heavy Molding Paste, which holds heavy peaks, dries to a satin, semi- opaque finish and also results in less shrinkage. It blends well with colour and is excellent for increasing viscosity and building surfaces.

High solid gel dries faster than most gels, with less shrinkage, and offers more working resistance. It is similar to heavy gel in body and brushstroke retention, and behaves more like an oil paint. It comes in gloss and matte finishes.

Clear tar gel is designed to yield a pully, tar-like feel but in a colourless gel. It is useful for generating fine detailed lines by dripping it over surfaces, as it continuously flows from palette knives or other tools.

Clear gel has excellent clarity and transparency for glazing, with the addition of small amounts of colour. Clear granular gel is made from acrylic granular solids and offers the consistency and grit of a pumice gel. It dries translucent, extends paint and adds texture without altering the colour.

Pumice gels offer various grades (fine, coarse and extra coarse) of gritty textures, which dry to hard films. They may be mixed with other mediums to increase flexibility and adhesion. Garnet gels offer a range (fine, coarse and extra coarse) of granular textures similar to pumice gels but with a natural reddish-brown hue. They dry to a hard, semi-opaque film with very good flexibility. They are produced with acrylic polymer binder and mineral, Almadine Garnet.

Matte gel has the same qualities as gel medium, except that it dries to a satin, matte finish. The more matte gel added, the more transparent the colour becomes, resulting in thick matte or semi-matte glazes. It can be mixed with gloss gels to achieve the desired level of gloss/matte. It is an excellent adhesive for collage and other additive materials. It can be used as a heavy sizing for canvas when troweled smoothly onto the surface with a painting knife. It tightens the canvas, protects it and increases the body of the canvas without producing a slick surface.

Extender gels economically extend the volume of tube colours. A dense, translucent, white gel, it has the same heavy, buttery body of the paint, making it good for impasto techniques. It also extends working time. Generally, up to 50% extender to tube colour will not change the colour intensity. More than that will add a white tint and reduce the strength of the colour. It reduces the gloss of colours to a semi-matte surface sheen. It can also be used alone for textures, knife buildups, and crisp brush strokes.

Iridescent colours: mimic the effect of bronzing powders. They produce a luster quality by themselves, with other colours, or mixed with mediums. In some brands, iridescents can be separated into three groups based on chemical composition. Interference colours, iridescent pearl and silver are in the first group. These colours are derived from mica platelets, which are coated with a thin layer of titanium dioxide. Refraction and reflection of light at the titanium dioxide layers produce various colours and pearlescent effects. Iridescent gold, copper, and copper light make up the second group. These colours are derived from mica platelets, but an iron oxide coating is present either in place of, or in combination with, a titanium dioxide coating. The iron oxide coating results in pigments that possess hues as well as pearlescent qualities. A third group consists of colours derived from highly reflective metallic pigments. This includes stainless steel, as well as, micaceous iron oxide. Of high refractive index, they give metallic effects of bronze, silver, and gold.

Interference colours: are available in fine and coarse particle size. When applied to a white surface or over other light colours, they refract their complementary colour. As the angle of the light hitting the paint surface 55 changes, the colour seen by the eye changes i.e. interference red will look green. As light hits the mica flakes it either reflects directly to show the labeled colour, or passes through to another layer, reflecting at a different refractive index and displaying the complementary colour.

Interference colours can be applied straight, thinned with water, or mixed with mediums. They can be applied over a white surface where their interference properties will be in full effect, and the complementary refraction will be very distinct. Or they can be applied over another colour as a glaze. The colours underneath will also change in character as the interference colours refract their complement. This effect works best over colours of middle to lighter values, rather than dark colours.

On dark surfaces they become pastel iridescent colours of startling intensity. In this use, they act more like bronzing powders. They do not show complementary colour refraction. Mixed with other colours, they act like an iridescent white or bronzing powder, giving a soft, iridescent sheen to the colour.

Phosphorescent medium: based on a unique pigment that is characterized by its ability to absorb and store natural and artificial light and then emit it as a visible light when in the dark (glow in the dark). It exhibits its glow quality only after receiving direct exposure to light. Not permanent.

Fluorescent colours: absorb invisible ultraviolet light and emit visible light of a loner wavelength. As a result, they appear to fluoresce or glow, and will visibly overpower paints made from traditional pigments. The effect, however, fades rather rapidly, as the dyes are not stable. They should not be used for permanent painting.

Paste extender, modeling or molding paste: Acrylic polymer emulsion is thickened with fine marble dust. The resulting product is a white, hard, opaque film. Although still flexible, it is more rigid than the gels. It is used for embedding objects and materials, and to build heavy textures and create three-dimensional forms with a palette or painting knife, trowel, squeegee, etc. It handles like clay if the top of the container is removed and some of the water is allowed to evaporate slowly until it reaches a clay-like consistency. As with clay, if it dries too quickly, it develops cracks. Cover modeled areas loosely with plastic to allow slow drying. Cracks do not affect structural integrity and can be filled with more paste. Acrylic colours can be mixed into modeling paste to produce a tinted paste or the dried paste can be painted with acrylics.

Modeling paste reaches maximum strength in about two weeks. It can be sanded or carved when thoroughly dry. Light molding paste is lighter in weight, softer and extremely flexible. Hard molding paste is useful for creating tough, durable finishes for smooth or textured surfaces. The dried film can be carved with hand or power tools.

Generally, modeling paste should be applied to rigid supports. However, if mixed 50/50 with gel or heavy gel medium, it will remain flexible enough to apply to canvas or other flexible supports. In this form, it can be applied using a knife, brush or cake decorating tools. Use less gel for more modeling ability.

AFR – Acrylic flow release/ water tension breaker/ flow aid: is an additive used to reduce surface tension of the water in the acrylic emulsion, therefore increasing the slickness and flow of the paint. It aids the thinning of acrylic colours for glazes, without reducing the colour strength by addition of excessive amounts of water. Because acrylics are gelled, they do not thin readily with water alone without losing strength. The addition of the wetting agent helps to break the gel structure. Photo-flo solution or ox gall will also work. Mixed with any water-soluble paint, paint medium, ink or dye, it improves absorption into the surface. Some painting surfaces tend to repel liquids or are slow to absorb them. Raw cotton canvas, for example, or hot- pressed paper will take a deeper stain and a more even application.

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Flow agents are usually added to airbrush colours, or to jar colours along with water. This allows an easier passage of paint through the body of the airbrush, which can be operated at a slightly lower pressure and held closer to the work for greater detail.

Staining techniques can be used on raw canvas by mixing acrylic emulsion paint with a flow agent and water. (Oil paint will destroy raw canvas over time.) It imparts better leveling properties and smoother flow-out over large areas. Watercolour techniques can be enhanced, as a result of deeper saturation, particularly if the paper is wet, prior to painting, with flow release and water.

"A concentrated surfactant, AFR - which contains no dryers - not only holds onto whatever water is within a particular mixture but actually pulls moisture out of the atmosphere. Before using AFR, you should always dilute it to ten (10) parts water to one (1) part flow release. For stains, use one (1) capful per gallon." Quoted from "Just Paint", a publication from Golden Artist Colours, Volume 1 Issue 1. Overuse of AFR can result in tacky paint films that take a long time to dry.

Retarder: used to increase the drying time of the paint, is usually made from propylene glycol. Available in a gel form or as a liquid, the former holds more water keeping the acrylic film open longer, increases the ‘wet- edge’ time, enhances wet in wet techniques and makes blending easier. Added to paint: It must not be used in excessive amounts, as it tends to produce a surface skin with soft colour below. This can take days to dry completely, due to glycol trapped below the surface of the paint film. Usually, up to 20% retarder medium by volume to the paint is sufficient. More may result in shrinkage, or poor adhesion, as well. Applied to the surface: before painting.

Acrylic slow-dry mediums: have the characteristics of the usual gloss, matte, and other mediums but, additionally, retard the drying time of acrylic paints.

Techniques to extend drying time: 1. Seal the canvas with matte medium before painting. OR 2. Keep the paint film damp using an atomizer and water. OR 3. Use tube colour rather than jar colour. OR 4. Mix gel or heavy gel into the paint.

Rhoplex: As discussed above, Rhoplex is a milky, water-thinned methacrylate resin, and the binder for acrylic paints. While it is not normally used as a medium with acrylic colours, it is a good collaging medium.

Other products: Additionally, there is an expanding list of acrylic-based, related, or compatible products, the following among them: Acrylic modifier for plaster Liquid thickener (long rheology) Liquid Thickener (short rheology) Universal dispersant Defoamer for fluid acrylics Defoamer for heavy body acrylics Silkscreen Fabric Gel Silkscreen Medium Marbling medium: added to acrylic colours to produce spread and control when they are floated on top of marbling size Airbrush medium Crackle finish Acrylic enamels, gloss enamels (for use on glass, ceramics, plastics, primed metal, etc.) 57

Jarpaque (Liquitex)

(c) ACRYLIC PAINTING PROCESSES:

Transparent systems:

Watercolour methods: a) superimposed washes of thin colour; no muddy colour since each wash, when dried, is insoluble in water; optical colour mixing results b) wet in wet; add water tension breaker to the surface before painting, or to the paint mixture itself. c) retaining the white of the ground to provide highlights and lightest tones. Use an atomizer at the surface of the paint to keep it wet while working.

tempera methods: a) thin opaque, or semi-opaque, hatching, b) glazes or washes alternating, or combining, with opaque effects The quick drying time of acrylic paint is appropriate for these slow, systematic techniques.

staining methods: a) water and medium-thinned acrylic colours applied to unprimed canvas using squeegees, spatulas, sponges, brushes, and by tilting, or otherwise manipulating, the canvas b) unprimed or stained canvas must be protected with a final varnish coat..

transparent impasto methods: a) acrylic paint mixed with gel medium creates a textured, glasslike colour effect. Additional colour makes the medium less transparent. b) transparent thick glazes can be laid over a white textured ground (applied with a painting knife, combed or otherwise manipulated). c) laying opaque white shapes over transparent gel medium, painting these, and then re-glazing can build on the process. The glaze can be left as is, or partially rubbed off for further effects.

Opaque Systems:

body colour methods: a) gouache techniques (without the matteness or resolubility of gouache or the flow out properties) b) casein techniques c) white additive techniques d) opaque colours over an opaque, mid-toned ground e) scumbling or dry-brush and broken colour techniques f) impasto; using modeling paste or other additives

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hard-edge method: 1. Apply good quality masking tape or painters’ tape to the support, the gesso or layers of well-dried paint. 2. Press down the edges firmly to prevent seepage. A thin coat of medium brushed over the tape and the area to be painted creates a good seal. 3. Carefully remove the tape as soon as possible.

Oil systems:

alla prima or direct oil methods: a) use gel medium to achieve the viscosity and body of oils b) scumbling, wet in wet, blending, dry brush, etc. c) reduce drying time with retarder allowing full blending

indirect or mixed oil methods: opaque, monochromatic acrylic underpainting as a solid base for one or more transparent, coloured acrylic glazes; underpainting must be dry before glaze is applied over the whole or parts of the painting

Textural Effects:

textured ground: 1. Use brushes, spatulas, squeegees, etc. to apply a thick ground coat mixed with sand or other additives, or imbedded with fabrics, strings, or other materials. 2. Alter further in various ways with rollers, notched scrapers for creating patterns, stippling brushes, or other implements 3. Paint is scraped over the dry ground to create surface variations.

textured paint: most acrylic mediums are strong enough to be thickened with fillers such as talc or aggregates such as crushed marble, sand or plaster which are added to make pasty mixtures for textural effects.

scraped colour methods: a) sgraffito effects = laying a light colour over a dark ground and scraping shapes into the wet paint with a sharp instrument b) overall scraped effects = the entire surface is scraped; opaque colour is scraped over opaque colour; transparent colour (mixed with gel) is scraped over opaque or transparent colour; thick paint gives a different effect from thin washes c) scraping through a mask, or over masking tape or other forms d) scraping on a textured ground

distressing methods: exercising caution, surfaces may be built, torn, scraped, scorched, burned, sanded, etc.

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resist methods: 1. Use wax (crayons, paraffin, beeswax, candle wax, etc.), rubber cement, white PVA glue, clear polyurethane coating, silicon, or liquid masking film (which can be peeled, or erased, off later) as a resist medium. 2. Brush, wipe, or otherwise apply acrylic paint over the surface, and allow to dry. The paint will not adhere well to the resist painted areas and will flow away, or break up into textured patterns. 3. Allow to dry this process may be repeated in layers.

print methods: 1. Use materials which will create a good ‘print’ effect such as sponges, coarsely woven fabric, wadded newsprint, corrugated cardboard, a modified brayer (wind string or fabric round it), paint roller, or squeegee, etc. 2. Daub, press, print, or stencil acrylic colours with the materials to develop a textured surface. 3. Bristle brushes can be used to dab, or print, colour through a wire screen or paper stencil.

collage methods: use any acrylic medium to fabricate an image constructed from layers of objects, plaster, wood, cement, metal, bisque ware, tissues, papers, fabrics, paint skins, laminates, etc. Gloss medium is particularly adhesive in strength or Rhoplex (if you can get it). Surfaces should be as clean as possible, for good adhesion, and can be primed with acrylic gesso first if necessary.

Dimensional Effects:

extruded paint: a) Squeeze paint through a nozzle i.e. cake-icing nozzles, attached to a tube of paint or an icing bag. b) Use plastic squeeze bottles; the nozzle can touch the canvas in a horizontal or vertical position or be held above. c) Paint may be extruded onto a non-porous surface, and removed for use separately i.e. it could be braided, fringed, or otherwise manipulated for application to a painting surface, or as an autonomous object. The paint may need to be mixed with a medium to attain the right consistency. d) It may be manipulated while wet (either sprayed with water or extruded on to a wet surface). e) Knotted or woven extruded paint can be attached to the canvas with additional paint, or by pressing the wet ends of the extruded lines onto the support before manipulating the extruded lines further. f) Spray extruded wet paint from close range, with water under high pressure, to achieve a spattered effect.

Structural and transfer systems: further information at www.liqitiex.com/resources/2003AcrylicBook.pdf or www.goldenpaints.com/transimg.htm

fiber lamination with Rhoplex: an acrylic fiber laminate made by bonding, or impregnating, superimposed layers of cheesecloth (or other lightweight fabric) with Rhoplex emulsion. Like fiberglass lay-up, this creates a plastic ‘skin’ that is flexible and safe for studio use. 1. The laminate is made inside a mould (or matrix) made of glass, plaster, wood, acetate, or plastic. A release agent (such as household paste wax or silicon oil) is applied onto the surface of the matrix to allow for easy removal of the laminate where a porous surface exists. 2. Superimpose pieces of fabric, using the emulsion in between the layers as a bonding agent. 3. Paint the laminate with acrylic colours, brushing, or pouring it directly onto the wet, or dry, lamina. Dry pigment, metallic powders, or other loose materials can be sprinkled between the strata into the wet emulsion. ‘Found objects’ such as glass, mosaic, yarn, cardboard, rope, twigs, mechanical objects, photographs, drawings, graphic images, or other collage elements can be incorporated into the wet plastic emulsion. 4. Remove from the matrix. Hang independently, or transfer onto a support.

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acrylic skins or sheets: 1. Brush from 5 to 10 layers of acrylic paint and gel medium onto a piece of glass, Plexi or acetate. 2. When the paint is dry, immerse it on its support in lukewarm water. Loosen the film with a palette knife and remove it from its backing. The side that was against the glass will have a bright, shiny surface.

acrylic decals: Brush at least 10, and up to 20, coats of acrylic medium over the surface of the source image. Allow each coat to dry before applying the next. When the laminate is dry, immerse it in extremely hot or boiling water for 1 to 2 minutes, and peel away the backing paper. Use an abrading tool such as a scouring pad or scrub brush to loosen the paper further. The image is now on a thin transparent film, and can be glued onto any support with medium. Clear Con- Tact or other clear vinyl sheets can also be used to lift images. A commercial product called Decalon is also available, which can be stretched to twice its size without splitting or cracking.

direct transfers: This reverses the image. Brush a liberal coat of acrylic gesso, gel medium, or acrylic paint onto a primed surface. While the medium is wet, press the source image face down into the wet emulsion, and rub gently on the back to press out air bubbles. For the best effect, sponge the image with water before pressing it into the wet acrylic. 'When the image on the support is completely dry, rub it gently with a wet sponge to remove the backing paper.

Airbrush system:

spraying with opaque paint: dilute paint with water or medium to thin cream consistency; eliminate all lumps; hold brush close to support; instrument can be used as a drawing tool or paint brush spraying with transparent paint: requires lower air pressure; hold brush farther away from support; spray in stages to build up layers of mist; allow each layer to dry first; allows soft-edged blending. spraying with semi-opaque white part way through: reduces tonal depth or colour intensity masking-out: used to retain some areas; with stencils, masking or drafting tape for straight edges; or use latex masking fluid applied thinly

10) OIL PAINTS

To a non-painter, oil paint is uninteresting and fairly unpleasant. To a painter, it is the life’s blood: a substance so utterly entrancing, infuriating, and ravishingly beautiful that it makes it worthwhile to go back into the studio every morning, year after year, for an entire lifetime. James Elkins, What Painting Is, Routledge, 1999

Definition: Oil paint is made of pigment suspended in an oil vehicle used on a slightly absorbent 61 surface (usually primed canvas, linen or wood). It may be modified with turpentine and mineral spirits, oil, varnish or a combination of all three, as a glaze, or as a painting medium. Oils have the highest refractive index of all paint media resulting in richer and deeper colour. Oil dries by a long and complex process of fist absorbing oxygen. Its weight increases by as much as 15% and it forms an elastic linoxyn film or skin. Then, linseed oil dries by polymerisation: oxygen is released and the skin shrinks to a durable, water- resistant film. This process can take more than twenty years and results in a transformation of a substance from a linear structure to a three dimensional polymeric form.

History: The Flemish artist Hubert van Eyck (c.1370-1426) is often credited with developing the process of oil painting as practised today, using ground pigment in a medium of drying oil. There is evidence that certain drying oils were used as varnishes in ancient Greece. The first mention of drying vegetable oils, as mediums for painting, occurs in manuscripts of the 11th or 12th century. The practice of painting with oil colours spread rapidly from Belgium to Italy and other parts of Europe in the 15th century. Oil colours replaced tempera paints, and became a universal medium in western painting. The Renaissance style of painting was based on the application of many thin layers of oil colours. Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723- 92) was among the first painters to add natural resin varnish, such as dammar, to his paints. The resulting yellowing of cold pressed oil based paints allowed him to achieve a technique, which mimicked the “old master” look.

While no longer made by artists, oil colours were still made by hand in chemist shops throughout Europe until the invention of the triple roll mill during the Industrial Revolution. Since then, artists’ grade oil colours have been milled into thick pastes with high pigment loads.

Materials

(1) OIL COLOURS: are basically a mixture of pigments and drying oils. Prior to 1840, oil paint was commonly stored in animal bladders, tied at the neck and perforated and closed with a tack until William Winsor patented oils in glass syringes, followed by lead tubes in 1841. Subsequently, aluminium and plastic tubes replaced lead for health reason.

(2) OIL PAINTING VEHICLES:

Certain vegetable oils, when exposed to the air in a thin film, have the property of absorbing oxygen (oxidation) from the air and turning into an insoluble elastic film. Oil is extracted from seeds or nuts by heat, pressure or by boiling with water. It is made more siccative by further boiling, passing air through it or exposure to sun and air, processes that also purify the oil. Chemical methods of purification are common today. The drying oils first known to painters were linseed oil, expressed from the seed of the flax, and walnut oil, extracted from the kernels of the walnut. Hempseed oil is also mentioned. Later on poppy oil was added to the list. Linseed oil and poppy oil are most commonly used today. The dried oil film is a new substance that differs in physical and chemical properties from the original liquid oil. It is a dry, solid material that cannot be brought back to its original state. Light, oxygen, and water vapour convert these oils when exposed in thin layers into a tough, elastic, transparent solid consisting principally of a substance called linoxyn.

Linseed oil: is the basic oil used in grinding oil colours today. It is expressed from seeds of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum); the stalks produce linen. The unsaturated fatty oil is composed of mixed triglycerides of linolenic, linoleic, oleic and stearic acids. The best quality is pressed through steel rollers. Linseed oil has the best drying and film-forming properties of all the natural oils. Most pigments ground in linseed oil require no driers and will set within 5 to 7 days. Cold pressed linseed oil (CPLO) is, made from the first pressing of flax seeds from white and/or yellow flowers without the addition of heat or chemicals. Artist grade CPLO should be medium yellow, clear and pleasant smelling. North America and Siberia are the two flax seed growing regions of the world. Dark yellow or brown CPLO is often contaminated with weed seed. CPLO is generally only used today to achieve “warm” or yellow effects. Artist’s requirements for paler oil resulted in the alkali refined linseed oils (ARLO) developed in the 19th century. Flax seeds are ground and pressed, either hot or cold. Then the oil is extracted using steam or solvents. Alkali is added to neutralize most free acidity and then removed. The resulting oil is not alkaline. The most expensive refining method produces the highest quality pale oil, freed from moisture, mucilage, albumen, and other impurities. Oil used alone can rise to the surface, yellow the painting and slow the drying time. A medium made from a combination of solvent and oil, or solvent, oil and resin, will increase the flow of colours and create a thinner film. 62

Stand oil: is linseed oil heated to a high temperature and held in a vacuum for a number of hours. A molecular change takes place that gives to the oil very different mechanical properties from the raw oil. It now has a heavy, viscous consistency much like honey. It is not a suitable vehicle for grinding colours, but is useful as a painting medium, and for glazing, when mixed with other ingredients i.e. spirits and varnish, but it is a slow drier. The thickened oils make an enamel-like surface, level brush strokes and increase tack or drag on the brush

Sun-thickened linseed oil: Using an old process dating from the 16th century, linseed oil is spread thinly on a flat pan. It is allowed to stand in the open sun until it is thoroughly thick (about two weeks). The impurities are strained and the remaining oil is bottled. The action of the sun and air partly polymerises and effectively bleaches the oil. It is a fast-drying agent, is useful in tempera emulsions and for glazing, but not as a painting medium when used alone.

Poppy oil and walnut oil: have been generally considered inferior to linseed oil because of their slow drying rate. They crack easily with successive coats, are softer, and produce a much weaker film. However, they are used in the production of white colours because they impart a brilliant appearance and buttery consistency. They also may be used, in smaller proportions, with linseed oil in the manufacturing of various oil colours. M. Graham & Co. is a small artists’ colour-maker, manufacturing colours ground in walnut oil. Because of its unique refractive index and non-yellowing nature, colours dispersed in this oil are free from discoloration associated with other drying oils. Free flowing and slow drying, they can be used without solvents. Walnut alkyd medium thins the colour, accelerates drying enhances adhesion between layers and increases surface sheen and flexibility while remaining essentially non-yellowing. It is non-toxic and solvent free. Walnut oil and walnut/alkyd medium are also compatible with other artists’ oil colours and mediums.

(3) OIL PAINTING MEDIUMS: Mediums make oil colours thicker or thinner, glossier or more matte. Rembrandt added no mediums as he painted because he made each colour by hand mixing oils, waxes, minerals, and other matter as he needed them. Handmade paints have a low pigment load so they are thin and require no diluting. Mediums offer painters opportunities to create unique surfaces that hold light deep inside luminous glaze layers or allow light to reflect directly off matte impasto surfaces. They are also used to extend colours for more economical painting.

Varnishes: A varnish may be used in a painting medium to provide an even surface gloss on an unfinished painting or one that has not totally dried (retouch varnish) or as a final protective coat for paintings. Historically, dammar was the most common varnish in use. Today, many artists have switched to newly available synthetic products such as alkyd resin that do not require the use of turpentine but rather the less volatile and toxic odourless mineral spirits (OMS).

Damar varnish: This was historically the most common varnish used by the oil painter. It is gathered from forest trees, with the best grades found in eastern Asia. Damar produces a very hard film, retains its colourlessness longer than any other natural varnish, and has great permanence. It is made from crystals about the size of walnuts. The crystals are pulverised, tied in a bag, suspended in a jar of turpentine (just touching the turps), and shaken occasionally. Time: 48 hours. Proportion: l part dammar crystals to 2 parts turpentine (by volume). OMS and other less volatile solvents don’t work. Be advised that dammar varnish may be an irritant and that sensitivities to its vapours are easily developed. Most contemporary oil painters substitute alkyd resin for health reasons.

Resins: Natural resins are secretions from certain trees, which form the basis of all natural varnishes: dammar, mastic, copal, etc. They are soluble in turpentine, oils, alcohol, etc. When water-soluble they are known as gums, i.e. gum arabic. Alkyd resin is a synthetic substitute in common use today i.e. Winsor & Newton’s Liquin.

Driers: If working with dammar varnish, stand oil and other slow drying oil mediums, cobalt drier is classically recommended for studio use. Add it to painting medium rather than directly into paint. Shake the bottle of drier. Add no more than 2 drops per 2 fl. oz. of medium. Always use less, never more where possible. Excessive use of drier causes cracking, browning and embrittlement. If the drier is more than a year old, replace it. Impasto mediums such as Grumbacher’s ZEC, alkyd resin, and other synthetic oil painting mediums on the market today generally contain driers and require nothing in addition.

Alkyd resin: First manufactured in the early 1930’s, alkyd resin is the polymerised oil of the 20th century. A synthetic resinous substitute for traditional oil painting mediums, it speeds drying time allowing thin layers to dry overnight. It can be thinned with mineral spirits. By using alkyd resin painting mediums, painters no longer need toxic turpentine in any part of 63 the painting process. Damar, for instance, can only be made with turps. Liquin is a commonly known brand, manufactured by Winsor & Newton. Win-gel or Gamblin’s Galkyd is clear, fast-drying alkyd resin gel designed to increase the gloss and transparency of colours. Galkyd Lite is formulated to thin colour in a manner similar to the traditional linseed/linseed oil/turps painting medium. Used as a binder alone, alkyd resins cannot hold the high pigment load of linseed oil.

Impasto medium: For thick, impasted effects, oil paints can be mixed with an extender such as Winsor & Newton’s Oleopasto, Grumbacher’s ZEC or Gamblin’s Galkyd Gel, which will create impasto about # “ per layer. They hold marks and brush strokes.

Cold wax medium: Added to any oil colour or oil painting medium to make them more matte, to thicken the paint and to increase transparency. See the Encaustic section of this book for cold wax medium recipes. A soft paste formulated to knife consistency, it can be thinned with OMS. Because beeswax is brittle, use less than " wax to $ oil colours for work on flexible supports. An addition of alkyd resin gel increases the flexibility of wax. For instance, Gamblin’s wax medium contains naturally white unbleached beeswax, alkyd resin and OMS. The surface of paintings made with beeswax medium become only as hard as beeswax candles. If it contains no oil, cold wax medium can be applied as a wax varnish over a dry oil painting. Turpentine: A natural resin from pine trees, turpentine has been used as a thinner for oil paint, and as a medium. Today, turpentine is not recommended for artists' use, other than to dissolve dammar or elvacite crystals, due to health and safety reasons. The use of a volatile solvent admixed with oil colours is a 19th century innovation probably connected to the sudden availability of a wide range of distillates on the market. Turpentine is a solvent and excessive or immoderate use can damage the binding qualities of the oil medium.

Mineral spirits and odourless mineral spirits (OMS): Turpentine substitute, paint thinner, a brush and palette cleaner, and all-round studio solvent, its action is about the same as turps, except as a solvent for dammar or elvacite crystals. OMS is now recommended as a substitute for turps, wherever possible, because of the latter’s potential to create allergic reactions in people through repeated exposure (this is called sensitizing). It is imperative to note that, although OMS has its dangerous aromatic hydrocarbons removed, it may still pose a health hazard similar to repeated or prolonged exposure to turps or regular mineral spirits. For artists’ use in studios with poor ventilation, the TVL (Threshold Limit Value) should be at least 200. 300 is best. During a 3 hour painting session, only 15-20% of OMS evaporates into the air, whereas with turps, approximately 80-90% evaporates into the air around the painter. OMS is not absorbed into healthy, unbroken skin unlike turps resulting in respiratory system irritation.

To design an oil painting studio with the lowest level of solvent: remove turpentine, mineral spirits and painting mediums that contain dammar resin and turpentine from the studio. Make painting mediums by: 1. Using a mixture of linseed oil and OMS. 2. Using small amounts of linseed oil (too much causes yellowing.) 3. Using small amounts of OMS (too much causes powdering.) 4. Using alkyd painting mediums, which thin colours quickly, speed drying time, and produce flexible painting films. These can be thinned with OMS. 5. Only use OMS for clean up. 6. Work in a well-ventilated space, regardless of solvent use. Change the air in the studio every day. Use a fan to move air across your painting area and out a window or door. Leave the space regularly to change the air in your lungs. To design an oil painting studio with no solvent: remove all solvents and painting mediums from the studio. 1. Use no mediums. Paint directly from the tube with a knife and/or stiff 2. Thin colours with small amounts of linseed oil (too much causes yellowing.) 3. Clean up by wiping excess oil of with a rag. Loosen the paint in the bristles with mineral oil such as Baby Oil. Wash with mild soap or brush cleaner.

(4) Supports, Size, Primer

Oil painting is done on mounted flexible (stretched or backed fabric or paper) and rigid (wood or hardboard) supports or substrates. The surface must be sealed from the adverse effects of oils over time. Without it, the substrate will decay and rot. Traditionally, animal hide glue size is used under an oil or oil emulsion ground. Today, most oil painters apply acrylic gesso directly to the surface, as no sizing is necessary. Good acrylic gesso is formulated to have absorbency and tooth, two qualities essential to the permanent adhesion of oils to their support. Thin the gesso by the addition of 20 –30% water to increase this absorbency and apply additional coats (3-5) to achieve a surface more receptive to the oil paint. 64

Processes: alla prima - direct oil application with brushes, painting knives, spatulas or other tools, generally without preliminary drawing or underpainting. This methodology has come to dominate art production since the development of uniformly thick, impasto paints in the 19th century. oil painting using painting mediums - tube oil colours mixed with painting mediums to alter opacity, flow, paint manipulation, drying time and to achieve different optical effects. Traditionally, the most common has been a combination of linseed oil, solvent and natural resin used as a diluent. However the introduction of alkyd resins has resulted in many oil painters switching to Winsor & Newton’s Liquin or Gamblin’s Galkyd from natural resins such as dammar for both health and safety reasons. Thickening or impasto mediums include Grumbacher’s ZEC, Gamblin’s Cold Wax Paste, or Winsor & Newton’s Oleopasto. glaze painting - glaze mediums or alkyd resins used to make transparent coloured layers of paint film in order to modify the colour, or tonality, of the previous layers. oil tempera - layers of semi-opaque egg/oil emulsion alternating with transparent layers of glaze medium. mixed media with oil - oil paint used with: - oil pastels, pastels, or other soft drawing tools; - graphite, carbon pencil, or other hard drawing tools; - watercolours, gouache, casein, or other water-soluble media; - egg or oil tempera; - waxes or wax-based mediums; - acrylics, alkyds, interference paint, Rhoplex, luminous or phosphorescent paints, florescent paint requiring concentrated ultraviolet light, daylight florescent paint, or other synthetic paint media; - tar, creosote, etc.; - gold leaf, silver leaf, or other metals; - collage materials; - transfers, monotype, or other printing processes; etc.

Handmade Oil Paints: For a tour of an historical colourman’s studio and the production of oil colours visit: www.winsornewton.com/index2.php. Gamblin Artists Colors produces high quality artists oil colours which are also used by restorers and conservators. The Gamblin occasional newsletter may be viewed on-line at www.gamblin.com/newsletters. Carl Plansky of Williamsburg Oil Paints started grinding pigments and oil in his Brooklyn Studio in 1986 and produces paints for other artists. See the New York Times article on the web site at www.oilpaint.com. Richard Frumess, an encaustic painter, manufactures R&F Handmade Paints including wax paints and pigment sticks, oil paint with enough wax added to form a bar that is abraded directly onto the painting surface. www.rfpaints.com is also an excellent site for information on encaustic painting. M. Graham & Co. makes oil colours by hand with walnut oil. Walnut oil is slower drying and non- yellowing with a lower viscosity and high colour saturation. Old Holland Classic Oil Colours, established in 1664, is renowned for its concentration of colour and creamy consistency. The Old Holland Oil Colour Association continues the tradition of manufacturing oil paints according to 16th century methods under the supervision of artists. Expensive, but exceptional.

11) WATER MIXABLE OILS

A new product has been available recently, which performs like oil paint but is water mixable and cleans up 65 with soap and water. Grumbacher manufactures Max and Max 2 (student quality). Winsor & Newton’s line is called Artisan. These paints contain no water but can be thinned with water due to the use of modified linseed oil and safflower oil in the paint. No solvents are required for thinning or clean up. Some colours appear to lighten in tone when water is added. As the water evaporates, the colour returns to its original tone. Once all the water has evaporated, the paint remains wet and workable like conventional oil colour.

Mediums: linseed oil: thins paint, reduces viscosity, improves flow, increases gloss and transparency stand oil: increases levelling or smoothing strokes, slows drying time, and increases gloss and transparency painting medium: thins viscosity, aids in detail work, improves flow and wetting, good for ‘oiling out’ or adding medium to areas of the painting that have sunk in or lost oil to the underlayers fast drying medium: improves flow, speeds drying, smoothes brushwork, increases gloss and transparency (like Liquin/alkyd resin, which contains solvent), useful for glazing impasto medium: texturing medium, needs to be built in layers allowing each layer to dry if thick texture is required, speeds up drying time when mixed with colours

Process:

Similar to oils with the following notes: The use of too much oily medium will result in wrinkling as in regular oil painting. The fat over lean rule applies equally to water mixable oils as to conventional oils. Thick over thin also applies equally. These paints foam if too much water is added or if it is added too quickly. Mix water in slowly and thoroughly. Mediums reduce foaming.

12) OIL TEMPERA (MIXED EGG/OIL TECHNIQUE)

Oil tempera is normally a process of alternating layers of opaque, or semi-opaque, emulsion film (tempera paint) with layers of transparent, or semi-transparent, oil-resin film (glazes). The build up of these layers results in unique optical effects not achievable in other media. Oil tempera is similar to egg tempera and may be worked in a similar manner. It may also be used as underpainting for oils, and it permits a technique that mixes tempera and oil painting methods. Oil tempera dries more slowly than pure egg tempera due to the additional oil content. As a result, it can be manipulated more easily and for longer periods of time. Also, it may be blended or graduated more readily. It dries more quickly than pure oils, due to the addition of a solvent and resin (varnish).

The painter with some experience may alter the ingredients, and their proportions, in the emulsion and glaze mediums to suit individual need.

Preparation of the emulsion: for oil tempera

Materials:

- a small, clean lidded glass jar 66

- 1 part egg yolk (without the sac) - ! part stand oil - ! part dammar varnish (substitute alkyd resin) - 2 parts water These proportions may vary resulting in a richer (more oily) or leaner (more watery) emulsion. Some oil tempera formulas include the whole egg but these form a more brittle paint film.

Process:

In preparation it is important to observe the order in which the ingredients are compounded: 1. Oily substances (stand oil and dammar varnish) are added to the egg yolk in the jar and vigorously shaken. 2. Then, water is added and the whole is shaken again until fully emulsified. 3. Air bubbles must settle before the emulsion is used. 4. Label, date and refrigerate when not in use. This medium can last for months in the fridge but will decay within days otherwise.

Painting with oil tempera emulsion: Dry pigment (pre-dispersed with water to form a paste) is tempered (mixed) with emulsion on the palette. Once tempered, the resulting paint may be thinned to the desired consistency with water. Tube oils may be substituted for pigment paste. However, it is impossible to establish the chemical composition of commercial oil colours in tubes. They are usually loaded with extenders, fillers and artificial emulsifiers and the oil content varies from colour to colour and from manufacturer to manufacturer. This makes it difficult to observe the general rule of oil painting: fat over lean. When paint is made from scratch, as in the oil tempera process, the painter controls the opacity/transparency, the viscosity and flow, the drying time, the chemical composition, and the purity of ingredients

Preparation of the glaze: A common medium is prepared as follows and stored in a clean lidded glass jar:

1 part sun-thickened linseed oil (stand oil may be substituted) 1 part dammar varnish ((substitute alkyd resin) 5 parts mineral spirits

Consult Robert Massey's Formulas for Painters for additional recipes.

Surfaces: Oil tempera may be painted on a chalk gesso ground (as for egg tempera) coated with an isolating coat to cut absorbency or on an oil emulsion ground. Gesso grounds are highly absorbent, and will leave the finish of an oil or oil tempera painting looking very matte or dull. Emulsion grounds absorb the oil component in the paint sufficiently well for the paint to adhere to the ground, while also allowing for easy manipulation of the paint and a rich, glossy build up on the surface.

Equipment: - dry pigments in wet paste form - small glass jars of emulsion and glaze mediums - oil painting brushes - brush cleaner in a container for rinsing brushes between colours -a palette and palette knife - painting cups - rags

Traditional Procedure: The various painting procedures which follow are guidelines only, to assist in developing a personal approach to oil tempera painting:

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1. After tracing or drawing the outlines of the composition onto the painting surface, begin by rendering the subject matter in monochrome tempera emulsion. When the tonal values are established and detail and texture added in, coloured oil-resin glazes are applied to account for local colours.

2. If further painting is needed, it is done with emulsion into glaze. Wet glaze painted into wet emulsion causes cracking almost immediately. Allow all emulsion layers to dry thoroughly before overpainting with glaze. Fortunately, the emulsion dries fairly quickly (faster than oils) depending on local atmospheric conditions i.e. humidity, air circulation, etc. Wet emulsion may be painted into wet glaze with no ill effects.

3. The traced or drawn outlines are painted in with tempera emulsion. A uniform, coloured, oil-resin glaze film is then applied to the whole surface. This imprimatura serves as an undertone that gives uniformity to the middle tones of the painting. Keep the veil no darker than a middle tone, and fairly transparent, or the painting will tend be heavy and dark.

4. Proceed by painting tempera emulsion colours into the imprimatura. Normally, the painting is built up tonally, and many old masters i.e. the Flemish painters used only tempera white at this stage of the work. When the white heightening is complete, coloured oil-resin glazes are applied to account for local colour. White is added in alternating layers to achieve detail, textural effects, and highlights.

5. Oil tempera may be used as an underpainting for oils. Oil tempera dries faster than oils, which allows for the addition of overpainting in a shorter period of time. This method will also result in a more luminous, transparent painting because the tempera emulsion is more transparent than tube oils. Often, when tempera is used below oils, the underpainting is tonal and the overpainting establishes colour, or the underpainting and overpainting are done in complementary colours.

6. Oil tempera may be used to overpaint watercolours, providing that the original work was done on good quality paper. This is a good second use of paper, if old watercolour paintings are no longer of interest. The result is better if the paper is sized with glue, and then primed with a couple of thin coats of chalk gesso (the oil content in a half-oil ground would repel the watercolour). The ground may be tinted with pigment to achieve a middle tone. The painting process is started in watercolours, which dry instantly (especially on the absorbent gesso ground), continued in tempera emulsion and finished in oil-resin glazes. (After the watercolour stage is complete, the work may be sealed with a thin varnish coat to reduce absorbency.)

Health and Safety: For those who are sensitised, or have allergic reactions, to turpentine (which is an ingredient in dammar varnish), alkyd resin may be substituted for the varnish. The results will be altered somewhat, but the process remains essentially the same. Work in a well-ventilated area, and allow the painting to dry in a ventilated area. Follow normal safe practices for the use of dry pigments and oil paints.

13) COPYART

(1) History of the machine:

Chester Carlson, a U.S. patent attorney, invented xerography in 1938 as a business communications tool and a document copier. Hundreds of copying machines and processes have been marketed within this century, ranging from the familiar silver photographic methods to those using chemical reactions, heat, pressure, static electricity, and laser technology. The first practical machine designed for office use was Thomas Edison's Mimeograph. This process, which uses stencil masters for printing, was marketed in 1887 by the A.B.Dick Co., which, as a result, became manufacturers of copy and duplicating machines.

In the early years of the twentieth-century, several gelatin-silver or conventional photographic processes, that did not require stencils, were introduced for copying. The Photostat, a French process of 1910, was the most 68 popular. The basic principles of several other methods of copying were discovered in the late '30s and early '40s. Carlson made his first successful image with a process he called electrophotography, later called xerography - from the Greek, meaning dry writing. His process used the optics of photography but formed direct positive images with static electricity. A special metal, or photoconductive surface, is made sensitive to light by the application of an electrostatic charge; when an exposure of the photoconductive surface is made, it loses the charge in areas where the light strikes the plate. Dusting then develops the latent image with a carbon-black powder called toner, which clings to the charged areas of the image. This image is then transferred to a sheet of plain paper having the opposite electrostatic charge, and fixed with heat.

Carlson's idea was developed by what is now known as the Xerox Corporation. One variation on Carlson's process - direct electrostatic imaging - used a paper, coated with zinc oxide that received both charge and toner. Developed by RCA (Radio Corporation of America), the process was marketed under the name Electrofax (electrostatic facsimile) and later under another name, VQC (Variable Quality Copier), by 3M Company (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing).

In 1939-40, Carl Miller experimented with a simple process that formed direct positive images with heat. Thermography (Greek for heat writing) was based on the principle that the typed black characters on the page absorb heat and the white paper reflects it. By using a treated, heat-sensitive paper placed in contact with the original document, a dry copy is made. The process was developed and later marketed in 1950 by 3M under the name Thermo-Fax (heat facsimile). The Kodak Verifax, of the same time period, was a duplicating process that used a master or special matrix, on which a negative image was formed, which was then transferred to treated copy paper. The resulting copy emerged damp, with an overall brown cast.

The commercialization of copying machines began in the '50s. Mechanization of copy processes in the '60s made the machine cheaper and more convenient. Copy capabilities were expanded in the late ‘50s, when coloured toners were first added to the RCA Electrofax process on an experimental basis. Seven colour toners were developed for xerography for Walt Disney Studios. Animators at Disney used the copiers and colour toners to speed the process of making the thousands of cels, or drawings, required to create movement in a single character. One of the first films made by Disney using copier techniques was "One Hundred and One Dalmatians". Animation studios still use colour copiers.

3M introduced the automated Color-in-Color copier in 1968, a system which reproduced colour originals in 27 colours. Color-in-Color formed images with a direct electrostatic process that was coupled with a thermal dye- transfer system. The dry colour print was created within sixty seconds. Of the six colour copy systems from manufacturers in Japan, Australia and the U.S., the only other colour process to reach the marketplace was the Xerox 6500 Colour Copier. The Xerox 6500 uses existing Xerox copier systems but employs only 7 colour toners. Both the 3M and Xerox colour systems use the principle of subtractive colour with automatic filtration for separation, and the basic three process colours: yellow, magenta (red-purple), and cyan (blue-green). These process colours are the same used in colour photography and colour printing.

During the 1980's, Canon introduced a revolutionary series of colour copiers, including the C.L.C.1 the world's first digital colour copier using the three process colours and black. The laser copiers of today allow for programmed image manipulation.

History as an art tool:

In the early '60s, artists began to work with the copy machine, whether located in offices or installed in public places. N'ima Leviton, a San Francisco printmaker, produced her first series of prints from a coin-operated machine in her neighborhood supermarket. In 1964, Barbara Smith leased a Xerox 914 copier, which was installed in her dining room. Esta Nesbitt discovered the office copier at the Parsons School of Design, and continued her work in the Xerox showroom in Manhattan. Public awareness of copier art did not begin until the early '70s. Since then artists have combined copier aesthetics with perspectives from almost every current field of endeavor, including painting, design, sculpture, ceramics, printmaking, photography, film, video, animation, conceptual art, performance, poetry, artists' books, correspondence art, and industrial graphic design. Sonia Sheridan founded the Generative Systems Department at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago as a result of intensive investigation with copiers and communications equipment, and developed closer links between the artist's use of the copier machine and the industry. 69

It was not until the early '70s that the public came into contact with the first Copy Art exhibitions. The publication of CopyART in 1978 by Richard Marek Publishers, New York, with the subtitle "The first complete guide to the copy machine", popularized artists’ work with the machines. Included in an exhibition of prints selected by a jury at Ottawa's Carlton University, Michael Bidner, exhibited, for the first time, in 1972, his "Xerox Symphony", a mail-art composition consisting of postage stamps, envelopes, initials, rubber stamps, etc. Ten years earlier, in the States, the movement had obtained recognition with the founding by Ray Johnson of the New York Correspondence School of Art. In the summer of 1973, "Xerox Symphony" was shown in the Musée d'art Moderne in Paris. In 1974, Simon Fraser University collected three thousand postal works from nine countries: Artists' Stamps and Stamp images. The history continues and grows from there, in a field where technical innovation and new imagery are developing continually.

See Medium: Photocopy (OCAD Library call no. NH500 M3) for further information and images.

(2) Technical information:

Photocopiers, which reproduce an original as a line copy, are known as ‘analogue’ copiers. They first reduce the image to a series of black tones, and the white base paper represents the highlight areas. Compared with colour copiers, black and white copy machines tend to be limited in their range of creative features. However, Sharp, Canon, and Toshiba produce models with an edit facility, which enables the printing of selected areas. This editing process is carried out using a magnetic pen on the edit board (on the lid of the copier). This framing feature can be used to select and copy rectangles, while the Canon 4080 and the Sharp SF8400 410w the selection and printing of circular areas. Images can be edited at the primary stage, instead of copied as an entire source image and then manually cut out. The "Zoom" facility also alters the size of an image. A source image can be reduced as much as 50% or enlarged to 400% onto a standard paper format.

Digital photocopiers offer a more sophisticated range of functions than analogue copiers. Some models have a "photo- mode" facility that can copy photographs effectively by reproducing them with a dot screen. These half-tone photocopies offer a scale of grays unlike black and white copiers. Some digital machines allow negative imaging, while others allow the X and Y coordinates to be enlarged or reduced separately, resulting in a stretched or condensed image. Multi-Page Enlargement allows images to be photocopied over several sheets of paper. It is possible to enlarge an image as much as 1,500% using the Canon BJ-A1, a bubble-jet-ink-printing photocopier. This machine offers creative functions similar to those of the C.L.C. models and is capable of producing huge distorted images than span several yards.

The physical limitations of the processes affect the characteristics of the print produced by copiers. Manufacturers to meet office requirements have standardized all sizes of paper, software, and processing machines. The dimensions of the document glass or patent on an automated machine on which an artist composes have been established by business requirements. Legal- and letter-size prints are one unique hallmark of copier media. On the other hand, the rapid printout time and drying speeds make it one of the most instantaneous of all processes available to the artist. Some artists have come to prefer the qualities of prints specific to certain makes and types of copier machines, i.e. the solid black matte of the IBM Copier II; the ghostly halo effect in solid areas produced by the Xerox 914 copier whose continuous-tone process produces images that look different from the gelatin-silver print; the 3M VQC coated paper zinc oxide system that gives rich, lustrous blacks, Some black and white copiers have multiple functions, which are capable of putting dot screens over an image, distorting an image's shape, and producing a negative print.

The limitations of the copier materials, coupled with the chromatic insensitivity of the photoconductive material and the colour components in each system, determine the distinctive colour qualities peculiar to each machine. Copier colour is expressive, not imitative. The three primary process colours create functional colour. The pigments are related to those found in some paints; when coupled with the polymer resin of the toner, they produce a filmy layer of colour. The colour qualities are synthetic, luminous, and vivid. The system reproduces bright colours more accurately and favors those chromatic ranges found in other artist’s materials, such as felt markers, pens, and crayons.

Canon copiers use 400 d.p.i. (dots per inch) x 400 d.p.i. The C.L.CI. 1 and the C.L.C. 500, with its Intelligent Processing Unit (I.P.U.), allow a link-up with electronic sources such as videos and computers. Among the smaller versions are the C.L.C. 300 and the C.L.C. 10, which is small enough to fit on a desktop and can be linked up to a host computer using the I.P.U. Postscript accessory. Sharp, Xerox, Minolta, and Canon produce models with interchangeable colour cartridges enabling reproduction of an image in a single colour, such as blue, red, green, or brown. Canon colour copiers have a "Colour Balance" mode, which allows the colour and tone of the source image to be altered.

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Direct imaging prints (there is no negative or source photo) retain characteristics of the machine's predetermined optical systems. Due to the wide, fixed aperture of the copier's lens, a shallow depth of field results. Objects in contact with the glass are rendered in sharp, precisely defined detail that diminishes in areas further away from the glass.

Colour copiers can usually cope only with papers of a maximum weight of about 50 lbs. This is because these machines have a complex printing process; for each copy the paper must pass four times round the drum. Heavier paper cannot maintain an electric charge and gets jammed in the machine. Black and white copiers can be fed paper up to l30 grams, as the temperature of the fuser roller inside is great enough for the toner to fuse successfully to a heavy paper's surface. Highly textured papers disrupt the electrical charge and cause the image to smear. Clear acetate can be used to overlay one image over another.

Some companies, including Konica Business Machines, produce copiers that use a special light sensitive photographic paper instead of conventional ‘dry’, plain paper.

Recent developments in the field of laser colour copier machines have exponentially increased the range of colours and tones, techniques and processes that can be performed on a copier. Interface with computer systems allows an even greater range of possibilities for generation and manipulation of created, altered, and stored imagery using computer software programs.

For images and a selected bibliography see: Electroworks, OCAD Library call no. NH5OO 146, which has been a source for these notes. For finishing techniques (halo-chrome, colour toners, masking out, toning detailed areas, dyeing, hand-colouring, etc.) see Artistic Photographic Processes OCAD Library call no. TR715 H67. See also COPYART: the first complete guide to the copy machine OCAD Library call no. TR470 F46.

(3)Processes:

Artists have taken the copier print off the wall and created three-dimensional works of art. No longer confined to letter- and legal-size paper, or to paper at all, copier prints have become T-shirts and clothing, jewelry and ornaments, quilts and domestic linens, books, catalogues, and magazines, furniture and wallpaper, and sculpture/installation. Special papers or matrices developed for each colour copy system make it possible for the artist, by applying heat, to transfer images produced in the machine to other surfaces, or to make overhead projections. Colour laser copying (reprography), transfer printing, and heat transferring are all alternative processes with artistic applications.

Photocopy is a medium of synthesis that has been integrated into new technologies such as video, microfilm, computer digitalization, and laser imaging. It lends itself to mounting, mixing, crossbreeding, serialization, mixed media, reproduction and recycling.

supports: white or coloured papers (normal or laser copy paper) acetates and vellums if they are laser papers, up to a 50-lb. weight limit.

On the laser copier images may be:

copied – sizes 8 ! x 11", 8 x 14", 11 x 17" enlarged – up to 400% with no generational loss multi-page enlarged reduced – down to 50% with no generational loss stretched condensed reversed distorted mirror imaged copied into a negative image image angled – tapered edited 71

tonally altered colour altered copied from black and white into colour re-fed – copying over copies and otherwise manipulated

Generation Loss: results from making a copy of a copy, producing tone and detail loss from print to print or ‘generation to generation’. The slow reduction of resolution can completely alter an image and redefine its meaning.

Slides, Transparencies, and Overlays: 35mm slides and 2 #" transparencies or negatives (mounted or unmounted in both cases) may also be copied onto paper, or onto transfer paper. A special attachment holds the slide mount and inserts it into a unit that projects the image onto a special silvered mirror, angled at 45, and reflects it into the machine's scanner. Transparencies can be scraped or partially scraped off, or wiped off with toner solvent (tetrachloroethylene). New data can be added with a grease pencil or a solvent-type-marking pen.

Scanning: with the light source or lens as it pans the glass creates blurred images, or optical distortions. Moving three- dimensional objects alters their appearance. Horizontal movements across the screen stretch the image and produce long movements, while vertical movements tend to produce wave-like blurs. Holding the subject still for the magenta and yellow passes but moving it with the cyan pass creates a colour-distorted image in shades from violet to cyan.

Transferring: Printed inks from one support (such as a photocopy) are transferred to another receptor (such as paper), maintaining the required image, by the use of lacquer thinner, solvents, mediums and gessoes and heat. Materials:

- highly saturated and freshly inked images from magazines, newspapers, posters, or other printed, written, or drawn material. If the source material has a varnish top coat, transferring may be impaired OR - freshly inked photocopies, colour or b & w - any type of substrate with a clean, grease free surface; smooth surfaces receive the image best; textures break it up

Processes:

1. Solvent Method: This process requires excellent ventilation and, possibly, a vapor mask. A solvent such as butane (lighter fluid), lacquer thinner, Naz-Dar, no.5536 or other similar silk-screen extender bases, clothing spot removers, or even mineral spirits, is poured over a printed image to chemically dissolve, loosen or move it from its paper backing. It is placed face down on a smoothly surfaced support. Then, using a burnishing tool, such as a metal spoon, fork, knife handle or brayer, rub the back of the image briskly on a clear, smooth working surface.

2. Decal Method: Brush at least 10, and up to 20, coats of acrylic medium over the surface of the source image. Allow each coat to dry before applying the next. When the laminate is dry, immerse it in extremely hot or boiling water for 1 to 2 minutes, and peel away the backing paper. Use an abrading tool such as a scouring pad or scrub brush to loosen the paper further. The image is now on a thin transparent film, and can be glued onto any support with medium. Clear Con- Tact or other clear vinyl sheets can also be used to lift images. A commercial product called Decalon is also available, which can be stretched to twice its size without splitting or cracking.

3. Direct Transfer Method: This reverses the image. Brush a liberal coat of acrylic gesso, gel medium, or acrylic paint onto a primed surface. While the medium is wet, press the source image face down into the wet emulsion, and rub gently on the back to press out air bubbles. For the best effect, sponge the image with water before pressing it into the wet acrylic. 'When the image on the support is completely dry, rub it gently with a wet sponge to remove the backing paper.

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4. Heat Transferring Method: After copying an image onto a transfer paper (a latex-coated stock that accepts toners into its plastic base), it may be heat pressed onto a variety of supports including paper, fabric – canvas and others, clothing, wood, metal, some plastics and Plexis, as well as glass. The press transfers at a heat of 340 degrees Fahrenheit using 3500 lbs. of pressure. Images can be underpainted or overpainted with a variety of paint media depending on the support used. They may be collaged, sewn and stuffed into sculptural or relief images as well.

14) MIXED MEDIA

Mixed media materials and techniques are as varied as the practitioners using them. Because of the diverse range of possibilities in this area, the following discussion focuses on several examples of alternative techniques practiced in the twentieth century, often within a mixed media context.

(1) COLLAGE/ ASSEMBLAGE:

History:

The word collage comes from the French word for pasting. But the art of combining cut-out shapes and papers can be dated back over a thousand years ago, when Japanese poets and calligraphers made collage poems depicting landscape scenes embellished with delicate cut-out shapes of animals and birds. Today, in Japan, the tradition lives on in New Years cards utilizing the same ancient art form. From the 13th century there is evidence of a Persian collage tradition in the form of cutouts incorporated in the leather bindings of books and in the 16th century Turkish artists were producing beautiful illuminated texts combining elements of collage techniques. At the same time in Western Europe, illustrations of heraldic coats of arms were produced using cutout elements pasted onto painted backgrounds. A century later, examples of collages produced by women) included such items as beetles, coffee beans, fruit stones, feathers, lace, and other types of cloth. A popular collage material in 18th century Europe was butterfly wings used primarily in representations of Christian religious imagery.

Collage played an important role in the tradition of Russian icon painting and decoration, From about the middle of the 15th century, painted wooden panels were often decorated with precious metals and stones, ivory, mother-of-pearl, fine lace, and embroidered materials, and framed in metal arabesques. In the 17th and 18th centuries, paper collages depicting saints were popularly used as page-markers for prayer books.

In its early western art applications, the technique involved, primarily, the application of ‘found’ materials (objets trouvés), such as bits of newspaper, fabric, wallpaper, etc., to supports, frequently in combination with painting. The artist found, or selected, objects with qualities of form, contour, colour, texture, etc. and content which were appropriated as if they were his or her own creation. In the 19th century, collages were created from papers cut out and put together (papiers collés) to form decorative compositions.

Published information about the origins of the technique in twentieth-century art practice credit Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, around 1912-13, with extending the collage technique. They combined prosaic materials such as fragments of paper - tickets, menus, receipts, and newspaper clippings, etc., wood, linoleum, glass, wire, sand, etc. with oil paint on canvas, selected primarily because they offered new mediums with which to represent planes and textures. The development of the collage by Picasso and Braque contributed largely to the transition from Analytical to Synthetic Cubism. However, Picasso's father, Sonia Delauney, and others were clearly engaged in the process of collage previously. Collage and montage were widely adopted as techniques by the Futurists (Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini, etc.), and the Russian Suprematists (El Lissitzky, Alexander Rodchenko, etc.) as well. 73

Dada and Surrealist artists, especially Jean Arp, Max Ernst (1891-1976), and John Heartfield (1891-1968), first used the term collage, in an official art context, in reference to works. These collages were composed of juxtaposed images, the connotative values of which were as important as their visual characteristics. Artists and viewers engaged in trying to rationalize the association of elements. The Dadaist series of Fatagaga paintings by Arp and Ernst may be the most notable early works in collage. Ernst's print collages were gleaned from many sources: medical and engineering journals, advertisements, scientific illustrations, Victorian steel engravings. His book, La Femme 100 Têtes, contains 149 collage sequences. Marcel Duchamp's (1887-1968) ‘ready-mades’ incorporated found objects and were highly influential to the emerging collage and assemblage tradition.

Ralph Mayer, in The Harper Collins Dictionary of Art Terms & Techniques, defines collage:

the technique of creating a pictorial composition in two dimensions or very low relief by gluing paper, fabric, or any natural or manufactured material to a canvas or panel; also, a work of art so produced. An entire work may be executed in collage, but the technique is also used in combination with painting in oil or with other techniques. When heavy three-dimensional objects dominate the composition, the work is usually called an assemblage, a term used also for a freestanding construction more closely related to sculpture than to painting.

Kurt Schwitters (1887-1948) made collages utilizing pieces of string, rags, wood, wire, nails, and papers. Schwitters' s ‘merz’ works were collages created from the reconstruction and re-appropriation of discarded commercial debris. Henri Matisse's (1869-1954) imaginative papiers découpeés, the works of his last years, were an adaptation of the collage technique.

American artist Joseph Cornell (1903-72) expanded upon the collage/ assemblage technique in his intimate shadow boxes, as did Louise Nevelson in her constructions. In the 1960s, collage was employed as a major form of Pop art. The collages, as well as assemblages, environments, and happenings of the 1960s and 1970s, by Robert Rauschenberg and others, indicate an increased reliance upon a multimedia synthesis of art.

The technical innovations of collage and assemblage, early in the century, have led to artists successively explore the potential of a vast array of media, materials, and techniques to the point, nowadays, where the many practitioners automatically describe their materials as "mixed media".

It is important to keep in mind that collage and assemblage are practices with many applications outside of the mediated, official art history context. In "Waste Not Want Not: An Inquiry into What Women Saved and Assembled - FEMMAGE" (1977-78), Miriam Shapiro and Melissa Meyer write:

Collage: a word invented in the twentieth century to describe an activity with an ancient history. Here are some associated definitions: Collage: a picture assembled from assorted materials. Collage: French word after the verb coller, which means pasting, sticking or gluing, as in application of wallpaper. Assemblage: a collection of things, often combined in the round. Assemblage: a specific technical procedure and form used in the literary and musical, as well as the plastic arts, but also a complex of attitudes and ideas. Collage and related modes of construction manifest a predisposition that is characteristically modern. Découpage: (literally, cutting) a mode of decorating painted furniture with cutouts of flowers, fruits, etc. Also, the art of decorating surfaces with applied paper cutouts. Photomontage: the method of making a composite picture by bringing photographs together in a single composition and arranging them, often by superimposing one part on another, so that they form a blended whole. Femmage: a word invented by us to include all of the above activities, as they were practiced by women using traditional women's techniques to achieve their art - sewing, piecing, hooking, cutting, appliquéing, cooking and the like -activities also engaged in by men but assigned in history to women. 74

Immediately following World War II, artists began to incorporate the objects and images of everyday life into their work. Wilhelm de Kooning, Alberto Burri, Antonio Tapies, Anselm Kiefer, Romare Bearden, Öyvind Fahlström, Daniel Spoerri, Niki de Saint-Phalle, Jean Tinguely, the Italian arte povera artists, Fluxus, Richard Hamilton, Eduardo Paolozzi, Peter Blake, Di(e)ter Rot, Ion Grigorescu, Tony Cragg, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Bruce Conner, Lucas Samaras, Ray Johnson, Judy Chicago, and Faith Ringgold are a few notable names among the many artists practicing "collage/assemblage", or mixed media, techniques since that time.

(2) Photomontage:

This term refers to composite photographic images made either by pasting together individual prints or parts of prints, by successively exposing individual images onto a single paper, or by exposing the component images simultaneously through superimposed negatives.

In the 1880s, the juxtaposition of separate images through successive exposures became popular in the ‘combination print’, especially in the form of the contrived group portrait. The subjective, fragmented, potentially absurd qualities of this juxtaposition were exploited by Dadaist and Futurist artists of the early 20th century.

The photomontages of George Gross, Hannah Hoch, and John Heartfield from this period are among the major examples of the form. Photomontage, using actual photographs as well as painted representations of photomontages, was also used extensively in the Pop art movement of the 1960s and 1970s.

Mixed Media Materials: some possibilities

- acrylic emulsions: paints, mediums, gessoes - adhesives: acrylic emulsions, resin glues, plastic resin urea based glue, epoxy cements, contact cements, rubber cements, PVAs (white glue or bondfast), wallpaper pastes, starch pastes, Superglue, glue sticks, silicone sealant, etc. - resins (polyester, alkyd), varnishes, crackle glaze, stains, finishes, etc. - new or used papers, tissues, boards, cardboards, Fome-Cor, Oriental papers, origami papers, magazines and newspapers, books, prints, photocopies, photographs, illustrations, graphic designs, packaging and product advertising, posters, leaflets, brochures, etc. - typography, Letraset, Letratone, letterforms, stencils, etc. - fabrics: canvas, cottons, linens, synthetics, cheesecloth, gauze, tarpaulins, (new and/or used), etc. - woods, frames, etc. - leather, fur, feathers, etc. - pins, tacks, nails, staples, etc.. - waxes: paraffin, beeswax, synthetics, etc., wax emulsions - plaster, Polyfilla, spackle, stucco, tar, etc. - blades, scissors, knives, etc. - painting knives, palette knives, spatulas, etc. - burnishing tools, spoons, rollers, brayers, etc. - brushes, sponges, scrapers, squeegees, etc. - candles, other smoke sources - irons, soldering tools, blowtorches, wood-burning tools, etc. - coffee, tea, any staining agent, herbs, food, etc. - sand, gravel, salt, marble dust, other granular materials - powders, pigments, etc. - foils, metals, metallics, wires, etc. - china, ceramics, glass, plastics, plastic films, Plexis, transparencies, acetates, Mylars, etc. - photographic film, film and videotape, audiotape, etc. - inks, printmaking inks, shellacs, paints, spray paints, dyes, etc. - drawing and other mark-making tools - thread, string, rope, stitchery materials, sewing notions, etc. - masking tape, drafting tape, invisible tape, double-sided tape, garden tape, etc. 75

- bleach - found objects: two- and three-dimensional - text: found and created etc.

Processes: The following technical vocabulary refers to some methods that relate to, or may be used in, the development of mixed media (collage/assemblage/photomontage) images:

Affiches 1acerés: torn posters

Appliqué: pieces of material fastened to the surface of the same or another material; common in sewing, but also used in metalwork and in paper, where it is called découpage

Brû1age: burning; burned, or scorched work; combined with ‘fumage’, another term brûlagefumage’ was coined by Alberto Burri to describe one of his techniques; sometimes works employing these techniques are known as ‘collage combustione’

Combustione legno: burnt or scorched wood; a collage technique used by some Italian artists, notably Alberto Burri and Roberto Crippa

Combine painting: painted assemblage, usually wall related, popularized by Robert Rauschenberg

Combine print: a print taken from a collage made of media in flat relief

Concretions terreuses: a term used by Jean Dubuffet to describe paintings of earth and pavement, thick laminations of dried leaves; flowers, etc., assembled onto canvas

Construction: in sculpture, a construction is a work put together out of different pieces, rather than cast, modeled, or carved. An assemblage is one type of construction.

Coulage: application of paint to a surface by dripping

Criblé or cribbled: covered with dots or small punctures; originally, a technique of decorating wood and metal surfaces

Décalcomanie: pressing two painted or textured sheets of paper (or similar material) together and peeling them apart while still wet; developed by Max Ernst

Déchirage: tearing or torn paper or other materials used in a collage

Décol1age: partially pasted or partially torn away collage; peeling down through laminations, often while still wet

Découpage: a collage of random pieces of paper or cloth which may carry images or designs; decoration of a surface by covering it completely with cutout figures or designs, employing scissors, razor blade, or sharp cutting edge

DépouiIIage: stripping away

Distressing: markmaking (abrading, scratching, etc.) to give a worn, aged appearance Éclaboussage: paint splashed or splattered onto a surface

Flong: a material made of layers of tissue paper held together with wet paste, used in papier mâché and other molded paper techniques 76

Flottage: colours floated on water and transferred onto a surface

Frisket: a stencil cut from tracing paper and attached to a work in progress with rubber cement to protect part of the work or to maintain blank areas while further applications of paint or other media is made; it is subsequently pealed away; liquid frisket, available commercially, performs the same function

Froissage: crumpled, creased, bruised, or crushed paper or other material - wet or dry - used in a collage

Frottage: the technique of rubbing, to take a contact print of a surface pattern i.e. by holding paper over a textured surface and rubbing it with pencil, crayon, etc; often used as an element in a collage, sometimes as a pictorial representation of an area. Frottage is an adaptation by the Surrealists of the traditional method of making a rubbing. Painters in that movement, especially Max Ernst, who first introduced them in his works, often used such rubbings as part of a collage, or made frottage with by pressing canvases onto texture, coating the surface with paint, and then scraping it away with a palette knife.

Fumage: patterns created by smoke, the shading or toning of an area by this process

Goffer or gauffer: to decorate a surface by indenting or embossing it (stamping); also, the tool used in this work. Goffered work is also known as gauffrage.

Grattage: scratchings or scraped areas in wet paint using tools such as forks, rulers, knives, etc.

Gravure & lithographic assemblage: coined by Jean Dubuffet in preference to collage to describe works using engravings and lithographs

Lacéré anonymé: a found object consisting of a poster or other work on paper, found in a torn or battered condition

Montage: a picture made up of portions of various existing pictures, such as photographs or prints, and arranged so that they join, overlap, or blend with one another

Objets trouvés: found objects, often natural things (shell, driftwood, stone) but they may be manufactured, especially if their quality is enhanced by age or weathering. A mass-produced object exhibited for its art value is called a ‘ready-made’.

Oscillation: paint is dripped from a can swung on the end of a piece of string onto a substrate below

Papier mâché: French term meaning ’ chewed paper’, a molding material made of paper torn into strips or pulped and soaked in a binder such as starch, paste, detrix, glue, etc., used to make three-dimensional objects or build relief on two- dimensional surfaces

Papiers collés: literally, ‘pasted papers’

Pyrography: controlled burning or blackening

Sgraffito: scratching, digging, or etching into a surface, using tools

Spackling: using spackle, a substance similar to Polyfilla, as an embedding base for collage

Stenciling or masking: involve blocking out or delineating areas for applying media or from further application of media 15) FRESCO

The buon fresco or buona fresco method of wall painting involves the application of pigments ground in 77 water, or limewater, to a freshly plastered support, usually a wall. The thin layer of wet lime-plaster fuses into a permanent, hard, solid state as the lime carbonates absorbs pigments. The fact that they do not rely on adhesion to the ground, as do most other methods of painting, but become an integral part of it, makes buon fresco one of the most durable fresco techniques.

Materials:

The Wall: Before plastering, the wall should be completely free of damp, grease, and dust. Any previous coatings should be washed off, any crumbling mortar raked out, and any uneven projections chipped back to the level surface. The surface can be hacked to give a key to the plaster. Small frescoes can be made on board in a wooden box frame.

Pigments: Only permanent pigments should be used for fresco work. They have to be lightfast for exterior exposure and fast to alkali, since lime is so alkaline. They should also be resistant to acids and other pollutants in the atmosphere. Recommended pigments include: the artificial iron oxide colours ( Mars red, violet, yellow and black); blue and green cobalt; cerulean, ultramarine and manganese blues; oxide of chromium and its hydrated form viridian green; yellow ochre, cadmium red, Indian red, red ochre, raw umber. The slaked lime itself (biancosangiovanni) is, generally, used for white. The pigments should be ground as finely as possible in water, and applied directly to the wet plaster with no further binding medium added.

The Mortar: Traditionally, slaked lime is mixed with sand, and/or marble dust, of varying particle size, depending on which of the three layers is being applied. The sand must be clean, dry, and free from all salts. It acts as inert filler; the chemical change in the drying of the wall is the transformation of the plaster from calcium hydrate, plus carbon dioxide, to calcium carbonate and water.

Process:

Plastering: There are three stages of plastering a wall for buon fresco: -trullisatio or trusilar -arriccio or arricciato -intonaco

The trullisatio: The wall is thoroughly wetted. The first coat, known as the roughcast, scratch coat or trullisatio is applied. This mortar is a mixture of lime putty and coarse sand/gravel in the ratio of about 1:3. (Suggested proportions of sand to gravel are in the ratio of about 1:5.) This coat is the leanest in lime. For interior work on wooden lathe or – more commonly today – on an expanded metal screen, there is less sand, or gravel, in the mix. The application of the first coat is vigorous, with the mortar not smoothed, but slapped firmly on to the wall. This is the thickest coat and should be about ! inch deep.

The arriccio: The second coat, known as the equalising coat, brown coat, or arriccio is less coarse than the rough cast, but not as fine as the final coat. The ratio of lime to sand is about 1:2 or 1:2 !, and the sand element can contain a mixture of coarse and fine particles (with the coarse particles predominating).

The arriccio is laid as soon as the first coat has set, but not dried, to a depth of just over #-inch thick. It is also applied vigorously to the thoroughly wetted roughcast, and only smoothed to the extent that it will be capable of receiving a painted, or drawn, outline of the design of the mural. This preliminary outline was known as the sinopia, after the town on the Black Sea (Sinope) from which the red ochre, originally used to make the drawing, was obtained.

The intonaco: The final painting coat, or intonaco, is a mixture of lime putty and sand in the ratio 1:1, the sand element, often, containing some marble grit, or dust, to add sparkle to the surface of the wall. It can be laid about half an hour later, as soon as the middle coat has set, but not dried. It should be a little thinner than the previous coat. The plastering of the intonaco calls for flowing strokes and floating techniques, which bring the surface to the smoothness required for painting. A soft jet of water removes much of the surface lime. The intonaco is applied consecutively to areas of the wall that can be painted in the few hours between the first stages of drying (when the plaster becomes firm but remains wet) and the second stage (when the actual process of carbonation begins and the pigments are no longer absorbed by the wall.) Any intonaco that remains unpainted, because it has become too dry, or because the painter has finished for the day, is hacked off so that it can be replaced with fresh plaster 78 on the following working day.

Transferring the Drawing to the Wall: The design for the whole wall is usually drawn out on the arriccio, or second coat. The drawing may be done freehand, with brushes taped to canes for instance, or it may be transferred from a preliminary drawing or ‘cartoon’. The cartoon is made the same size as the mural itself though it is generally drawn in large, separate sections. Often it relates to a grid, scaled and registered to the wall as well.

1. The drawing may be "pounced", or dusted, onto the wall with spolvero (powdered pigment or charcoal) through holes pricked along the lines of the cartoon. OR 2. The design may be scratched through the cartoon paper into the damp plaster with a sharp implement. 3. Today, artists also project their drawings onto the wall itself, taking care to account for distortion. This can be done using a slide in a projector, acetate in an overhead projector or a solid image in an opaque projector.

Painting: There is finality about each brushstroke, as it cannot be erased, unless a patch of plaster is physically removed and replaced. Layers of paint can be superimposed, and colour and tone built up. Strokes and washes stay precisely where they are placed without running. Traditionally, thin transparent colour is flooded in, like a watercolour wash, and then the drawing is reinforced on top.

Other Methods of Wall Painting: Traditional methods include fresco secco, or lime wash painting using casein, glue size, or egg added to the paint, as well as oil murals and encaustic. Today, synthetic water-based vinyl resin, acrylic resin based paints, and synthetic latexes are commonly used. Polyurethane, exterior masonry paint, cement based mineral paints, and silicate are also popular now.

16) METALPOINT

Metalpoint drawings result from marks made in any one, or combination, of the following metals: silver, gold, copper, brass, lead, tin, bronze and iron. A ground is normally required to abrade the metal, which is normally drawn into a fine wire and held in a stylus or mechanical pencil. Silverware, copper scouring pads or pipe, gold or silver jewellery, and metal objects of all sorts may be used to make marks also.

With time, most metals patinate and assume different colours, largely as a response to light and pollution. Silverpoint, which starts as a grey-blue, takes on a sepia colour, and becomes more transparent and smoky, like the patina on a tarnished piece of silver or silverware. Lead darkens. Copper varies according to atmospheric conditions, but clearly differs from silver. The appearance of gold remains consistent with its initial application.

Scratchmarks from sanding with various grades of paper, brush marks, or other textures from applying the ground, or incised lines (a steel drawing pen incises well) can produce a variety of effects for creating a metalpoint work. These techniques produce different results on tinted grounds from white grounds. Today frosted Mylar makes an excellent surface for working with metalpoint. Already coated, it receives marks without further preparation and it available in a wide range of sheet and roll sizes.

Metalpoint grounds may be gilded with metal leafs, like gold or silver. Egg tempera and distemper take to this 79 surface. If the ground is isolated with a dilute coat of dammar varnish, and mineral spirits/turpentine, it may be overpainted with oils. Mixed media works, using soft drawing materials, like chalk and charcoal, gouache (both transparent and opaque), inks, or watercolour were common in the Renaissance period.

Silverpoint drawing is, traditionally, produced with a silver wire, held in a clutch pencil or other holder, on coated paper or board. There is a velvety, but resistant, feel to the action of drawing in this medium, which differentiates it from graphite pencil drawings. Traditionally, metalpoint drawings were very linear, with tone built up through cross-hatching or directional strokes. Grounds were often tinted, and white body colour added for highlights.

Materials:

- metal wire: 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9mm.gauge silver, copper, brass, gold, etc - a holder: mechanical pencil, soft wood, etc. - emery paper, metal file, etc. for softening or sharpening the point - coated surface on a flexible or rigid substrate; Mylar requires no coating. See handbook section, Grounds or Primers 3.B(v) for further information.

Process:

To use silverpoint in the traditional manner, it is at its best in small-scale, finely crafted works with delicate cross-hatching, slowly worked up to the required depth of tone. Increasing hand pressure deepens the tones somewhat, although the deepest tone is more like a mid-tone in most other drawing media.

17) EGG TEMPERA

TEMPERA: Temperare in medieval Latin means blending or mixing. The verb 'to temper' normally refers to a conditioning process such as the heat treatment of steel which imparts strength, flexibility, ductility, and other desirable properties to the tempered metal. Similarly, in the preparation of artist's paint the word 'tempera' means that dry pigment is tempered by mixing it into a liquid medium. The medium could be any albuminous, gelatinous or colloidal emulsion. To be specific, a second term is required such as egg tempera, gum tempera or glue tempera.

Tempera's special character results from its vehicle being an emulsion. An emulsion is a stable mixture of an aqueous (water-based) liquid with an oily, fatty, waxy or resinous substance. It consists of drops of one liquid suspended in another liquid. Egg yolk and milk curd (casein) are naturally occurring emulsions. Recently, artificially prepared emulsions – the acrylic polymer vehicles and mediums – have been synthetically produced. Generally, acrylic emulsions have replaced the natural tempera emulsions, duet o their convenience.

EGG TEMPERA: An egg yolk contains a number of substances that make it an excellent emulsifier capable of absorbing up to 700 % oily materials. It contains approximately 12 % protein, 12 % drying oils, and 74 % water. The proportions vary relatively little. The oils consist of glycerides of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids. Egg yolk is often used as an emulsifier in cooking i.e. a substance that assists aqueous and nonaqueous materials (usually immiscible, such as oil and vinegar) to mix.

Tempera differs from most other water-based media because it doesn't re-dissolve easily when wetted. The author Kurt Wehlte explains this insolubility as a photochemical reaction in which animal proteins become 80 insoluble by exposure to light. Egg tempera is an example of an emulsion containing water, an emulsifying agent and oil, all of which form a protective layer very insoluble in any agent and very durable. It falls between gouache and oil paints in its appearance because it contains both watery and oily components.

Egg has been used for painting since antiquity. Wehlte believes it was known to the Egyptians and to Greek artists at the time of Alexander the Great. It is still widely used by icon painters today. In time the paint film sets and forms an insoluble, tough, leathery and permanent surface. Unlike oil paint, egg tempera does not shrink as it dries, won't crack over time, and does not darken with age. However, its permanency and performance depend upon exacting and sound methods of preparation and execution. The medium has limitations: it does not create impasto effects without cracking, it can't achieve the seamless blending of oil painting due to its rapid drying time, it has a higher colour register, doesn't produce the deep rich tones of oil painting, and it has a linear quality associated with drawing. Egg tempera is an excellent medium, if a painter wants to have control over paint ingredients, toxicity of materials or the manufacturing process.

Traditional Process:

The basis for this method is the account of Giotto's tempera painting given by Cennino d'Andrea Cennini in Il Libro dell'Arte written in about 1432:

1. Preparation of the cartoon: normally a line and tone compositional study 2. Preparation of the support and surface: the gesso panel 3. Transfer of the cartoon to the panel 4. Underpainting: a line and tone interpretation of the cartoon in ink 5. Sealing of the underpainting: egg wash varnish 6. Preparation of the dry pigments: grinding with water 7. Preparation of the emulsion 8. Overpainting: addition of tempera colours to the underpainting 9. Varnishing: egg wash sealer and, ultimately, dammar varnish if desired

1. Preparation of the cartoon: A cartoon is usually a complete, detailed drawing of the subject matter done in the actual size of the planned painting. All the problems of design, modelling and content are worked out in this drawing by rendering precise tonal values to account for space, form, textures, etc. This drawing is used as a reference throughout the execution of the painting.

2. Preparation of the support and surface: Described in the Glue Size and Grounds sections.

3. Transfer of the cartoon to the panel: If the drawing will not be required beyond the execution of the egg tempera painting, it may be coated on the back with a dense layer of soft graphite. The flat side of a graphite stick works best. The paper is laid over the primed panel, and the outlines of the composition are traced through using a hard, sharp pencil. The drawing acts as a carbon paper in this way. However, don't use ink or dye base carbon paper instead, because this will eventually bleed into the tempera painting above. If the drawing is to be kept, take a piece of tracing paper, and trace the lines of the composition from the drawing onto it. Use this instead like a carbon.

4. Underpainting: Render a complete tonal study of the drawing directly onto the primed panel in diluted permanent black ink by following the tracing and referring to the cartoon. Normally a full range of grey tones is mixed on the palette and applied following the tonal coding of the drawing. Opaque blacks are avoided because 81

they tend to deaden the overpainting. The work is kept as clean as possible and the white of the board is conserved for highlights. Line, texture and pattern are rendered at this point also. Brushes are used as opposed to pens, nibs or reeds to prevent the gesso from being incised.

Tempera colour may be used instead of ink. The drawing may be done with tempered pigment (black or another colour), or with silverpoint.

5. Sealing of the underpainting: A teaspoon of egg yolk (sac removed) is added to a cup of water. This mixture is brushed gently over the underpainting using even single strokes with a wide sash brush (2 inches) and allowed to dry for at least 20 minutes.

6. Preparation of the dry pigments: The pigments are dispersed with distilled or tap water using a muller and slab, and stored in airtight jars, which have been topped up with water to prevent the resulting, paste from drying out. If some pigments resist the mulling process, a wetting agent is required i.e. acrylic flow release (ARF) or water tension breaker (WTB), or simply isopropyl alcohol.

7. Preparation of the emulsion: Separate the yolk from the white of a fresh egg, discarding the white. Hold the yolk by its outer casing or 'sac' over the mouth of a small, sterilised, clear jar with an airtight lid. The sac is punctured and held securely while its contents run into the jar. Before breaking the sac, the yolk may be rolled around on a soft paper towel or over the hands in order to remove as much of the white as possible. Don't try to remove any stringy attachments as this may break the sac immediately.

Add water, shake the jar well and allow the mixture to settle until air bubbles subside. The mix will be lemon yellow in colour and of a thin creamy consistency. The amount of water required will vary from yolk to yolk depending on its degree of oiliness.

This is the emulsion used in painting. It will spoil over time and have to be replaced. The smell is an obvious indicator that the yolk has putrefied as is congealing of the mixture in the jar. It should be stored in a fridge. Some writers suggest the use of preservatives to lengthen the lifetime of the emulsion. However, these chemicals and acids may have a reaction with certain pigments, such as ultramarine and the cadmiums, and may attack the ground. Since the emulsion is simple to prepare it is easily replaced.

8. Overpainting: Just prior to use, equal parts of colour paste and egg yolk emulsion are mixed together on a palette. A white palette provides the greatest accuracy for mixing colours intended for use in the painting. The paint is mixed only as needed because it dries rapidly when exposed to air.

Different pigments will require varying amounts of egg emulsion to be 'tempered' correctly. For instance, ultramarine blue is very ’egg thirsty’, while zinc white requires very little egg. The only accurate way of checking the tempering is to try a couple of strokes on a test area of the panel, another panel or an absorbent piece of watercolour paper. If the stroke has a dull gloss when held to the light, the tempering is adequate. If the overall effect is dull, run a finger over it to test. If pigment lifts off onto the finger, the mixture is under-tempered. Correct this by adding more emulsion, and test again. If it is greasy, or very shiny, it may be over-tempered. In this case, add more pigment paste. Once the balance is achieved, more water may be added to the whole to thin out the colour.

It's imperative to get the tempering correct. This is the real trick to tempera painting. Properly tempered pigment paste will dry to an even sheen over the whole surface of the work. The overpainting is built up gradually with thin strokes and glazes. The general rule is to build up darks with transparent layers and lights with translucent and opaque body colours (i.e. white or colours to which white has been added. Heavy-handed use of white can result in chalkiness. Reserving the white of the ground for the highest lights is another alternative. These may be modified in colour with thin glazes.

Traditionally, painting is done with soft hair brushes i.e. sable or, currently, nylon. These are washed out with soap and warm water, after painting, to preserve the hairs. Several approaches to developing a brushstroke are recommended. Classically, cross-hatching was used for tempera painting. This method assures the passage of light through the paint, as tiny interstices of ground will appear through the brushstrokes. Single strokes in one direction achieve good results, especially if the direction of the strokes follows the contours of the object being modelled in paint. This direction may be varied in consecutive applications; however, care must be taken not to go over the same area too quickly before it has dried. Time must be allowed for some setting up of the paint film or the undercoating of paint will be lifted by successive strokes.

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Each stroke dries within a few seconds of application, and cannot be easily modified by physical blending with adjacent strokes. Some experience is needed to adjust the loading of the brush. First the brush is fully loaded. Then, some of the paint is squeezed out against the edge of the palette, or dabbed onto a tissue or cloth. It is advisable to have an evenly loaded brush throughout the painting process. This will result in a uniform, translucent paint film. If the brush is overloaded, the result may be an opaque, chalky, pasty film, or small dots of excess pigment will well up at the beginning or end of a brushstroke and look like tails.

For those who wish to follow it, a precise method of mixing colour with a range of black to white tonal values, as described by Cennini, may be found in the Thompson book. Also, the classical method of arriving at flesh tones, by working up from a green base, is fully described. These systems construct form out of local colour only. It may be of interest to some to reproduce this methodology.

There is some evidence that washes were used, traditionally, as well. Correct loading of the brush creates a successful wash. Large brushes will carry more liquid. Enough colour should be premixed for the entire area to be washed. Even, broad strokes are laid down side by side, but not overlapping. Overlapping will cause lifting of the paint from the previous brushstroke, and leave a stripe behind.

A wash may be floated into a small puddle of water and gently pushed around with the tip of a brush, but this puddle takes longer to dry than normal. Often, results will be better if a number of strokes or washes are built up to achieve the desired effect rather than by attempting to achieve an effect immediately. A.P.Laurie, describing Cennini's technique, says that the pigment has to be laid on very thin, that each layer must have time to dry, and that the amount of egg yolk present must be’ neither too much nor too little’.

Egg tempera's uniqueness is partly due to the fact that many more strokes of paint can be superimposed, without the painting losing its freshness, than can be in most other media. The colour and form of the very first layers of paint retain their effect on subsequent layers. Brushstrokes retain a luminous clarity. As the painting slowly builds up, the optical effect of the superimposition of semi-transparent colours provides a richness and subtlety that characterises the best works in the medium.

It is a medium with particular appeal to those who love drawing as a process since the qualities of drawing are so readily interpreted through egg tempera.

Note: Erasures may be achieved with a single-edged razor blade or fine sandpaper once the paint film has set and is not too gummy. Filling in spots where this has been done is tricky, fidgety and time-consuming. It is often as easy to take out the whole surface of an object, or area in the composition, for reworking than it is to rework a little patch of it. The whole painting may be washed, or scraped, off to start again.

9. Varnishing: Initially, egg tempera dries through water evaporation. At this point, the paint film is soft, and easily damaged by scuffing or wetting. Care must be taken with the surface until the oil content slowly begins to harden with time. For uniformity of paint film and its protection, the finished painting should be coated with an even film of egg yolk emulsion. This may be done at any stage of the work, as well, to even out the overall paint film. If a picture is correctly painted in egg tempera, it can be polished with a soft rag at the end resulting in an eggshell gloss over the surface. Tempera surfaces may be burnished (polished) with an agate to add depth, brilliance, and to increase transparency.

Normally, after a year, an egg tempera painting will be completely set, and ready for the final varnish. Picture varnish serves as a protective coating, and produces a uniform finish that reflects light evenly from the surface. Allow two to three days for drying.

ALTERNATIVE TECHNIQUES IN EGG TEMPERA PAINTING: Another approach to egg tempera painting technique is advocated by Robert Vickerey. He outlines techniques to create three- dimensional depth. There is no underpainting, per se, but layers of transparent, translucent, and semi-opaque paint.

Glazing: A layer of transparent colour is laid over a dry coat of another colour, which is lighter in value, and more 83 opaque. Scumbling: A semi-opaque layer of light colour is applied over a dry layer of a darker colour, usually opaque. A scumble is a light-coloured veil, partially obscuring the underlying colour. Texture: Splatters, drips, dabs and taps, slathers, stipples, sponging, drybrushing, blots, scratches, scrapes, and sandpapering. Using brushes, knives (palette and others), sponges cut into various sizes and shapes, cheesecloth, and masks cut out to protect areas of the work from successive work in other areas. However, these are representations of texture since the medium does not build up well as a texturing material in itself.

Another clear alternative approach is demonstrated in Paul Klee's experimental works in mixed, media including egg tempera. The artist often utilised a textured ground to start with, either built up with a chalk gesso on muslin, cheesecloth, burlap, and other fabrics, or incised, collaged, or otherwise manipulated by the artist in the prepainting stage. He often applied egg tempera as a glaze in multiple layers to achieve a stained glass-like effect. Drawing was often done in another medium in conjunction with the egg tempera.

18) ENCAUSTIC - PAINTING WITH WAX

Encaustic (from the Greek burnt in) is a method of fixing pigments to a support with heated wax. Easel painting (as opposed to painting on walls) is primarily a ‘modern’ concept (post-Giotto). Encaustics were, essentially, the first ‘easel paintings’: free from the wall, portable and lightweight. Hot process encaustic paint dries immediately. A work may be completed in one sitting. The surface is hardy and easily transported. A painting may be hung right away. It has a lustrous finish that can be manipulated, polished, or left matte. It need not be varnished since no oxidization occurs and no yellowing results. Wax is moisture resistant. It must not be exposed, however, to extreme heat that can cause the paint to soften, or to intense cold, which can cause the paint to crack. A work is permanent and impervious to decay or other types of damage common in many other traditional painting media.

Historical Background

See Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great Schools and Masters, Sir Charles Eastlake, originally published in 1847 for accounts of wax painting recorded by Vitruvius (40 B.C.), Pliny (ca. 23 –79 A.D.), by 14th century artists, and by Sir Joshua Reynolds writing between 1766 and 1781.

Over 2000 years ago, Egyptian paintings in the Valley of Babel-Meloot, Thebes and at other sites were executed with a medium made with beeswax, naphtha and resins. The Fayum (Faiyum) mummy portraits were discovered in the mid-19th century and date from 1 B.C. to 3 A.D. These naturalistic portraits, painted with ground pigments suspended in molten wax and brushed onto thin wood panels, were affixed to the mummy within the sarcophagus. They may be seen in museums throughout the world and are notable for their highly controlled brushwork and still vivid colour.

Greek and Roman tablet paintings (encaustic on slate and other materials) were very popular after the time of Alexander the Great, according to classical chroniclers. Pliny attributed the invention of encaustic painting to Aristides in the 4th century B.C. and claimed it reached its perfection through Praxiteles. But Elasippus wrote about Polygnotus and other painters using the wax medium a century earlier. It is believed that early Romans and Greeks used a hard pointed tool called a cestrum rather than brushes and the molten wax was kept in clay pots (cauterium) over burning charcoal. Pigments mixed with melted beeswax were brushed onto stone or plaster, smoothed with a metal spatula, then blended, and driven into the wall with a heated iron. The 84 surface was later polished with a cloth.

Native North American used an encaustic method whereby pigments mixed with hot animal fat were pressed into a design engraved on smooth buffalo hide.

Encaustic enjoyed widespread use until the development of solvents, which led to the development of oil paints. The great Renaissance master of experimental methodology, Leonardo da Vinci, attempted unsuccessfully to revive the technique. Until the 18th century encaustic seemed to be a lost art. Count Caylus (Phillippe Claude de Tubieres) began a revival of the medium for mural painters. Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723- 1792) and Arnold Bocklin (1827-1901) both used encaustics. Vincent Van Gogh used a form of encaustic mixed with solvent to give body to his oil pigment. Numerous 20th century artists rediscovered the medium: Diego Rivera, Jasper Johns, Brice Marden, Michelle Stuart, etc. Modern painters, such as Picasso, Klee, Gorky, and Hockney have also used coloured wax crayons. Canadian artist Tony Schermann is, perhaps, our most noted practitioner.

Material:

Beeswax has been commonly used, however the worldwide shortage of bees has drastically affected the price driving it up to levels that significantly impact upon production costs. As a result, synthetic waxes have become ever more popular and available. Beeswax and synthetic waxes are compatible.

The wax used by most contemporary practitioners, as well as at OCAD, is a synthetic petroleum by-product called microcrystalline, also used in darker colours for mold making. The wax used for painting appears white, yellow, or light brown when cool, affecting the final colour to various degrees. No wax is completely clear and colourless. Colours dry differently than they appear wet.

The qualities of microcrystalline compared to beeswax are:

a) It is relatively clear when dry, as opposed to unbleached beeswax, which is golden or brown, affecting colour outcome to a greater degree. b) It has no bleach in it, unlike bleached beeswax that is clear but gives off toxic chlorine vapours when over - heated. c) It melts at a lower temperature than beeswax, which makes it safer on the skin if there is splattering. d) It stays molten longer than beeswax, which permits slightly longer brushstroke manipulation when painting.

Commercially prepared mediums that are blends of petroleum and other waxes are available at significant cost, as are prepared cold wax pastes and pre-mixed pigment with wax in bars, discs and sticks. Most artists use one wax only or make their own blends of wax. Making coloured wax, by mixing oil paint or coloured pigments with liquid wax in the studio, is the most economical way to work.

There are various forms of cold and hot encaustic:

1) COLD WAX EMULSION: This is used to make oil colours thicker and more matte. Artists, including Jasper Johns and Brice Marden, have used these qualities to achieve unique effects. A variety of formulas may be used, but the most common is a soft beeswax paste prepared with mineral spirits mixed with dammar varnish or alkyd resin in a double boiler. As a result, the mixture is highly flammable and its vapours are toxic. Do not overheat during preparation, or reheat later. Burning in is not required to fuse the finished surface. Use adequate ventilation. The following are various cold wax emulsions that require preparation in advance. Once the emulsion is made, it is mixed with coloured pigment ground in 85 linseed oil or tube oil colours.

See the book Formulas for Painters by Robert Massey for a larger selection of wax grounds, mediums, varnishes, and sealers.

Wax emulsion #1: use as paint, a final coat for other paintings, or to thicken oil paints

Materials: - 1 part wax (either beeswax or microcrystalline) - 3 parts OMS

Process:

1. Combine and heat the ingredients (NOT over an open flame), until the wax has melted. 2. Stir the solution while it cools to a soft paste. Never leave this unattended while heating. 3. To use, mix the paste thoroughly with dry pigments, pigment paste or tube oils and apply with a painting knife or brush to a support. 4. A heat lamp or other heat source can be used to melt the paint surface at any point. 5. Normally dries in 30 minutes.

Wax emulsion #2: a thick impasto medium

Materials: - 2 parts wax - 4 parts dammar varnish or alkyd resin - 1 part OMS Process:

1. Combine all ingredients and heat (NOT over an open flame), until the wax has melted. 2. Remove from heat and stir until the solution cools to a paste. 3. Use as above, or dilute further with spirits. 4. A thin coat dries in a ! hour.

Wax emulsion #3: thick, buttery but light consistency

Materials: - 4 parts wax - 1 part dammar varnish or alkyd resin - 1 part sun-thickened linseed oil - 2 parts OMS Process:

1. As above. 2. Sets immediately and dries in half an hour.

Wax emulsion #4: good for quick sketching

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- 8 parts wax - 1 part dammar varnish or alkyd resin - 1 part sun-thickened linseed oil - 10 parts OMS Process:

1. As above 2. Also makes a soft, low lustre, final varnish.

Wax emulsion #5: to make a hard, dry encaustic cake for storage

Materials: - 8 parts wax - 1 part dammar varnish or alkyd resin - 1 part sun-thickened linseed oil Process:

Prepare as above. When melted take a sheet of aluminium foil and fold the edges to a double thickness to form a shallow pan. Pour the mixture in. When hard, remove the mixture from the foil and break into convenient sizes for storage or use. Reheat and melt, mix with pigment or paint and apply to a support. More spirits may be added to form a paste or a painting medium.

1) HOT WAX/ ENCAUSTIC:

Characteristics of the Hot Wax Process:

a) The medium produces a unique result comparable to stained glass with its dense, almost remote radiance. Colours used in a glaze are like a coloured mist: neither the vehicle nor the paint is in physical evidence. Used as an impasto its depth, purity, and lustre resemble semi-precious stones b) It dries instantly, allowing for the quick build up of successive layers of paint film. c) Colours are brighter, richer, deeper, and more lustrous than in other quick-drying media, such as acrylics and watercolours. d) Colour is suspended in self-contained, unique layers, which prevents muddy visual effects. e) There is virtually no limit to the number of layers possible; barring weight (wax is heavy). f) An excellent collage medium, it allows for the introduction of text, typography, other two-dimensional imagery, or low-relief materials. g) Solvents are not required. h) It doesn't crack, chip, yellow, darken, succumb to water damage, or other hazards associated with many paint mediums.

Equipment:

Encaustic equipment varies according to the individual artist. One common, and simple, set-up consists of tin cans set in an electric frying pan of melted wax. Avoid direct contact with an open flame due to the extreme flammability of the wax. The heat must be regulated to prevent the pigment and wax from separating or smoking. Smoking wax gives off harmful vapours. Raise the temperature to melt the wax but lower it when keeping the wax warm.

Electric frying pans, griddles, heating trays or an electric hotplate with a cookie sheet set above on bricks will 87 keep the wax in a melted state for painting. Chilling wax in a refrigerator or freezer makes it easier to break into pieces for melting. An electric heat knife, soldering or wood-burning tools will burn into the wax creating effects when manipulating the painting surface.

Supports and Grounds:

Use flexible or rigid supports: canvas or board, metal or paper, two-dimensional or three-dimensional surfaces, etc. Paint is most stable when laid directly on a clean, raw, grease-free surface. No gesso or sizing is required and, in fact, is not recommended because each is insufficiently porous to bond with wax. To reduce absorbency, seal the surface of the substrate with a layer or more of hot wax. The transparency of the medium makes it possible to retain the colour and texture of the surface as part of the image. Once primed with wax, charcoal and other sketching media will not readily adhere to the surface, but will be sealed in if present on the surface previously.

Materials:

- dry pigments, pigment pastes, tube oils - melted wax - heat source (burner, electric frying pan, etc.) - separate tins for each colour or a muffin tin - bristle brushes, metal palette knives - pot holders, oven mitts, rags, paper towels - burning in tool: heat gun, propane blowtorch, iron etc. - receptive, non-gessoed supports

Process: Wax has many applications. These notes address painting methodology.

Colours are mixed with melted wax and kept molten over a heat source. Pigment tends to settle in the bottom of the container. If this happens, stir regularly to regain even suspension. Once cooled and hardened, colours may be stored in their containers indefinitely. They do not ‘go bad’.

Most oil painting techniques are possible with encaustic: thin transparent glazing, scumbling, heavy impasto or other types of texturing. The colour can be applied with painting knives or with bristle brushes, not synthetic brushes such as acrylic or nylon that will melt.

The paint hardens on the tool or brush in moments and on the painting instantly. When the brush hardens it can be pressed against the hot palette to re-soften it or dipped into more hot wax. Use a separate brush for each colour if clean colour is required. Otherwise the used brush can be dipped in clear wax and then wiped clean on a paper towel or rag. Brushes don't have to be cleaned after working, although their handles can get gummy if not wiped and scraped. They can be reheated the next time in the hot wax. Do not put wax residue down the sink.

Some artists work with the painting surface horizontal to prevent dripping. Others work with the canvas or board vertical on an easel or wall and incorporate the drip effect into the image.

Basic painting is done with one colour at a time. Blending is done optically on the surface or by premixing colours on the heated palette. A paint film layer can be applied to another right away. Very hot wax will melt the paint underneath it. It may be desirable to partly melt through an underlayer, or to put a cooler, thicker layer on for textural effects.

Transparencies or glazes result from adding less pigment to the wax. Use opaque pigments (such as cerulean blue, chrome oxide green, yellow ochre, many of the cadmiums, etc.) or white mixed into other pigments for opaque affects. Opaque colours may be 'floated' onto more transparent colour underneath to achieve depth just as lighter colours may be scumbled onto darker colours.

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Too much pigment in the wax is wasteful and makes a stiff mixture that goes hard on the brush immediately This impedes manipulation or significantly slows setting time (if oil paint is used to excess.) A good guideline is to use only as much pigment/oil colour as required to achieve the optical effect required. Add gradually and test as you mix.

Stencils may be cut out, placed on the surface and brushed over with the hot wax. Masking tape adheres to the surface and lifts off later without a trace.

Materials can be collaged in with a coat of clear or coloured wax. Thin paper i.e. newsprint becomes transparent in hot wax. Cooler wax prevents this effect. Fresh ink i.e. newspaper surfaces can be transferred onto wax. Metallics or foils, sands, stones, string, straw or other textural materials can be applied with wet wax.

Oil or acrylic, ink or gouache, etc. may be painted onto a surface layer of wax at any point in the work but they will “crawl” on the wax surface. They must be sealed in with wax afterwards to form any bond. If painting was over water-based media ensure that the work is thoroughly dry. Trapping moisture behind wax will guarantee cracking and/or a compromised paint structure.

Fat areas of oil should be dry before sealing. Fully dried oil paintings, or paintings in other media, may be painted over with wax although the surface should be abraded first (with sandpaper) to assure adhesion.

The cooled surface may be scraped or incised with other tools as desired.

'Burning in' (the literal meaning of the word encaustic) is considered essential to adhesion and permanence. Individual brush or knife marks are fused into a uniform film by either the next layer of hot wax or by passing a heat source over the painting to melt the top surface onto the under layers. This insures a full bond.

To fuse the top surface or under layers, some artists use a propane blowtorch set at a low flame. Others use non-steam electric irons. Heat lamps or electric heaters have been used. A hairdryer is generally not hot enough and will blow the wax around. However, a heat gun (for stripping paint) is the easiest tool. The heat source is held above the horizontal support until the surface liquefies (becomes glossy or even fluid.) It is possible to scorch or burn through the substrate. Heated spatulas, electric irons, or wood-burning tools can be laid directly on the paint to fuse or manipulate the surface.

Fusing, or burning in, occurs at any point to blend or melt colours together. Raising or lowering the heat source over the paint surface controls the degree of melting. Wax forms set into the surface should be burned in to insure permanent fusing. The final step is often burning in however, each practice differs and fusing naturally occurs with each application of hot wax to the surface below.

Scraping into the wax layers with tools at varying degrees of coolness, or re-heating the surface of the wax, will result in immediate changes.

If required, buff the surface after it has completely cooled, with a lint-free cloth to create an even sheen or lustre. An encaustic painting may be reworked after fusing and polishing.

To clean a cured, tack-free (which can take from 1 day to 1 year depending on methods used) wax painting, wipe with a water-dampened cloth lint-free cloth. Polish with a dry lint-free cloth.

Health and Safety:

A) Use encaustic in a ventilated space. Wax mediums with solvent and resin content require excellent ventilation. B) Have a fire extinguisher available in the studio in case of emergency. C) Cover your arms and legs to prevent your skin from being splattered with hot wax. D) Never work with a direct open flame under the wax i.e. a gas stove, due to its flammability. E) Don’t overheat the wax to smoking point. F) Use the propane blowtorch and other heated tools and implements sensibly.

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19) Varnishing:

A varnish is a thin layer between the paint film and the atmosphere applied when the paint film is thoroughly dry. It should be transparent, colourless, and form a good bond with the dried paint film, but be removable without affecting the paint in any way. The varnish should protect the paint film from dust and dirt, oxygen and moisture. The addition of ultra-violet absorbers and stabilizers to the varnish may act as a filter, protecting the paint from the effects of light. It should have good chemical and water resistance. This varies according to its permeability. Depending on the substrate and environmental conditions, it must be formulated with the correct porosity to either allow moisture to pass through or provide a moisture barrier. It must be sufficiently elastic or flexible to prevent cracking if the support expands and contracts (as with canvas) and be tack-free. It must allow for ease of cleaning the surface and place the minimum stress on the paint layer. And it must possess excellent clarity, without discoloration or fogging.

Adding varnish as a top layer to paintings saturates the colours and intensifies the transparency of glazes. It may be used to change the surface sheen, making the surface more matte or higher gloss. It may provide various areas of the painting with a more unified finish and may be used to consolidate the art work, similar to fixative for charcoal or pastel.

Varnish is applied only after the painting is completely dry. Oils and egg temperas take up to a full year depending on the thickness of the paint. Acrylics should be given about 3 months for total drying. Encaustic works are not varnished.

Materials:

Varnish solvents: Solvent-type varnishes dry by solvent loss or evaporation. The varnish film becomes touch-dry before all the solvent is lost.

Varnish resins: Damar: The natural resin dammar is relatively non-viscous when dissolved in turpentine, which means that it brushes easily and wets the surface well. This makes it very glossy and enables it to saturate colours, especially dark ones, giving them greater depth. The alcoholic and ketonic components of the dammar cause gradual oxidation. Mastic and copal: These are other natural resins of low viscosity, which exhibits similar characteristics are regarded as inferior to dammar. All will eventually begin to yellow. Shellac, another natural resin, darkens considerably.

Cold wax mediums: If it contains no oil, this may be used as a wax varnish over a dry oil painting. Apply a thin layer using a lint-free cloth is a circular motion over the surface. Wait approximately 24 hours and then buff the painting to the desired sheen. It is easily removed with OMS. Paintings in cold or hot wax mediums require no varnishing but may be buffed.

Most of the natural resins have now been replaced by modern synthetic alternatives.

Acrylic varnish: Varnish is recommended on all acrylic paintings, as a finishing coat, to protect paint film and create uniform surface shine. Acrylic paintings breathe. In time, the microscopic holes and spaces in the paint film can allow moisture, dirt, grease, smoke, and general pollution to penetrate the paint. Acrylic paint, being a thermoplastic polymer, tends to soften under conditions of high temperature and/or high humidity. A varnish that is harder than the paint reduces this effect and provides a layer for cleaning. It is recommended that an intermediary layer of gloss gel thinned 2:1 with water be applied as an intermediary layer prior to varnishing.

While it is milky in appearance, acrylic varnish dries clear. Available in matte/low luster, gloss/ high luster, high gloss, and satin finishes, acrylic varnishes may be mixed to produce other finishes.

Synthetic resin varnish: New formulations such as low molecular weight varnishes (Gamblin’s GamVar) and high 90 molecular weight varnishes (Golden’s MSA Varnish do not yellow and remain easy to remove. GamVar has a refractive index similar to dammar natural resin varnish and will provide greater gloss and saturation. Its high shine can be taken down OMS (up to 50%). and can be diluted with 5 parts OMS to one part varnish to create a retouch varnish for later overpainting. MSA tends to offer a better protective surface, has greater elasticity and more resistance to blooming.

Process:

Applying Varnishing to Acrylic and Oil Paintings: Apply varnish only when the paint is completely dry. Paint thickness will determine drying time, but to be certain for most acrylic paint films seven days drying time is recommended before using a protective varnish.

Ideally, varnish in a clean, warm, dry, ventilated room or out of doors. Excessive humidity, or cool temperatures, may result in bloom, a whiteness or opacity resulting from moisture trapped between layers. The surface of the painting must be clean, grease- and dust-free; the paint must be absolutely dry. Lay the substrate flat and apply the first coat of varnish thinly with an airbrush, spray gun, atomizer, or a flat, wide, soft hairbrush. A clean varnishing brush should be kept for this purpose alone.

Allow the solution to come to room temperature and dilute only enough to allow easy flow. Brush the solution vertically first and apply a second coat on the horizontal, only when the first coat is thoroughly dry. Excessive brushing breaks up the surface as the varnish begins to set, producing a semi-matte appearance or clouding. Clouding affects dark colours first.

Uneven painting surfaces will result in uneven absorption of the varnish.

If spraying, wear a protective mask and work in a well-ventilated area. Maintain uniform distance from the surface and spray 3 or 4 light even coats instead of 1 or 2 thicker applications, allowing enough time for the surface to dry tack-free between coats.

Once the varnish has set enough so that it doesn't run, dry the work at an angle to the wall with the image facing inward to avoid dust settling onto it while the varnish dries.

Let varnish cure for several days before packing or transporting art. Avoid contact of the surface with packing materials and never stack paintings, whether varnished or not.

20) BIBLIOGRAPHIES: Please note: Many of these books have been instrumental in the preparation of these notes and are available at the O.C.A.D. library.

Library call no.

GENERAL

N5300K4 Kissick, John. Art, context and criticism. 2nd edition. McGraw-Hill, 1996.

ND195 V47 Tomma Abts, Franz Ackerman, Nader Ahriman et al. Vitamin P: new perspectives in REF. painting. Phaidon, 2002.

PAINTING

ND1535B52 Blake, Wendon. Complete guide to acrylic painting. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1971.

Bell, Julian. What is painting? Representation and modern art. London, Thames and Hudson, 1999. 91

ND1570B67 Bowman, Bruce. Shaped canvas. N.Y., Sterling Pub. Co., 1967.

NK130 C35 Cennini, Cennino. The craftsman's handbook. Trans. by Daniel V. Thompson, new ed. N.Y., Dover, 1958.

Chaet, Bernard. An artist’s notebook: techniques and materials. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1979.

ND1480C42 ______. Artists at work. Cambridge, Mass., Webb Books Inc., 1960.

ND1500C65 Constable, W.G. The painter's workshop. London, Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford U. Press, 1954.

ND1480C64 Cooke, Hereward L. Painting techniques of the old masters. N.Y., Watson- Guptill, 1972.

VC4562 ColArt Americas Inc. Understanding artists' brushes and how to choose the brush that's right for you. 1993.

ND1500D63 Doerner, Max. The materials of the artist and their use in painting (with notes on the techniques of the old masters). Rev. ed. N.Y., Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962.

ND1505E26 Eastlock, Chas. Lock. Methods and materials of painting of the great schools and masters vols. i and ii New York, Dover, 1966.

ND1135E45 Elkins, James What painting is. New York/London, Routledge, 2000

ND1510A56 Feller, Rbt. L, ed. Artists' pigments. Cambridge, Cambridge U. Press, 1986.

ND1500G37 Gettens, R.J. & Stout, G.L. Painting materials: a short encyclopaedia. QUICK REF. N.Y., Dover, 1966 ND1500G57 Gottsegen, Mark D. A manual of painting materials and techniques. N.Y., Harper & Row, 1987.

ND1471G7 Green, Jean Drysdale. Arteffects. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1993.

ND1535G87 Gutierrez, Jose L. Painting with acrylics. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1966.

ND1500H27 Hayes, Colin. The complete guide to painting and drawing techniques and materials. N.Y., Gallery Books, 1981

N 8530H32 Hebblewith, Ian. Artists' materials. Oxford, Phaidon, 1986.

ND1500H36 Herberts, Kurt. The complete book of artists' techniques. N.Y., F.A. Praeger, 1958.

ND1471 H6 Hockney, David. Secret knowledge: rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters. New York (State): Viking Studio, 2001.

Horn, Michael B. Acrylic Resins. New York: Reinhold, 1960.

92

ND1535J35 Jensen, Lawrence N. Synthetic painting media. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall Inc., 1964.

ND1475K3 Kemp, Martin. The science of art: optical themes in western art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. New Haven, CT, Yale U. Press, 1990.

ND1500L27 Laurie, A.P. The painter's methods and materials. N.Y., Dover, 1967.

ND2480M2 Matterra, Joanne. The art of encaustic painting: contemporary expression in the ancient medium of pigmented wax. New York, Watson Guptill, 2001

ND1505 M26 Massey, Robert. Formulas for painters. Watson-Guptill Publications, 1967.

ND1500M28 Mayer, Ralph. The artist's handbook of materials and techniques. 4th ed., N.Y., Viking, 1981.

ND1500M27 ______. The painter's craft. 3rd ed., N.Y., Viking, 1975.

Merrifield, M.P. The medieval and renaissance treatises on the arts of painting. N.Y., Dover, 1967.

Moravetz, Herbert. Polymer: The Origins of a Science. New York: Wiley, 1985.

Pratt, Francis & Fizell, Becca. Encaustic: materials and methods. N.Y., Lear Pub, 1949.

ND1535 Q84 Quiller, Stephen. Acrylic painting techniques. New York (State): Watson-Guptill, 1994.

N8530S23 Saitzyk, Steven L. Art hardware. New York, Watson-Guptill, 1987.

N8530S54 Smith, Ray. The artist's handbook. New York, Alfred N. Knopf, 1987.

N34S64 . An introduction to art techniques. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.

ND1500 T2 Taubes, Frederic. Studio secrets. Watson-Guptill, 1943.

. Painting materials and techniques. New York, Watson-Guptill, 1964.

ND1471T32 Techniques of the great masters of art. David A. Anfam (and others). London, Chartwell Books, 1985.

ND1480T32 Techniques of the world's great painters. Ed. by Waldemar Januszczak, Secaucus, N.J., 1980.

Applied Polymer Science. American Chemical Society: Washington, D.C., 1985.

ND2470T46 Thompson, Daniel V. The practice of tempera painting. New Haven, CT., Yale U. Press, 1936.

ND1471T36 ______. The materials and techniques of medieval painting. N.Y., Dover, 1956. 93

Turner, G.P.A. Introduction to paint chemistry and principles of paint technology. 3rd. ed., London, Chapman and Hall, 1988.

ND2468V42 Vickerey, Robert. New techniques in egg tempera. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1973.

ND1510W32 Weber, F.W. Artists’ pigments. Philadelphia, PA., Van Nostrand Co., 1923.

ND1500W33 Wehlte, Kurt. The materials and techniques of painting. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975.

ND1535W65 Woody, Russell 0. Painting with synthetic media. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.

ND1535W66 Workman, Harold. An introduction to polymer painting. London: Blandford, 1967.

COLOUR

ND1493A4A4 Albers, Joseph. Interaction of colour. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1963.

ND1488 B2 Ball, Philip. Bright earth: art and the invention of color. New York (State): Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.

Batchelor, David. Chromophobia. London, Reaktion, 2000.

QUICK REF Buckley, Mary. Colour theory; a guide to information sources. Detroit, ND1485B72 Gale Research, 1978.

ND1488 G2 C6 Gage, John. Color and meaning: art, science, and symbolism. California: University of California Press, 1999.

ND1493C4C4 Chevreul, M.E. The principles of harmony and contrast of colours and their application to the arts. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981.

ND1492D De Grandis, Luigina. Theory and use of colour. N.Y., Harry N. Abrams, 1984.

ND1488 F4 Finlay, Victoria. Colour: travels through the paintbox. Sceptre, 2002.

QC353G62 Goethe, Johann W. von. Theory of colours. Trans. by Chas. Lock Eastlake, London, F.Cass, 1967.

Hall, Marcia. Colour and meaning: practice and theory in Renaissance painting. Cambridge University Press, 1992.

ND1493I7B4 Itten, Johannes. The elements of colour. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970.

ND1475K3 Kemp, Martin. The science of art: optical themes in western art from Brunelleschi to Seurat. New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1990.

94

ND1488K7 Kuehni, Rolf G. Color: essence and logic. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983.

ND1493M8 Munsell, Albert A. A colour notation. 12th ed., Baltimore, Munsell Colour Co., 1946. REF

ND1488O62 Osborne, Roy. Lights and pigments, colour principles for artists. London, John Murray, 1980.

ND1493O8 Ostwald, Wilhelm. The colour primer; a basic treatise on the colour system of Wilhelm Ostwald. Ed. by Faber Birren, N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.

ND1488P7 Primary sources: selected writings on color from Aristotle to Albers. Ed. by Patricia Sloane, New York, Design Press, 1991.

ND1490 R63 Rodrigue, George and Bruce Goldstone. Why is blue dog blue? a tale of colors. New York (State): Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 2001.

ND1489S25 Salemme, Lucia A. Colour exercises for the painter. New York, Watson-Guptill, 1970.

ND1488S42 Sidelinger, Stephen J. Color manual. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1985.

ND1510W2 Walch, Margaret & Hope, Augustine. Living colour, the definitive guide to color palettes through the ages. San Francisco, CA., Chronicle Books, 1995.

ND1488Z8 Zwimmer, Moritz. Color, light, sight, sense: an elementary theory of color in pictures. West Chester, PA, Schiffer Pub. Co., 1988.

COLLAGE/ASSEMBLAGE AND COPYART

TR350A65 Arnow, Jan. Handbook of alternative photographic processes. N.Y., Van REF Nostrand, Reinhold, 1982.

ND2490B64 Brigadier, Anne. Collage: a complete guide for artists. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1970.

N6495C6D4 Digby, John. The collage handbook. N.Y., Thames and Hudson, 1985.

TR470F46 Firpo, Patrick. Copyart: the first complete guide to the copy machine. N.Y., Horseguard Lane Productions for R. Marek, 1978.

TT905P6G3 Geary, Ida. Plant prints & collages. N.Y., Viking Press, 1978.

N6888H5H25 Hoch, Hannah. Collages; Hannah Hoch. Stuttgart, The Institute of Arts, 1978.

N69C6 Hoffman, Katherine. Ed. Collage: critical views. Ann Arbor, Mich., UMI Research Press, 1989.

TR715H67 House, Suda. Artistic photographic processes. N.Y., Amphoto Books, 1981.

95

N6495C6H76 Hutton, Helen. The technique of collage. N.Y., Watson-Guptill, 1968.

N6495L25 LaLiberté, Norman. Collage, montage, assemblage: history and contemporary techniques. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971.

N6495L2 Larbalestier, Simon. The art & craft of collage. San Francisco, Chronicle Books, 1995.

N6495L3 Leland, Nita. Creative collage techniques. Cincinnati, Northern Lights Books, 1994.

ND2490L8 Lynch, John. How to make collages. N.Y., Viking Press, 1961.

QC171S24 Materials; a Scientific American book. San Francisco, W.H.Freeman, 1967.

NH500I46 McCray, Marilyn. Electroworks. International Museum of Photography at George Eastman House, 1979.

ND2490M22 McConnell, Gerald. Assemblage: 3-D picture making. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1976.

N6495C6M5 McKechnie; Christine. Paper collage: painted paper pictures. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, Search Press, 1995.

NH500M3 Medium, photocopie: copigraphie canadienne at allemande. Montreal, Editions de la Nouvelle barre de jour, 1989.

TR350N37 Nettles, Bea. Breaking the rules: a photomedia cookbook. Inky Press Productions, Illinois, 1992.

N6495P63 Poggi, Christine. In defiance of painting: Cubism, Futurism, and the invention of collage. New Haven, Yale U. Press, 1992.

N6495A6S34 Seitz, Wm. Chapin. The art of assemblage. N.Y., Museum of Modern Art, distributed by Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 1961.

N66495W36 Wersher, Herta. Collage. N.Y., Abrams, 1971. REF.

ND2490W55 Wolfram, Eddie. History of collage: an anthology of collage, assemblage and event structures. London, Studio Vista, 1975.

HEALTH & SAFETY

RA564.9 S2 Health and Welfare Canada. The safer arts: the health hazards of arts and crafts materials. 1990.

RA564.9 M22 McCann, Michael. Artist beware. Lyons & Burford, 1993.

96

RA564.9 R6 Rossol, Monona. The artist's complete health and safety guide, second edition: [everything you need to know about art materials to make your workplace safe and comply with United States and Canadian right-to-know laws]. Allworth Press, c1994.

ND1505 S33 Seeger, Nancy. A painter's guide to the safe use of materials. Art Institute of Chicago, 1982.

RA564.9 S72 Spandorfer, Merle. Making art safely: alternatives in drawing, painting, printmaking, graphic design, and photograph. Van Nostrand Reinhold, c1993.

VC1420 The National Art Materials Trade Association. The safe and successful use of art materials. 1986.

OTHER

N7430 M34 Meilach, Dona Z. Creating art from anything; ideas, materials, techniques. Reilly & Lee, 1968

ND1505S77 Studley, Vance. Making artists’ tools. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979.

ND1510T36 Thomas, Anne Wall. Colors from the earth: the artist’s guide to collecting, preparing, and using them. N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.

NC915 M4 W7 Wright, Michael. An introduction to mixed media. Prentice-Hall Canada, 1995.

21) CARE IN HANDLING ARTIST'S MATERIALS

The proper choice of gloves, masks, respirators and other safety gear is an important matter. Your materials supplier should be able to tell you what types of protection are required. A partial list of items to consider on protective gear:

• Select quality products suitable for the task you intend to perform and the materials you intend to use. • No protective glove is impermeable to everything. Select the correct glove for the techniques and materials being used. People have or can develop allergies to latex gloves. • Make sure protective gear is properly fitted. An air gap around the edge of a dust mask is an obvious sign that it doesn’t fit properly. Some protective gear requires proper fitting and yearly fit testing by qualified personnel; take such recommendations seriously. • Learn how to properly put your dust mask or respirator on and how to take it off. • Online searches reveal several sources for masks and respirators; for example the U.S. Department of Labor OSHA web page on Respiratory Protection, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Respirator Fact Sheet (subtitled “What You Should Know in Deciding Whether to Buy Escape Hoods, Gas Masks, or Other Respirators for Preparedness at Home and Work”), and etc. • Commercial sources for particular types of masks or respirators can easily be found with search engines once you have identified the make and model required. • Keep protective gear properly cleaned and maintained. • Store your gear in a suitable location away from toxic materials. • Maintain your gear per manufacturer’s instructions. • Don’t re-use items meant for one time use. • Protective gear degrades over time. Replace it per manufacturer’s instructions. 97

• Err on the side of caution. • Be aware of any cross contamination issues (i.e. – don’t handle your dust mask or rub your forehead with contaminated gloves). • Dispose of protective gear per manufacturer’s instructions. If they are not clean, treat them as hazardous waste.

Use common sense when working with materials. A partial list of items to consider:

• Read the label. • Read the label and become aware of what the terminology and references mean. • Learn what should be on the label, but might not be. • Look for caution labels; avoid such materials. They are not appropriate for children. • Buy art materials that state “Conforms to ASTM D-4236” on the label. Be aware that because of a coordinated European Union initiative, US labeling laws - and as a consequence ASTM D4236 - will be greatly revised during the next five years (by 2012). • Always use proper ventilation. "Adequate ventilation" is 6 - 10 complete air changes in a room, per hour. If you are venting volatile solvent vapors, your ventilating fans need spark-proof shielding around the electric motor to lessen the chance of an explosion. "Explosion-proof" motors, lighting, and other products (capable of containing an explosion) are labeled as such and are rated by international testing agencies such as Factory Mutual Research and Underwriters Laboratories. • Err on the side of caution and develop safe work habits. Toxic affects can be cumulative. • Before you begin to use new materials, research them for health hazards. Search the manufacturer’s website; they often provide invaluable information on their products. If you have further questions, call the manufacturer. • Don’t let children or impaired individuals who are unaware of the importance of safe handling and procedures use anything but "non-toxic" materials, and see my previous comment on "non-toxic". • Store your materials out of children’s reach. • Do not eat, drink or smoke around the materials (keep your food and drink elsewhere) and wash up before you do (away from your materials). • Do not apply cosmetics around the materials. • If techniques require heating materials, do so in a properly ventilated area. Don’t rely on a kitchen exhaust fan to provide protection. • Never store any products in drinking cups, plates, serving bowls, etc. Accidental ingestion is all too common. • Make certain that any materials you use to decorate eating or drinking utensils or food storage items (plates, glasses, etc) are safe for food and used as the manufacturer intended. Follow their recommendations. • Keep the products off your skin and cover and protect cuts and open wounds. • Protect your eyes. Do not rub your eyes, nose, mouth, or skin with dirty hands. • Wear the correct gloves made for the materials you will handle. The wrong gloves may look oil or solvent proof but may only be waterproof. Worse, gloves made for one solvent may be ineffective against another. Don’t assume that household cleaning gloves are impervious to the materials you use; use the correct glove. This will take a little research but is well worth the effort. • Keep the materials out of your mouth. Biting your brush handle or using your tongue to shape your brush to a fine point is foolhardy. • Maintain a clean area and clean up after use – this includes you and your materials. Treat your cleaning materials, rags etc, as hazardous waste. • Keep containers properly closed when not in use. • Many materials are flammable. Do not use them near heaters, stove burners, open flames, etc. Do not store them in hot areas or at temperatures exceeding the label warnings. Avoid smoking around them. • Oil or solvent soaked rags may self-combust. Keep them in a fireproof safety can and dispose of them properly. • Dispose of all materials properly; visit your city’s waste disposal website to learn how to throw out hazardous materials. Many cities have free disposal of such materials • Keep the products in their original containers so they will remain properly labeled. If you must use a different container then it should be made of the correct material (including the cap and seal), impervious to 98

the contents, and properly and permanently labeled. Be aware that some solvents may make a label unreadable. • Materials that have exceeded their expiration date may become chemically altered and should be considered unsafe and disposed of accordingly. Their suitability for durable artwork may also have been affected. • Use all recommended safety and protection equipment and keep it clean. Leaving a dust mask in a dusty area and then using it defeats the purpose. • Dust masks must fit properly and be suitable for the materials being used. The same precautions apply to safety masks and respirators. There are wide varieties of each type on the market; some digging will be necessary. Time use limitations may apply for any of these products. • Don’t sweep materials and don’t use a vacuum cleaner without a properly maintained HEPA filter. Inexpensive vacuum cleaners without proper filtering will redistribute minute hazardous particles into the air. Clean up you materials per the manufacturer’s recommendation, which may discourage vacuuming. • Dry materials such as powders or pigments and wet materials such as solvents or liquids (spray cans, airbrush materials) may require special handling or equipment such as filtered exhaust booths with negative pressure, sealed boxes, etc. Both wet and dry materials are often easy airborne. • At the minimum, keep the draft directed away from yourself and others when spraying and do so in a well- ventilated area or outdoors. • Sanding materials may generate toxic dust. • Some sites recommend the use of cat litter to absorb solvents and oils. • Be aware that your actions affect more than just you; consider your environment and those living with you and around you.

Early artists were unaware of the hazards of many of the materials they used, but information on the topic is readily available today. While the long term improper use of your materials could have serious mental and physical health consequences, with proper safety precautions, awareness and common sense, these potential hazards can be mitigated if not avoided completely.

A few items bear repeating: Read the label. Learn what it means. Learn what should be on the label. Choose safe materials. Use proper techniques, handling, safety gear and safety precautions. Keep you and your area clean. Use proper cleanup and disposal methods.

Pigments Making your own paints can be a rewarding experience. You must remember that you are dealing with materials that may be harmful if not handled with care. It must not be assumed that the absence of a health warning indicates that a material is safe. All dusts can be harmful if inhaled and persistent exposure to them will at least cause irritation and possible harm to you. There is an increasing amount of information available as to the dangers of powdered pigments, but the safest way is to treat all materials as potentially harmful.

Do not let these warnings however deter you from making your own paints and mediums, since the minimum care needed for most materials is no more than good sound studio practice. Here are recommendations:

• Always wear a NIOSH-approved dust mask and gloves. Work on a smooth surface. • Wipe up any spilled pigment with a damp disposable towel. Properly dispose of the towel and empty bag. • Always read the label. When transferring art materials to other containers, transfer the label from the original packaging onto the new container. • KEEP PRODUCTS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN. • Do not eat, drink or smoke while using art materials. • If possible, work with pigments that you have first wetted into a paste or liquid. • Store pigments in sealed, easy to open containers. Bags of pigment when purchased should be cut open and decanted into storage jars. • Wash up after each use—clean yourself and your tools. Keep your work area clean. Wet mop to pick up dust. • Do not inhale dusts. Do not work near a draft or fan that will blow pigments and other dry powders about, but keep your work area well ventilated. Wear a NIOSH-approved dust mask while handling pigments. • Wear dedicated work clothing with long sleeves. 99

• Protect hands and skin from exposure. Wear gloves, especially if you have cuts or abrasions. Use a barrier cream, which should be applied about 30 minutes before you start working. Do not allow your hands to get caked in materials—wash them frequently and re-apply barrier cream. Keep hands away from face and eyes. • Warning Labeling • Some of products contain hazardous materials such as arsenic, lead, mercury, etc. All of these products are clearly marked and carry special warning labels on the packaging. When precautions are taken, such as wearing gloves and NIOSH-approved dust masks, the risk of exposure to these potentially hazardous materials is greatly minimized.

• Products carrying warning labels and cautions for safe use can be used safely by individuals who are able to read, understand and follow suggested precautions for handling those materials. Sometimes products cannot be made non-hazardous, because they are necessary for certain creative activities. When used in properly supervised and controlled conditions, they can be employed with the risk of exposure to potentially hazardous materials greatly minimized.

22) WHAT IS A CRITIQUE?

Often, it is the primary means used to evaluate works produced for courses, both critically and for grading purposes.

WHAT HAPPENS IN A CRITIQUE? Work is discussed by those present at the critique: the artist, professor, and, in many cases, other students.

HOW DO WORKS OF ART GET DISCUSSED? What follows are some of the conventional methods used to talk about works of art. A critique usually includes aspects of all these methods.

Technological analysis: engages in a technical examination of the systems used in the making of works of art: materials, processes, techniques > medium, handling.

Style analysis: is a study of the modes of expression used to represent form. It also refers to the techniques and characteristics of individual artists, as well as historical period, school, nation or locality, or group of artists, such as abstraction, pop art, surrealism, realism.

Formal / Compositional analysis: is an examination of the visual elements of a work of art, used in it’s spatial/temporal organization such as: point, line, plane; form and shape; direction, movement, gesture, rhythm, pattern; tone: presence and absence of light, type, source, intensity; colour: hue, saturation, value; texture: optical or tactile, surface character; dimension scale, proportion, size, weight, mass, measurement; perspective, depth of field; focal points. 100

It may also be an examination of the visual devices used in the work such as: allegory, analogy, comparison, metaphor, irony, parody, narrative, personification, quotation, juxtaposition, appropriation.

Semiotic analysis: All communication requires the use of signs. Semiotics is the science of those signs; broadly, the process by which one phenomenon stands for another, or group of others. A semiotic analysis explores the signs (basic units of language), the signified (the concept or object), the signifier (the image attached to a signified) and the referent (the actual object to which the sign is related.)

There are three kinds of signs: iconic, where the signifier represents the signified by having a likeness to it, indexical, where there is an inherent relationship between the signifier and what is signified, and symbolic, where a conventionalized but arbitrary relation exists between signifier and signified. For instance, the skull, an emblem, is an object, or picture of one, symbolically representing death, or the attributes of Justice are the scales, the blindfold, and the sword. An attribute is used to identify someone or is a quality ascribed as symbolic of an office.

Iconographic analysis: is an art historical method that concerns itself with the interpretation of representations. It involves an identification system referring to the signs and symbols in a painting and an examination of subject matter or meaning of works of art as opposed to form. The intent is to identify the context and meaning for an audience that is contemporary to the work.

Iconological interpretation: art historical methodology that arises from synthesis (combining separate elements to form a coherent whole, reasoning from the general to the particular) rather than analysis (the separation of an intellectual or substantial whole into constituent parts for individual study.)

Deconstruction: is a semiotics-derived analysis that reveals the multiplicity of potential meanings generated by the discrepancy between the ostensible content of a work of art or “text” and the visual, cultural, or linguistic system from which it springs.

Meaning may be:

Open > to multiple interpretations

Incomplete > insufficient evidence to determine meaning; fragmentary, partial, unfinished Incomprehensible > ambiguous; confused, vague, unclear; non-rational, irrational i.e. Surrealism: representation of the unconscious

Indefinite > undefined, unlimited, indeterminate

Inaccessible > i.e. the Mona Lisa (if there is a definitive meaning, we don’t have the key)

Unattainable > cf. Derrida’s concept of différance, Lacan’s desire; true meaning is always deferred. The signifier indicates the idea but the real thing (the referent) is never present, only a representation of it is present in a work of art. The meaning is always postponed. Or intrinsically irrelevant to the work itself i.e. meaning is historically constructed cf. hermeneutics (exegesis, explanation, critical interpretation, critical analysis, deciphering a code, translation)

Obtuse > outside the language system; outside articulated language but inside interlocution i.e. outsider art, art of the insane, or the common perception of Jackson Pollack’s work at the time of its production. Here obtuse also refers to the location of meaning in another source/ author/ reading/ experience etc. outside the viewer’s 101 knowledge/experience (the signifier without a signified cf. Roland Barthes, A Barthes Reader, “The Third Meaning”)

Unstable > a setting out of possibilities, a complex of issues; positing irresolvable dilemmas or situations resulting in uncertainty

Pluralistic > containing a number of meanings rather than a fixed, single meaning

Intersubjective > produced in the act of viewing; reception theory: meaning arises through the interaction between the work of art (text) and its recipient

Social analysis: involves the interaction of the work of art with its environment or milieu. It examines the economic, social, political relations, institutions and practices that surround an image and through which it is seen and used, often with reference to gender, race, and class. A social analysis takes into account: the intentionality of a maker’s image; the wider context in relation to other images i.e. auteur theory and reception theory (the audience negotiates the meaning of the work of art) and power/ knowledge (claims to truth.) A social analysis is generally conducted within the discourse, hence also discourse analysis. Discourse is the language which structures the way a thing is thought about and the way we act on the basis of that thinking. It is a particular knowledge about the world which shapes how the world is understood and how things are done. Its primary elements are text (the work itself; the constant reference), intertexuality (the way that meanings of any one image or text depend not only on that one image or text but also on the meanings carried by other images and texts, the relationship of works to one another), and context (the work’s external relationships.)

Psychoanalytical analysis: utilizes the concepts and vocabulary associated with Freudian and post-Freudian theory prevalent in western culture since the late 19th century, and applies them to works of art. These include:

Subjectivity: the viewer’s characteristics rather than identity, including non-rational or unconscious processes, focusing on the emotional effects of visual images

The Gaze: a form of visuality that pre-exists the individual subject, the visuality into which the subject is born, culturally constituted (Lacan)

Imaginary: field of interrelations located between the subject and other people or objects

Fantasy: the field of interrelations located between the conscious and unconscious, where the transaction between these two zones occurs. The unconscious is given temporal, spatial and symbolic form by the conscious.

Desire: the pleasure/pain resulting from fantasizing about lost objects. Fantasy is a staging of desire.

Reflexivity: the effect of the consciousness of the self within the act of creation/production

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Content analysis: is central to exhibiting and other forms of presentation, curation, critical practice, art history and contemporary theory. The individual work is quantified in relation to other works. Works of art are organized according to their content, and/or quantified into groups. For instance the word genre, used to describe works of art, is a term used to classify images into groups, such as domestic interiors or rural scenes, which are then viewed within the conventions of that group.

An exhibition of works of art organized according to content i.e. figurative realism, geometric abstraction would usually result from an analysis of the works in relation to that content.

Compiled by: Professor Michèle White