DOCSLIB.ORG

Aproximate Personal Name-Matching Through Finite-State Graphs

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Aproximate Personal Name-Matching Through Finite-State Graphs ASI5813_0000_20671.qxd 9/12/07 11:41 PM Page 1 Approximate Personal Name-Matching Through Finite-State Graphs Carmen Galvez and Félix Moya-Anegón Department of information Science, University of Granada, Campus Cartuja, Colegio Máximo, 18071 Granada, Spain. E-mail: {cgalvez, felix}@urg.es This article shows how finite-state methods can be individuals may have the same name) are due precisely to employed in a new and different task: the conflation of the ambiguity in that relationship of reference. The context personal name variants in standard forms. In biblio- could be clarified by determining the intellectual connection graphic databases and citation index systems, variant forms create problems of inaccuracy that affect informa- between the PNs, or by using subject indicators. tion retrieval, the quality of information from databases, The referential ambiguity of PNs is a major problem in IR and the citation statistics used for the evaluation of sci- and citation statistics. The disambiguation of authors whose entists’ work. A number of approximate string matching names coincide and overlap in the citation indexing systems techniques have been developed to validate variant calls for methods that distinguish the contexts in which forms, based on similarity and equivalence relations. We classify the personal name variants as nonvalid and valid authors or individuals appear, such as cross-document forms. In establishing an equivalence relation between co-reference resolution algorithms that use the vector space valid variants and the standard form of its equivalence model to resolve ambiguities (Bagga & Baldwin, 1998; class, we defend the application of finite-state transducers. Gooi & Allan, 2004; Han, Giles, Zha, Li, & Tsioutsiouliklis, The process of variant identification requires the elabora- 2004; Wacholder, Ravin, & Choi, 1997), co-occurrence tion of: (a) binary matrices and (b) finite-state graphs. This procedure was tested on samples of author names from analysis and clustering techniques (Han, Zha, & Giles, 2005; bibliographic records, selected from the Library and Infor- Mann & Yarowsky, 2003; Pedersen, Purandare, & Kulkarni, mation Science Abstracts and Science Citation Index 2005), probabilistic similarity metrics (Torvik, Weeber, Expanded databases. The evaluation involved calculating Swanson, & Smalheiser, 2005), or co-citation analysis the measures of precision and recall, based on complete- and visualization mapping algorithms through a Kohonen ness and accuracy. The results demonstrate the usefulness of this approach, although it should be complemented with network (X. Lin, White, & Buzydlowski, 2003; McCain, methods based on similarity relations for the recognition of 1990). Underlying identity uncertainty problems, however, spelling variants and misspellings. are beyond the scope of the present article. PNs can be considered object tags that may appear in many different forms, known as variants. A PN variant can Introduction be described as a text occurrence that is conceptually well related with the correct form, or canonical form, of a name. A number of different interrelated areas are involved in the The recognition of the variant of these sequences would identification of Personal Names (PNs), including Natural revolve around one of three procedures specified by Thomp- Language Processing, Information Extraction, and Informa- son and Dozier (1999): name-recognition, name-matching, tion Retrieval (IR). Personal names are included in the cate- and name-searching. gory of proper names, defined as expressions or phrases that Name-recognition is the process by which a string of designate persons without providing conceptual information. characters is identified as a name. This is done both in data- Their primary semantic function is to establish a relationship base indexing processes and at the time of retrieval, after of reference between the phrase and the object. The identity parsing the user query. It is widely used to extract names certainty of this relationship is determined in many cases by from texts, as described in the Message Understanding Con- context. Some problems surrounding homonyms (i.e., different ferences (MUC-4, 1992; MUC-6, 1995), as part of informa- tion extraction. In MUC-6, the recognition of the named entity is considered a key element of extraction systems; Received January 29, 2007; accepted January 30, 2007 entities include names of persons, organizations, or places as © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. • Published online 00 xxxxxx 2007 in Wiley well as expressions of time or monetary expressions. In InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/asi.20671 MUC-7 (Chinchor, 1997), the named entity recognition JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 58(13):001–017, 2007 ASI5813_0000_20671.qxd 9/12/07 11:41 PM Page 2 implies identifying and categorizing three subareas which online catalogs and bibliographic databases (Borgman & are the recognition of time expressions, numerical expres- Siegfried, 1992; Bouchard & Pouyez, 1980; Bourne, 1977; sions, and entity names—persons, organizations, and places. Rogers & Willett, 1991; Ruiz-Perez, Delgado López-Cózar, E., There are many studies dedicated to the specification of & Jiménez-Contreras, 2002; Siegfried & Bernstein, 1991; the formation rules for names (Baluja, Mittal, & Sukthankar, Strunk, 1991; Tagliacozzo, Kochen, & Rosenberg, 1970; 2000; Bikel, Miller, Schwartz, & Weischedel, 1997; Tao & Cole, 1991; Taylor, 1984; Weintraub, 1991). In gen- Coates-Stephens, 1993; Gaizauskas, Wakao, Humphreys, eral, the techniques for identifying variants are included Cunningham, & Wilks, 1995; Navarro, Baeza-Yates, & under the common heading of authority work (Auld, 1982; Arcoverde, 2003; Paik, Liddy, Yu, & McKenna, 1993; Taylor, 1989; Tillett, 1989). An authority file serves to estab- Patman & Thompson, 2003; Ravin & Wacholder, 1996; lish the correspondences among all the permitted forms of a Wacholder, Ravin, & Byrd, 1994). sequence; that is, among any equivalent forms within a par- Name-matching is the process through which it is deter- ticular bibliographic file. This is particularly important when mined whether two strings of characters previously recognized different bibliographic databases use different authority con- as names actually designate the same person—name-match- ventions, requiring the use of a joint authority file (French, ing does not focus on the case of various individuals who Powell, & Schulman, 2000). have identical name labels. Within this processing, two In retrieving scientific literature and citation indexes, a situations can arise: (a) The matching is exact, in which case variety of formats may be used to cite the same author there is no problem; or (b) the matching is not exact, making (Cronin & Snyder, 1997; Garfield, 1979, 1983a, 1983b; Giles, it necessary to determine the origin of these variants and Bollacker, & Lawrence, 1998; Moed & Vriens, 1989; Rice, apply approximate string matching. Borgman, Bednarski, & Hart, 1989; Sher, Garfield, & Elias, Name-searching designates the process through which a 1966). This inconsistency is present in the databases of the name is used as part of a query to retrieve information asso- Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-E), Social Science ciated with that sequence in a database. Here, likewise, two Citation Index (SSCI) and Arts & Humanities Citation Index problems can appear: (a) The names are not identified as (A&HCI), produced by the Institute for Scientific Information such in the database registers or in the syntax of the query, in (ISI) and now owned by the Thomson Corporation, the Cite- which case Name-recognition techniques are needed; and Seer Project at the NEC Research Institute, or the product (b) the names are recognized in the database records and in from Elsevier called Scopus. Because citation statistics are the query, but it is not certain whether the recognized names habitually used to assess the quality of scientists’work, world- designate the same person, and so Name-matching tech- wide, many researchers and policy makers depend on the cita- niques must be used. tion statistics to help determine funding. Citation inaccuracies The setting of application of approximate matching tech- cause serious problems in citation statistics. Therefore, niques is not substantially different from that of IR itself. experts in bibliometric analysis should put extra effort into These techniques would be integrated in automatic spelling validating the accuracy of data used in their studies. correction systems and automatic text transformation sys- Many studies focus on automatic spelling correction tems to track down correspondences between the correct or (Accomazzi, Eichhorn, Kurtz, Grant, & Murray, 2000; standard dictionary forms and the items included in the data- Angell, Freund, & Willett, 1983; Blair, 1960; Cucerzan & base records. A further application would be when matching Brill, 2004; Damerau & Mays, 1989; Davidson, 1962; Gadd, query terms with their occurrences in prestored dictionaries 1988; Kukich, 1992; Landau & Vishkin, 1986; Petersen, or indexes. Once again, information retrieval through names 1986; Pollock & Zamora, 1984; Rogers & Willett, 1991; entails two points of inaccuracies. First, the documents Takahashi, Itoh, Amano, & Yamashita, 1990; Ullmann, 1977; might contain one or more terms of the query but with dif- Zobel & Dart, 1995). A number of studies have highlighted ferent spellings, impeding successful retrieval. Second, the the context
Load more

Recommended publications
  • International Naming Conventions NAFSA TX State Mtg
    1 2 3 4 1. Transcription is a more phonetic interpretation, while transliteration represents the letters exactly 2. Why transcription instead of transliteration? • Some English vowel sounds don’t exist in the other language and vice‐versa • Some English consonant sounds don’t exist in the other language and vice‐versa • Some languages are not written with letters 3. What issues are related to transcription and transliteration? • Lack of consistent rules from some languages or varying sets of rules • Country variation in choice of rules • Country/regional variations in pronunciation • Same name may be transcribed differently even within the same family • More confusing when common or religious names cross over several countries with different scripts (i.e., Mohammad et al) 5 Dark green countries represent those countries where Arabic is the official language. Lighter green represents those countries in which Arabic is either one of several official languages or is a language of everyday usage. Middle East and Central Asia: • Kurdish and Turkmen in Iraq • Farsi (Persian) and Baluchi in Iran • Dari, Pashto and Uzbek in Afghanistan • Uyghur, Kazakh and Kyrgyz in northwest China South Asia: • Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Baluchi in Pakistan • Urdu and Kashmiri in India Southeast Asia: • Malay in Burma • Used for religious purposes in Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines Africa: • Bedawi or Beja in Sudan • Hausa in Nigeria • Tamazight and other Berber languages 6 The name Mohamed is an excellent example. The name is literally written as M‐H‐M‐D. However, vowels and pronunciation depend on the region. D and T are interchangeable depending on the region, and the middle “M” is sometimes repeated when transcribed.
    [Show full text]
  • Most Common Jewish First Names in Israel Edwin D
    Names 39.2 (June 1991) Most Common Jewish First Names in Israel Edwin D. Lawson1 Abstract Samples of men's and women's names drawn from English language editions of Israeli telephone directories identify the most common names in current usage. These names, categorized into Biblical, Traditional, Modern Hebrew, and Non-Hebrew groups, indicate that for both men and women over 90 percent come from Hebrew, with the Bible accounting for over 70 percent of the male names and about 40 percent of the female. Pronunciation, meaning, and Bible citation (where appropriate) are given for each name. ***** The State of Israel represents a tremendous opportunity for names research. Immigrants from traditions and cultures as diverse as those of Yemen, India, Russia, and the United States have added their onomastic contributions to the already existing Jewish culture. The observer accustomed to familiar first names of American Jews is initially puzzled by the first names of Israelis. Some of them appear to be biblical, albeit strangely spelled; others appear very different. What are these names and what are their origins? Benzion Kaganoffhas given part of the answer (1-85). He describes the evolution of modern Jewish naming practices and has dealt specifi- cally with the change of names of Israeli immigrants. Many, perhaps most, of the Jews who went to Israel changed or modified either personal or family name or both as part of the formation of a new identity. However, not all immigrants changed their names. Names such as David, Michael, or Jacob required no change since they were already Hebrew names.
    [Show full text]
  • Reference Books on Jewish Names
    Courtesy of the Ackman & Ziff Family Genealogy Institute June 2007 Reference Books On Jewish Names Ames, Winthrop. What Shall We Name the Baby? New York: Simon & Schuster, 1935. REF YIVO CS 2367 .A4 1935 Bahlow, Hans. Dictionary of German Names: Madison, WI: Max Kade Institute for German­ American Studies, 2002. REF LBI CS 2541 B34 D53 Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciation, and Migrations. Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2001, 682 pp. Identifies more than 15,000 given names derived from 735 root names. Includes a 300­page thesis on the origins, structure, pronunciation, and migrations of Ashkenazic given names. Genealogy Institute CS 3010 .B18 Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia . Avotaynu, 2004. Covers 25,000 different surnames used by Jews in Galicia., describing the districts within Galicia where the surname appeared, the origin of the meaning of the name, and the variants found. Genealogy Institute . CS 3010 .Z9 G353 2004 Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Kingdom of Poland. Teaneck, NJ: Avotaynu, Inc., 1996, 608 pp. More than 32,000 Jewish surnames with origins in that part of the Russian Empire known as the Kingdom of Poland or Congress Poland. Genealogy Institute CS 3010 .B419 Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Russian Empire. Teaneck, NJ: Avotaynu, Inc., 1993, 784 pp. A compilation of 50,000 Jewish surnames from the Russian Pale of Settlement describing their geographic distribution within the Russian Empire at the start of the 20th century, an explanation of the meaning of the name, and spelling variants.
    [Show full text]
  • Issues in the Linguistics of Onomastics
    Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 1, Issue 2 Issues in the Linguistics of Onomastics By Vincent M. Chanda School of Humanities and Social Science University of Zambia Email: mchanda@@gmail.com Abstract Names, also called proper names or proper nouns, are very important to mankind that there is no human language without names and, for some types of names, there are written or unwritten naming conventions. The social importance of names is also the reason why onomastics, the study of names, is a multidisciplinary field. After briefly discussing the multidisciplinary nature of onomastics, the article proves the following view stated and proved by many a scholar: proper names have a grammar that includes some grammatical features of common nouns. In so doing, the article shows that, like common nouns, proper names show cross linguistic differences. To prove that names do have a grammar which in some aspects differs from the grammar of common nouns, the article often compares proper names and common nouns. Furthermore, the article uses data from several languages in addition to English. After a bief discussion of orthographic differences between proper names and common nouns, the article focuses on the morphology, both inflectional and lexical, and the syntax of proper names. Key words: Name, common noun, onomastics, multidisciplinary, naming convention, typology of names, anthroponym, inflectional morphology, lexical morphology, derivation, compounding, syntac. 67 Journal of Lexicography and Terminology, Volume 1, Issue 2 1. Introduction Onomastics or onomatology, is the study of proper names. Proper names are terms used as a means of identification of particular unique beings.
    [Show full text]
  • 7 Naming Customs from Around the World
    7 Naming Customs From Around the World http://blog.tesol.org/7-naming-customs-from-around-the-world/ Posted on 30 July 2015 by Judie Haynes Immigrant students in the United States have already suffered the trauma of leaving behind their extended family, friends, teachers, and schools. They enter a U.S. school and can also lose their name. Their name may be deliberately changed by parents or school staff, or an error may be made in the order of the name or its spelling. These mistakes can have lasting effects on students. A person’s name is part of his or her cultural identity, and it is up to schools to get it right. In order for teachers, administrators, or office staff in your school to enroll students with the correct the name, they need to understand the naming conventions of different cultures. Here are seven naming customs from different cultures. Korean names are written with the family name first. If Yeon Suk has the family name “Lee,” his name will be written Lee Yeon Suk. The given name usually has two parts, and it follows the family name. Either part of the given name can be a generation marker: Two- part given names should not be shortened— that is, Lee Yeon Suk should be called Yeon Suk, not Yeon. Russian names have three parts: a given name, a patronymic (a middle name based on the father’s first name), and the father’s surname. If Viktor Aleksandrovich Rakhmaninov has two children, his daughter’s name would be Svetlana Viktorevna Rakhmaninova.
    [Show full text]
  • Names, Signatures and Images of Individuals; Fictitious Character, Titles
    19.6.2020 Names, signatures and images of individuals; fictitious character, titles of books, films and songs Registrability of surnames and personal names The principles for assessing the distinctive character of marks constituted by surnames have been considered in the European Court of Justice's ("ECJ") judgment in Case C-404/02 Nichols plc v Registrar of Trade Marks [2005] R.P.C. 12. In Nichols, the ECJ confirmed that the assessment of the distinctive character of a trade mark constituted by a surname, even a common one, must be carried out specifically, in accordance with the criteria applicable to any sign, in relation, first, to the products or services in respect of which registration is applied for and, second to the perception of the relevant consumers. The criteria for assessment of the distinctive character of trade marks constituted by a personal name are the same as those applicable to other categories of trade marks. Stricter general criteria of assessment based on: - a predetermined number of persons with the same name, above which that name may be regarded as devoid of distinctive character, - the number of undertakings providing products or services of the type covered by the application for registration, or - the prevalence or otherwise of the use of surnames in the relevant trade cannot be applied to surname marks as a rule-of-thumb. IPD HKSAR 1 Trade Marks Registry Registration of a trade mark constituted by a surname cannot be refused for the purpose of ensuring that no advantage is afforded to the first applicant for registration. All relevant facts and circumstances should be taken into account.
    [Show full text]
  • Hebrew Names and Name Authority in Library Catalogs by Daniel D
    Hebrew Names and Name Authority in Library Catalogs by Daniel D. Stuhlman BHL, BA, MS LS, MHL In support of the Doctor of Hebrew Literature degree Jewish University of America Skokie, IL 2004 Page 1 Abstract Hebrew Names and Name Authority in Library Catalogs By Daniel D. Stuhlman, BA, BHL, MS LS, MHL Because of the differences in alphabets, entering Hebrew names and words in English works has always been a challenge. The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is the source for many names both in American, Jewish and European society. This work examines given names, starting with theophoric names in the Bible, then continues with other names from the Bible and contemporary sources. The list of theophoric names is comprehensive. The other names are chosen from library catalogs and the personal records of the author. Hebrew names present challenges because of the variety of pronunciations. The same name is transliterated differently for a writer in Yiddish and Hebrew, but Yiddish names are not covered in this document. Family names are included only as they relate to the study of given names. One chapter deals with why Jacob and Joseph start with “J.” Transliteration tables from many sources are included for comparison purposes. Because parents may give any name they desire, there can be no absolute rules for using Hebrew names in English (or Latin character) library catalogs. When the cataloger can not find the Latin letter version of a name that the author prefers, the cataloger uses the rules for systematic Romanization. Through the use of rules and the understanding of the history of orthography, a library research can find the materials needed.
    [Show full text]
  • Include ALL Aliases and Names in Local Language As Well As English
    RESUME (sample) Name in English (Surname, Given Names) (include ALL aliases and names in local language as well as English) Gender: Date of Birth, Place of Birth Home Address and Country: Phone Numbers - Provide ALL current phone numbers, including primary, secondary, work, home, and mobile numbers. E-mail - Provide all current email addresses, including primary, secondary, work, personal, and educational addresses. Education – please list ALL degrees attained or schools attended (since high school), including certificate programs, beginning with the most recent. If you only attended high school, list your high school. Include descriptions and/or topics of academic seminar courses. School/educational institution name: Dates of attendance (mm-dd-yyyy): XX-XX-XXXX ~ XX-XX-XXXX School address: Telephone number: School/company website/URL: www. Degree: e.g. Bachelors of Science, Bachelor of Arts, PhD in Law, etc. Major (including specialty, if applicable): e.g. Engineering (mechanical), Literature, Mathematics, Physics (applied) etc. Year degree received: Month, Year Thesis topic/research focus (for Masters and PhD degrees): include 2-3 sentences describing your research topic(s). Consider giving us a list of courses completed and/or transcripts as background material, in original language and English translation. Include description of seminars. Employment History – please list ALL work experience. For any gaps or breaks of employment, please explain what you were doing. Provide the following information on ALL employers. Employer name: Dates of employment (mm-dd-yyyy): XX-XX-XXXX ~ XX-XX-XXXX Company address: Telephone number: School/company website/URL: www. Job title: (e.g. Manager, Staff Engineer, Teacher, Intern, etc.) Job description: XXXXXXXXX; e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • What's in an Irish Name?
    What’s in an Irish Name? A Study of the Personal Naming Systems of Irish and Irish English Liam Mac Mathúna (St Patrick’s College, Dublin) 1. Introduction: The Irish Patronymic System Prior to 1600 While the history of Irish personal names displays general similarities with the fortunes of the country’s place-names, it also shows significant differences, as both first and second names are closely bound up with the ego-identity of those to whom they belong.1 This paper examines how the indigenous system of Gaelic personal names was moulded to the requirements of a foreign, English-medium administration, and how the early twentieth-century cultural revival prompted the re-establish- ment of an Irish-language nomenclature. It sets out the native Irish system of surnames, which distinguishes formally between male and female (married/ un- married) and shows how this was assimilated into the very different English sys- tem, where one surname is applied to all. A distinguishing feature of nomen- clature in Ireland today is the phenomenon of dual Irish and English language naming, with most individuals accepting that there are two versions of their na- me. The uneasy relationship between these two versions, on the fault-line of lan- guage contact, as it were, is also examined. Thus, the paper demonstrates that personal names, at once the pivots of individual and group identity, are a rich source of continuing insight into the dynamics of Irish and English language contact in Ireland. Irish personal names have a long history. Many of the earliest records of Irish are preserved on standing stones incised with the strokes and dots of ogam, a 1 See the paper given at the Celtic Englishes II Colloquium on the theme of “Toponyms across Languages: The Role of Toponymy in Ireland’s Language Shifts” (Mac Mathúna 2000).
    [Show full text]
  • Name Change in Conjunction with an Adoption
    CHANGE OF NAME PROCEDURES PLEASE READ BEFORE PROCEEDING This information is the only information court personnel can give you about this procedure. This information is not intended to be legal advice, but a brief explanation of the basic procedure that is required. Probate court personnel cannot give legal advice about your particular situation or complete your forms for you. You are not required to have an attorney; however, the court cannot act as your attorney. If you do not understand these instructions or the process, you will need to obtain other assistance. FEES There is a total of $185.00 due at the time of filing ($175.00 filing fee and a $10.00 court service fee). There are also fees for: o Publication (determined by the newspaper where you will be publishing) o Fee for fingerprinting (determined by the agency taking the fingerprints) o Fee to the Michigan State Police for the processing of the fingerprints through the State and Federal LEIN. The State of Michigan determines this cost. After the hearing you may obtain certified copies of the Order Changing Name for a fee of $12.00 each. WAYS THAT A CHANGE OF NAME MAY OCCUR: 1. Correction of the Birth Certificate. If there is a mistake on the birth certificate, you may consult with the Michigan Department of Public Health, Vital Records Division for the proper procedure to correct the mistake at (517)335-8660 (Monday thru Friday 8:00 am. to 5:00 p.m.) or at www.michigan.gov/mdch 2. Changing Last Name after Paternity is Established.
    [Show full text]
  • Party Name Side Note
    ISB Publication Doc Ref: ISB-000075 Party Name Side Note Version: 2.0 Issue Date: 26/04/2016 Document Version History Modified Version Status Issue Date by Description 1.0 Approved: 06/05/2014 ISB Guidance note for Party Recommended Name documentation 2.0 Approved: 26/04/2016 TSS Updated to align with model Recommended changes © Crown copyright 2016 Party Name Side Note Contents 1 Introduction ________________________________________________ 4 1.1 Purpose ______________________________________________________ 4 1.2 Scope ________________________________________________________ 5 1.3 Business Data Architecture (BDA) Model Version ______________________ 5 2 Design Concept _____________________________________________ 6 2.1 Business Requirements __________________________________________ 6 2.1.1 (Party of type) Person ________________________________________________ 6 2.1.2 (Party of type) Organisation ___________________________________________ 7 2.1.3 Common (to both person and organisation types of Party) ___________________ 7 2.2 Entity Definition Models __________________________________________ 8 2.3 Attribute Models ________________________________________________ 9 3 How the Structure resolves the Business Requirements __________ 10 3.1 Multiple names ________________________________________________ 10 3.2 Re-usable name bank __________________________________________ 11 3.3 Parsing a name _______________________________________________ 12 3.4 Name components ordering ______________________________________ 13 3.5 Single design for
    [Show full text]
  • Stories of Words: Toponyms
    Stories of Words: Toponyms By: Elfrieda H. Hiebert & Wendy Svec 1 Toponyms often describe landforms, such as this valley. © 2018 TextProject, Inc. Some rights reserved. ISBN: 978-1-937889-21-0 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. “TextProject” and the TextProject logo are trademarks of TextProject, Inc. Cover photo © 2009 istockphoto.com/WagenerPhotography. All rights reserved. Used under license. 2 Contents Learning About Words ...............................4 Chapter 1: Home Away From Home ......6 Chapter 2: Amazing Animals ..................8 Chapter 3: Welcome to Lake Lake .......10 Chapter 4: Once Upon a Name ...........12 Chapter 5: Mumbai to Bombay to Mu mbai ............................................. 14 Our Changing Language ..........................19 Glossary ...................................................21 Think About It ...........................................22 New York City is named after the Duke of York. 3 Learning About Words Las Vegas. New York. Pie Town. Toponyms, or the names of places, are as different as the people who have named them. The word toponym comes from the combination of two Greek words: topos for “place” and –nym for “name.” By learning the story of a toponym, you also learn the story of the people who lived in that place. Historically, explorers gave new names to the places where they landed. The names often honored an important person such as a king, a queen, or a god. In Central America, Spanish explorers named the country of El Salvador after their god whom they called “the savior.” Before they arrived, the native people called it by a name that meant “land of the jewels.” El Salvador means “the savior” in Spanish.
    [Show full text]