CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by ResearchArchive at Victoria University of Wellington Democratic Transition in the Development Context: The Case Study of Tonga Jonathan B. Osborne A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Development Studies School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, 2014 Abstract In 2010 the Kingdom of Tonga experienced a democratic transition that saw the balance of power shift from a hereditary monarchy to the people. Elections were held that for the first time would result in a majority of Tonga’s Parliament comprising of democrati- cally-elected politicians. Parliament was given the responsibility of nominating a Prime Minister from amongst its own ranks, who would in turn became responsible for nomi- nating the Cabinet. These powers were formerly held by Tonga’s hereditary monarchy, whose role was reduced to one more akin to that performed by the modern monarchs of Europe. Since the 1960s, Tonga has received an increasing amount of overseas aid, espe- cially from Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and, latterly, China. Historically, donors have not been overtly concerned with issues of democracy in developing countries, instead relying on the modernist notion that economic development would lead to democratic development. Since the 1980s, however, donors have become increasingly interested in the issue of democracy in developing countries, as a result of the good governance agenda and its successor paradigm, the aid effectiveness agenda. This thesis explores the impact of donors on Tonga’s 2010 democratic transition, concluding that the effect of donors manifested in a variety of direct and indirect ways. A retrospective analysis identifies aspects of Tonga’s 2010 democratic transition that could have been improved, and actions that donors should consider taking if faced with similar circumstances in the future. Finally, the thesis considers how donors can assist the consolidation of Tongan democracy, concluding that support should be targeted towards sustainable economic development, the rule of law, and the public service. i Acknowledgements To Sam and Ebony Nuku for generously opening your home to me in Fanga, without which I would not have been able to devote sufficient time to my research in Tonga. Without your hospitality, this thesis would be devoid of much of its content, but more importantly my Tongan experience would not have been as rich. To my supervisor, Warwick Murray, for your encouragement, enthusiasm, and continuing trust in my abilities while deadline after deadline fell by the wayside. To Guy Powles, my guide from across the Tasman, your advice was invaluable and I was truly humbled by the support you offered. To ‘Akanesi Tu’ifua Palu Tatafu, for your advice, assistance, and friendly welcome to the Kingdom of Tonga. To all the participants of this research, without you this thesis would be nothing. Thank you for giving me the time to speak with you about your knowledge and experiences. To my friends, Tom Baragwanath and Alexey Kristal, for giving your time to edit my work. Your efforts no doubt improved this thesis, or at least made it more readable. To my friend, Gareth Price, thank you for your time and talents in making this thesis look amazing. To my Mum, family, and friends, for your love and support as I journeyed on the lonely process that is writing a thesis. Finally, to my beautiful wife, Grace, without your support this thesis would have been a much harder proposition. I love you. ii Contents Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Table of Contents iii I. Introduction 1 1. Research questions 2 2. Thesis structure 2 II. Research Design 4 1. Philosophy 4 2. Methodology 5 3. Logistics and Practice 8 4. Conclusion 9 III. A Historical Context of Tongan Politics 10 1. Pre-Contact Tongan Politics 10 2. Tupou I, Contact with the West, and the First Written Laws 11 3. The Tongan Constitution of 1875 15 4. The Heirs of Tupou I 16 5. Conclusion 18 IV. Accountability, the Democracy Movement, and Political Reform 19 1. Early Signs of Discontent 19 2. The Establishment of the Pro-Democracy Movement 22 3. The Tide Begins Shifting Towards Reform 25 4. The Government Moves Towards Reform 27 5. Conclusion 30 V. What is ‘Democracy’ and is Tonga ‘Democratic’? 31 1. What is ‘Democracy’? 31 2. A Working Definition of Democracy 35 3. Democracy in Tonga 36 4. Conclusion 40 iii VI. Democracy in the Context of Development 41 1. The Evolution of Ideas about Democracy in the Context of Development 41 2. Democracy Assistance 45 3. Democracy in the Pacific 51 4. Conclusion 53 VII. The Impact of Donors on Tonga’s Democratic Transition of 2010 54 1. Which Individuals or Organisations had the Most Impact on Tonga’s Democratic Transition? 54 2. What were the Major Causes of Tonga’s Democratic Transition? 58 3. How Did Donors Assist Tonga’s Democratic Transition? 59 4. What Impact Did Donors Have on Tonga’s Democratic Transition? 64 5. Conclusion: the Overall Impact of Donors 68 VIII. Tonga’s Democratic Transition: Lessons Learned 70 1. What Aspects of Tonga’s Democratic Transition Could Have Been Improved? 71 2. Could and Should Donors Have Acted Differently Towards the Issue of Democracy in Tonga? 74 3. Lessons Learned from the Tongan Experience 77 4. Conclusion 80 IX. Conclusion 81 1. Research Objectives and Questions 81 2. Further Research 85 3. Final Remarks 86 X. Bibliography 87 XI. Appendix 92 1. Semi-structured Interview Schedule 92 2. Ethics Approval 93 iv I. Introduction In 2010 the people of the Kingdom of Tonga voted in elections that for the first time would result in the majority of its Parliament being made up of democratically elected represent- atives. Parliamentarians were given the responsibility of nominating the Prime Minister from among their ranks, a position formerly filled at the sole discretion of Tonga’s hered- itary monarch. The Prime Minister would then nominate his or her own Cabinet, to be made up largely of elected members, for the first time placing the responsibility of the executive in the hands of a majority-elected Parliament. Tonga’s 2010 democratic tran- sition was the result of events beginning in the 1970s that challenged the monarch-led system of government established in the nineteenth century. Since the 1970s, Tonga has received a significant amount of overseas development assis- tance from countries of the West, particularly Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, as well as from multilateral aid organisations, such as the United Nations Development Programme (Mountfort 2013). Historically, donors were not particularly concerned with democracy in developing countries, instead relying on the modernist understanding that economic development would lead to democratisation. That approach changed as the development paradigm moved in the late 1980s and 1990s towards good governance, in which democ- racy promotion came to be seen by some actors and commentators as integral. Donors have tried various approaches in an attempt to foster democracy in developing countries, but elections have often been the focal point of support. The primary objective of this thesis is to explore the link between donors and Tonga’s democratic transition by considering the direct and indirect means by which donors have had an impact on democracy in Tonga. Three secondary objectives are designed to provide guidance to those considering democracy in the context of development. Firstly, the thesis considers how the path of Tonga’s democratic transition could have varied to increase the odds of its success. Secondly, this thesis considers whether donors could and should have acted differently in relation to Tonga’s democratic transition. Finally, this thesis takes the opportunity to consider how donors to can assist democratic consolidation in Tonga, now and in the future. These secondary objectives are perhaps more relevant than a historical account of donors’ impact on Tonga’s democratic transition for actors in the ‘real world’, whose focus, appropriately, tends to be on the future. 1 1. Research questions The primary objective and three secondary objectives are encapsulated into seven research questions that form the backbone of this thesis. The central question of this research, which aims to answer its primary objective, is: How did donors impact on Tonga’s 2010 democratic transition? In order to answer this central question, the thesis considers the following sub-questions: Who was/were the major actor/s involved in Tonga’s democratic transition? What was/were the major cause/s of Tonga’s democratic transition? What actions did donors take in relation to Tonga’s democratic transition? One research question is dedicated to each of the three secondary objectives, two of which inform a retrospective analysis of Tonga’s democratic transition and the response of donors to it. The retrospective analysis is guided by the following questions: What aspects of Tonga’s democratic transition could have been improved? Could and should donors have acted differently towards the issue of democracy in Tonga? The final research question considers the future for Tongan democracy, and the role donors could play in that future. It asks: What can donors do to help consolidate democracy in Tonga? 2. Thesis structure This thesis comprises nine chapters, including this introductory one. Chapter two intro- duces the research design of the thesis, and pays close attention to the use of interviews to generate its data. Chapters three and four provide the historical context of Tongan politics and its democratic reform in 2010. Chapter five considers the concept of democ- racy, and offers a working definition of democracy based on an assessment of different approaches to democracy’s definition and measurement.