Figure 29: Economic sectoral composition associated with the area surrounding the Schulpfontein site (Dippenaar, 2007)

(d) Human Health

The human health information as described for the Brazil site is also applicable to the Schulpfontein site. Refer to Section 6.1.3(d) for further details.

(e) Agriculture

As with the Brazil site, no agricultural activities were identified (Maasdorp, 2007a).

(f) Noise

Surrounding sensitive noise receptors have not been identified to date.

(g) Visual and Aesthetic

The coastline is north south and from the rocky shore the landform rises to general flat terrace approximately 10 m above the sea level. From thereon the land rises steadily to the coast road for approximately two km in an easterly direction. The landform rises at a gradient of approximately 1:50 from the coast to the road.

The varied slope near the coast will necessitate more earthworks to provide the platform for the proposed NPS.

(h) Heritage and Cultural Resources

This site is located within a restricted access area under the control of De Beers Namaqualand Mines. Schulpfontein was partially surveyed by archaeologists in 1991. Some 53 LSA archaeological sites were found along the immediate shoreline, on dune tops and in the two dune seas in the area, which were considered of medium archaeological importance. In recent years many similar archaeological sites have been mitigated within the mining areas.

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As with the Brazil site, the following is applicable to the Schulpfontein site:

• The colonial history of the Brazil site has not been researched and its significance and/or relevance is not understood; • The palaeontology of the site is unstudied, although mine geologists have informal knowledge of marine palaeontology manifested in deep mining excavations in the area; and • There are no records of historical shipwrecks or fishtraps located in the coastal zone.

(i) Tourism

Like Brazil, this site is situated in the Namakwa District Municipality in the Northern Cape. It is just north of Koiingnaas (south of Brazil) and shares the same characteristics as the Brazil site. The tourism industry is identical to that of Brazil.

There is only one small B&B facility in the immediate vicinity of the site. It is located at Houthoop, but receives very few tourists. This area is not well linked into the famous Namaqualand flower tourism industry, but has the potential to become linked.

The tourism industry is identical to that of Brazil (Maasdorp, 2007c). Refer to Section 6.1.3(i) for further details.

(j) Accessibility

Refer to Section 6.1.3(j) for further details.

6.3 Duynefontein Site

6.3.1 Physical

(a) Location

The Duynefontein site is located adjacent to the existing Koeberg NPS, which is situated approximately 30 km north of (Figure 30). The Duynefontein site is situated within the Western Cape Province Municipality and has the following co- ْ.ordinates: 33 ْ 40’36.00’’S and 1825’54.88’’E

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Figure 30: Location of the proposed Duynefontein site in relation to the surrounding areas (Bulman, 2007)

(b) Topography

The topography of Duynefontein is relatively flat with a gentle slope towards the coast (Figure 31). However, both ancient dunes stabilised by vegetation and recent unconsolidated dunes with heights < 10 m are found along the coastline.

Some of the largest parabolic dune fields are found at Yzerfontein and in the Koeberg-Witzand area (Tinley, 1985). All these have been converted (locally) to complex dune types, with bare transverse dunes replacing the vegetated parabolics. In other words there has been an extensive remobilisation of sand as the parabolics

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have become destabilised by the wind (Low and Desmet, 2007).

Figure 31: Topographic location of the proposed Duynefontein site in relation to the broader geographical area (Burger, 2007)

(c) Climate

The information presented below was taken from Burger (2007).

(i) Temperature The maximum temperature of 40°C (November) and minimum of 4°C (June) were recorded during 2006.

(ii) Rainfall The average annual rainfall measured at the Koeberg NPS from 1980 to 2004 is 375 mm/a. Maximum rainfall occurs during June (± 65 mm), July (± 68 mm) and August (± 53 mm), while the lowest rainfall occurs during January (± 10 mm) and February (± 8 mm).

(iii) Wind The surface winds at Duynefontein are mostly southerly during hot and dry summer, when vertical motion is also suppressed by the south Atlantic high-pressure system. During winter months from May to September, the area falls under the influence of the westerly frontal weather and there is an increased vertical motion and the wind becomes more westerly. The surface wind character is summarised in the wind roses in the Figure 32. The predominant wind at the Duynefontein site is from the south.

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Figure 32: Wind roses for the Duynefontein site (Burger, 2007)

(d) Geology and Seismology

The geological and seismological information was taken from CGS (2007a).

The existing Nuclear Plant located at Koeberg is situated on Neoproterozoic rocks of the Malmesbury Group, intruded by the late Neoproterozoic Cape Granite Suite and Cretaceous dolerite dykes (Figure 33 and Figure 34). Most of the coastal plain around the site is covered with Cenozoic sand. Exposures of Pliocene-Pleistocene marine deposits and their overlying aeolianites are rare, being often restricted to low beach cliffs, such as at Springfontyn.

The basement rocks are cut by intense Pan-African brittle-ductile shear zones and, in places, by regional NW striking brittle shear zones. The outlier contains structural characteristics of both the western branch and the syntaxis of the Cape Fold Belt. The closest known fault of the latter type is the Mamre fault (De Beer,

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2005), whilst another such possible shear zone, tentatively called the proposed fault, has been proposed (Dames and Moore, 1976) to occur between and Cape Town. Mesozoic faults in the Cape Peninsula strike predominantly WNW. Dolerite dykes have been intruded along these fractures in Early Cretaceous times; these dykes are responsible for many of the magnetic anomalies seen in geophysical surveys, and occur very close to Koeberg.

Figure 33: Geological structure, setting and seismicity for the Duynefontein site (derived from a 1:250,000 digital database) (CGS, 2007a)

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Figure 34: Simplified geology of the Duynefontein site (SRK, 2007b)

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(i) Tectonics Koeberg is located ± 28 km north of Cape Town. Its 320 km regulatory radius36 includes both Bitterfontein and Oudtshoorn, and implies that its regional area of investigation contains some of the most faulted parts of the Cape Fold Belt, namely the western branch and the syntaxis, with current prominent seismicity in the Ceres– Tulbagh area. Additionally, it lies within 20 km of one of the most important NW-SE trending zones of faulting in the SW Cape, namely the Vredenburg-Stellenbosch fault zone and its related faults, many of which are of appreciable displacement. These faults have been active from the Saldanian Orogeny (ca. 550 – 500 Ma ago) to the Mesozoic breakup of Gondwana, and should probably still be regarded as a potential threat to the Koeberg site. The Colenso fault (Schoch, 1976) is the best-known fault and ties up with the Kalbaskraal fault. Those faults interpreted as important to the Duynefontein site are discussed below.

Mamre Fault The Mamre fault strikes northwestwards from Mamre towards Yzerfontein. The Mamre fault may tie up with the fault, which itself may actually continue further north-westwards, implying that it may pass within 14 km east of the Koeberg site. The nearest proven faults to the SW of Koeberg are those displacing Group rocks in the Cape Peninsula approximately 30 km away from Koeberg. The aeromagnetic study of Day (1986) revealed the presence of many NW- SE striking magnetic anomalies in the area between Koeberg and . Most of these are probably dolerite dykes of the False Bay Swarm (Reid et al., 1991) as exposed in outcrops along the peninsula coastline, but as they trend in exactly the same direction as faults in the Cape Peninsula, some dykes may have intruded along pre-existing faults.

Vredenburg Stellenbosch Fault The Vredenburg–Stellenbosch fault zone occurs within 25 km of the site and although there is currently no evidence of it having been active in Quaternary times the presence of extensive sand cover and intense cultivation in the area can be expected to obscure the location of fault scarps. The only other evidence of palaeoseismic importance to the Koeberg site is minor faulting in Pleistocene aeolianites at Saldanha (De Beer, 2005), which is both too far away from Koeberg and too difficult to interpret with confidence. There is no evidence of substantial tectonic deformation in available exposures of the post-Early Pliocene to pre-Late Pleistocene Springfontyn Formation west of Koeberg (3.6 Ma–200,000, Roberts, 2001) but exposures are discontinuous and there are therefore uncertainties pertaining to the representivity thereof.

(ii) Palaeo-seismic Liquefaction and intense ground deformation in the area between and Cape Town during the 1809 event are well known from historical data, but the cause of the earthquake remains uninvestigated to this day, no new information could be acquired during the regional investigations performed by De Beer (2005, 2006b). Extensive housing and industrial development in those areas necessitates further palaeoseismic and geophysical investigations. In the interim, a fault capable of creating another Magnitude (M) 6.3 earthquake should be inferred to pass within 10 km offshore of the Koeberg site.

No new data on the hazard were acquired during the recent investigations, however, there is sufficient evidence that indicates the presence of a NW striking fault offshore of Koeberg but that it does not occur within eight km of the site. (De Beer, 2005).

36 The 320 km radius, as prescribed in the Regulatory document 1.208 of the US NRC is pages 1, 10, 11, 12.

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Historical records provide reliable evidence of the secondary effects associated with a large earthquake with an intensity of VIII, with a magnitude of 6.3 (Brandt et al., 2005), which occurred in 1809 within 25 km of Koeberg (Von Buchenröder, 1830; Hartnady, 2003). No new research has been performed to confirm or refute the presence of the fault or its point of closest approach to the site.

(iii) Seismic Hazard The seismic hazard associated with the site will be determined during the detailed assessment phase of the EIA process. Preliminary investigations indicate that there is no fatal flaw with respect to seismic risk (the geological structure of the site is stable and there is a low to no probability of earth movement). This will be further substantiated during the detailed specialists investigation to be undertaken for the EIA phase.

(e) Geohydrology

The geohydrological information was taken from SRK (2007b).

(i) Groundwater occurrence The Duynefontein site overlies two aquifer systems, namely the southern extent of the upper-lying primary or intergranular Atlantis Aquifer (colloquially referred to as the ‘Aquarius Aquifer’) and the deeper-lying weathered and fractured-rock (secondary) aquifer system of the Malmesbury Group (Figure 35).

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Figure 35: Simplified groundwater map for the Duynefontein site and surrounding regions (SRK, 2007b)

The Atlantis Aquifer is an important and significant primary aquifer with two well fields (Witzand and Silwerstroom) situated north of the Site supplying a water source to the surrounding towns, predominantly to Atlantis. The thickness of the primary aquifer at

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the Site is approximately 13 m, the groundwater level is some seven metres below ground level and the overall thickness of the sediments is approximately 20 m. The thickness of the secondary, fractured aquifer is not known. Groundwater is interpreted to flow in a southwesterly direction, away from two significant well fields that supply drinking water to Atlantis and surrounding areas.

(ii) Groundwater quality Vandoolaeghe and Bertram (1982) classified the groundwater of this aquifer as Class A type [electrical conductivity (EC) < 70 mS/m]37. Based on groundwater monitoring undertaken by (Dames and Moore, 1977 and 1978) it was apparent that dewatering processes during construction of the Koeberg 900 MW PWR Units 1 and 2 resulted in saline intrusion, evident by an increase in salinity in the groundwater at the monitoring boreholes. Sulphate (SO4) concentrations also increased from 40 to > 400 mg/L subsequent to the dewatering phase (Dames and Moore, 1977d).

(iii) Groundwater potential Yields of >10 L/s are obtained from production boreholes in the Witzand and Silwerstroom Well fields north of the Site. Boreholes drilled into sands along the north-eastern parts of the study area were reported to yield in excess of five L/s (Parsons, 2002). However, boreholes drilled into the Malmesbury Group Aquifer yield considerably less, i.e. < 2 L/s. This is consistent with the findings by Meyer (2001) in his assessment of the Malmesbury Group Aquifer. Exploration boreholes drilled in the shale at the regional landfill site yielded between 0.1 and 0.3 L/s (Parsons and Flanagan, 2006).

Four exploration boreholes were drilled at the planned Koeberg 165 MW Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR) Unit 3 site and baseline groundwater quality data was obtained (Africon, 2001). Tritium data indicated that groundwater in the Malmesbury Group Aquifer is saline and not recharged, which indicates stratification in age and quality between the primary sediments and the secondary aquifer. Future pumping and dewatering may disturb this stratification and inflow of saline groundwater into the upper primary aquifer may occur.

Atlantis aquifer Atlantis is largely dependent on groundwater for its water supply. Based on Parsons’ (1999) estimated groundwater usage figures, about 8.5 Mm3 per annum of groundwater is abstracted from the primary aquifer system. Groundwater is also used in the study area as a source of water to smallholdings and for brick making and sand mining (Parsons and Flanagan, 2006). Groundwater is predominantly used for small- scale vegetable farming, water for horses and irrigation of commercial lawn. Twelve boreholes were initially drilled to supply process water at the Koeberg NPS, but they have not been used during the past few years as a result of high EC levels (Parsons and Flanagan, 2006). Average recharge of the aquifer was estimated to range between 10 and 30 % of the MAP.

The Atlantis Aquifer is classified as a sole source aquifer system (Parsons, 1995). Although smallholdings in the study area are dependent on groundwater, a reticulated pipeline was constructed during 2002. The primary aquifer system towards the eastern parts of the study area is therefore classified as a major aquifer system vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts (Parsons and Flanagan, 2006).

37 Water with an EC > 300 mS/m is of poor quality and unfit for human consumption, whilst water with an EC of between 70 and 300 mS/m is brackish and of marginal quality for human consumption.

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Malmesburg Group Aquifers The Malmesbury Group Aquifers is classified as a minor aquifer system, as these aquifers have low borehole yields, produce groundwater with variable quality and are of limited significance (Parsons, 1995). The minor aquifers have a moderate to low vulnerability to anthropogenic impacts.

(f) Geotechnical characteristics

The Duynefontein site is geotechnically complex when compared with the other identified sites. The area exhibits a fairly constant water table approximately seven m below surface. As a result, the choice of the exact position of the nuclear island on the site will be critical. The main structures require rock foundations, the relative depth to the rock and the overburden must be accurately established with respect to the over burden (sand) thickness across the site.

Slope stability below the water table is likely to be a constant problem and therefore the need for dewatering and/or support (lateral) for excavations will be required. Permanent support systems will be required to be designed for variable groundwater and loading (soil and external) conditions. In addition, deep excavations into rock will similarly be subject to groundwater intrusion. The erosion potential of the surficial horizons is significant and hence surface stabilization measures will be necessary. Liquefaction of the water bearing sands poses a medium risk as historical evidence of “soil-boils” and surface cracking under seismic conditions have been observed in the Cape Town area.

Bearing conditions in the Malmesbury Group rocks are expected to be medium to good. However, local characterization will be required during the investigation phase to establish the depth of weathering and its influence over the designated nuclear footprint.

6.3.2 Biophysical

(a) Flora

Two major vegetation types are present at the Koeberg site, namely strandveld and sand plain fynbos, with a transition between the two. Low (2000) classifies the vegetation as Dune Thicket on sand and limestone, Sand Plain Fynbos on marine- derived, leached acid sand, and a transition between the two (Figure 36). The above-mentioned vegetation types were identified as Dune Strandveld (Endangered) and (Critically Endangered), although no transition is recognised. Mucina’s et al. (2006) placing of their Strandveld within the Fynbos Biome is not supported here and the approach of Low and Rebelo (1998) is adopted whereby this falls within a Thicket Biome.

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Figure 36: Vegetation types associated with the Duynefontein coastal area (Low and Desmet, 2007)

Daines and Low (1993) recorded 279 species for the Koeberg site, of which eight were on the Red Data list. As a result of the name changes and new information on species distributions, the number of species when recalculated is 274 (SaSFlora, 1998 - 2007). The number of threatened species is 11, which are as follows: Amphibolia laevis, Dorotheanthus apetalus, Elegia recta, Euphorbia caput-medusae subsp. marlothiana vingerpol (sensu SaSFlora, 1998 to 2007), Gethyllis ciliaris kukumakranka, Helichrysum cochleariforme duineteebossie, Hermannia procumbens var. procumbens, Lachnaea grandiflora grootletjiesbos, Leucadendron levisanus, Nemesia strumosa, balsamienie and Psoralea repens. West Coast endemics include Amphibolia laevis (extends as far north as Vredendal (Goldblatt and Manning, 2000)), Hermannia procumbens, Leucadendron levisanus (Cape Flats to Koeberg and Mamre) and Nemesia strumosa.

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For both conservation assessments by Cowling et al. (1999) and Low (2003), the Koeberg-Witzand dune system rates highly (Figure 37). The Koeberg site is a declared Private Nature Reserve and has an active management plan in place (Gert Greeff, pers.comm. taken from Low (2007)). Both the Koeberg site, as well as adjacent land on the West Coast, is rated highly for conservation, ironically, a conservation study aimed at establishing core conservation areas within the City failed to identify Koeberg as a key site (Maze and Rebelo, 1999), although they did accord priority status to several areas nearby.

Figure 37: Irreplaceability (left) and ecological importance of the Duynefontein coastline (Low and Desmet, 2007)

(b) Invertebrate Fauna

Duynefontein has high levels of species richness of scorpions, termite, grasshoppers and Hopliini (monkey beetles) despite its fairly low habitat diversity. The site contains few relictual38 species, and is part of the west coast zone that exhibits fairly low species turnover along a north-south gradient. Other sites along the west coast are likely to support a similar taxon composition of terrestrial invertebrate, with fairly low species turnover.

(c) Vertebrate Fauna

The site lies within the (CFR), which is largely restricted to the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces. The CFR is an exceptionally bio diverse region with very high levels of species endemism. The CFR has been identified as a global Biodiversity Hotspot by Conservation International (CI; www.biodiversityhotspots.org), and is the focus of a South African government-

38 Ancient surviving species, typically restricted to moist, cold habitats, but occasionally arid-adapted.

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