ho- IH? i

THE KNICKERBOCKER AND GERMAN INFLUENCE

Thomas James Trout

A Dissertation Submitted, to the Graduate School of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

August 1972

Approved by Doctoral Committee

Bowrassrasw UNIVERSITY LIBRARY il

ABSTRACT

This study examines translations of German litera­ ture and the stated values of this literature as they appeared in the Kniokerbocker magazine under the editor­ ship of Lewis Gaylord Clark. The study is centered around a group of poems that appeared during a seven year period of concentration. The poems are examined for broad thematic expressions a.nd then compared to statements appearing in the magazine that dealt with the value and importance of German literature. The Knickerbocker was a popular, general literary magazine that had broad appeal; as such it had strong associations with the popular and sentimental literature of the antebellum period. This study explores, another aspect of the magazine, a link with the quest for a great national literature that occupied the attention of so many interested in the cause of American letters. Editorial comment and featured articles stressed the value of this literature, and Clark listed a number of reasons over the years telling of the importance of German literature as both guide and model for the American who wished to create a great native work. ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE...... iv I THE MAGAZINE...... 1 II THE MAN...... 10 III THE VALUE OP GERMAN LITERATURE...... 24 Fancy, Imagination, and a National Literature 2? Not Transparent, Not Opaque, ButT ranslucent . 32 Clark’s Views Applied to Specific Works ... 40 Other Supports for German Literature ...... 44 IV THE THEMES...... 51 Death and Immortality...... 58 God and Nature...... 65 God...... 66 God-Nature...... 67 Nature as Metaphor for Death...... 71 Nature in Relation to Man...... 73 V SPIRIT AND THE STIMULATION OF THE IMAGINATION . 79 Simple Metaphors...... 82 Complex Metaphors ...... 84 Personifications ...... 87 Spirit...... 91 CONCLUSION...... 100 NOTES...... 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 118 APPENDIX 121 PREFACE

Cursory examination of The Knickerbocker Magazine reveals a blend of the present day Reader* s Digest and the old Saturday Evening Post. It was labeled by F. L. Pattee as a "middle-brow” magazine with an aesthetic appeal that fell below that of the North Amerlcan Review and the Dial and somewhere above that of the New York Mirror and Godey* Lady»s Book. It presents a cross section of the tastes of the day. Lewis Gaylord Clark was editor of the Knickerbocker for some twenty-seven years, and during this time a number of German translations appeared in his magazine. The earliest significant offerings from a language other than English were these German translations, and although Clark continued to offer German literature throughout his editor ship, his major emphasis on this literature generally matched that of the country at large. Henry A. Pochmann echoed New England’s phrase for the antebellum period, 2 calling it a time of the "German craze." Scott H. Goodnight referred to the period from 1833 to 18^6 in America as the time of the "German fad.An examination of this German literature that Clark offered has revealed several things of interest; most of it was rimed poetry; there were some standard recurring themes; and Clark, in V his literary criticism and in his editorial column, put forth some very definite ideas about the value of German literature and the reasons for having Americans read It. Of the approximately 150 German translations that appeared in the Knickerbocker, this study has paid special attention to forty-five poems Clark offered in the seven years from 1837 through 1843. These were examined for broad thematic expressions, and the results were related to Clark’s views concerning this literature. For five of these seven years the Knickerbocker was either first or second of all American magazines in having the largest number of German translations.4 To account for the reasons was not the purpose of this study, nor was it the purpose to relate this to German influence that came earlier or later. There was no attempt to make detailed judgments about the aesthetic value of the literature, and there was no attempt to judge the competency of the translations. These poems Clark offered were studied for themes or motifs, which were then evaluated in relation to Clark's ideas about literature as expressed in his writings in the magazine and in relation to the views of other authors whom he had chosen for publication in his magazine. Very simply, it was the purpose of this study to find out what Clark meant by ’’Germanic” literature and what values he assigned to it. He enthusiastically supported the search for and the development of a national vi literature, and this study found some significant con­ nections between his views on the value of German litera­ ture and his use of these translations to help with the development of an American literature. CHAPTER I

THE MAGAZINE

The first three quarters of the nineteenth century- saw America turn into a nation of magazine publishers and. magazine readers. Some 8,000 magazines were introduced during this time, and although many failed within a year or so, never had a people been offered so much reading matter, and never had so many read so much.^ The Kniokerbocker Magazine appeared on the first of January 1833 and was published monthly until the printing of its last issue dated October 1865« After a slow start under several different editors it was purchased by Clement M. Edson and Lewis Gaylord Clark; the latter was to be the magazine’s editor until his retirement in 1861. The magazine rose in circulation from less than 500 to an estimated 5000 per year in Clark’s first three years, and, although never as successful as some of the better known and more durable publications, it was still in its day one of the more permanent and popular of the early general monthly magazines. Bryant, Cooper, and Irving were consistent contributors almost from the beginning, and in spite of the fact that the magazine was published in New York and contained much gossip and news about the city and its people, it was much more than a local, 2 provincial publication; it drew its contributors from all sections of the land and it was distributed throughout the 2 entire country as well. Frank Luther Mott opened his chapter on the Knlck- erbocker with the following sentence: "No American magazine has ever been regarded with more affection by its readers than was "Old Knick11 under Lewis Gaylord Clark’s editorship.a brief article in the Cambridge History of American Literature stated that, in addition to being one of the first of the New York magazines to gain popularity and permanence, the Knickerbocker "was in many 4 ways the best general literary magazine" in the country. It was founded as a literary magazine and remained as such during Clark’s editorship, which ran from May 1834 through December i860. Before Clark took over the magazine, Charles Fenno Hoffman, Samuel Daly Langtree, and Timothy Flint had served as editors. In view of this rapid turnover coupled with poorly managed finances on the part of the publisher, Peabody & Co., it is surprising that the magazine survived its first year and one-half. Under Clark’s aegis the Knlckerbocker moved into a stable, successful period that lasted for some years. In 1839 Clark and his publisher and co-owner, Sdson, parted company. There were several other publishers during Clark’s reign, and two of these, John Allen and Samuel 3 Hueston, worked with him for seven and nine years respec- z tively. Although the magazine was published continuously until October I865, our study ends with Clark’s retirement. In 1861 under the guidance of Charles G. Leland the magazine departed from its role as an exclusively literary publica­ tion and became involved in politics and social issues. Leland felt this was the remedy for the decline in circu­ lation, and as later editors tried to cure the Knicker­ bocker^ financial problems, it became a partisan political organ first for the Republicans and then for the Democrats. In the last days, as part of its social involvement, the magazine was even espousing slavery based on biblical 7 sanction.' A study of the magazine during this period in which it was devoted entirely to literature and the arts (some reviews and notices about painting were always of interest to Clark) reveals several interesting characteristics. The most obvious is that the magazine developed into two distinct parts. The body of the magazine consisted of articles, essays, short stories, features, poems, and all sorts of fare one might expect to find in a magazine of general literary appeal. The balance, which grew a great deal under Clark’s guidance, consisted of "Literary Notices" and the "Editor’s Table." As the title indicates, "Literary Notices" were reviews of books and other periodicals with an occasional reference to a speech or lecture that had 4 literary associations. The ’'Editor’s Table" was Clark’s particular contribution to the magazine and was to a large extent responsible for the magazine’s popularity. Clark’s column was responsible for another characteristic of the magazine, its humor. Clark’s gentle good humor was reflected not only in his column, but also throughout the magazine. One of the most important characteristics» and one that points to the importance of the magazine, was the list of contributors. Most of the writers of the day, known and unknown, appeared in its pages, and many new, young authors received encouragement from Clark and a start in his magazine. Clark’s friendships and relations with his con­ tributors played a large part in the magazine’s success. This is borne out by the fact that in the early 1850s The Knlckerbocker Gallery, "an elaborate gift book," was published, made up of items donated by some of the maga­ zine’s contributors. They published the book as a tribute to Clark, and the proceeds from the sale of the book were to help Clark financially, as a sort of retirement fund. The better known of the magazine’s contributors, fifty-six in all, who donated material for the book were Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Russell Lowell, N. P. Willis, Fitz-Greene Halleck, Donald Grant Mitchell, George H. Boker, Bayard Taylor, T. W. Parson, Epes Sargent, J. G. Saxe, 5 James T. Fields, Charles G. Leland, George W. Curtis, Park Benjamin, Richard Henry Stoddard, and C. F. Briggs. The 8 work was edited by Rufus W. Griswold. In addition to the gift book donors, Clark attracted the following con­ tributors to his magazine: James Fenimore Cooper, John T. Irving, James Paulding, Julian Verplanck, the DaPontes, "Harry Franco," Nathaniel Hawthorne, James G. Whittier, William Ware, Francis Parkman, Willis G. Clark, Robert Montgomery Bird, R. S. McKenzie, Mathew Carey, William Dunlap, Joseph C. Neal, Wm. S. Burton, James Hall, Mrs. Kirkland, Albert Pike, "Ned Buntline," H. R. Schoolcraft, Fred S. Cozzens, Wm. Gilmore Simms, J. N. Reynolds, Wm. Leggett, Wm. L. Stone, Miss Sedgwick, James Crates Percival, Richard Henry Wilde, Lydia Sigourney, Horace Greeley, and 9 John Waters. These are partial lists, but they give some idea of the range of authors that Clark attracted to his magazine in spite of the small fees he was able to pay for their services. Continuing this look at the magazine, there is one contemporary observation of particular interest. It comes from the diary of Philip Hone in which he wrote about the contents of the first issue, saying, ". . ., and the poetry a mere makeweight, written apparently just to fill up such a space on such a page, to which it has been allotted." The account continued, as Hone said he knew the principals, liked them, and wished them well.1^ It 6 should be noted that Hone’s observation is valid and holds for quite a bit of the poetry throughout the magazine; still there is a great deal of poetry and it would be very easy to juggle the shorter pieces to fit the available Inches on the various pages. One does get the impression, however, that sometimes a poem is used as a sort of filler, as Hone suggested. Scholars who have reported on the Knickerbocker generally agree that it held a place of importance in America’s early literary history, and most agree with Mott’s appraisal that the magazine was effective under Clark until the early 1850s, and from then on gradually declined in quality and importance. Some have even placed the start of the decline as early as 184-3, which gives Clark only about ten effective years. 11 Interestingly, in the last half of the year 1859 starting with the number for August and running through the election, the Knickerbocker carried "Legal Notices," which contained official infor­ mation about the state elections as well as a $2,500,000 12 loan, which today would be termed a bond. Then and now this type of information goes into publications of some importance and publications that have very respectable circulation and coverage. This would testify to a con­ tinuing measure of influence or importance for the magazine. As late as 1862 an article on Richard Kimball stated that he had been a contributor since 184-2 and had not failed 7 to have something in every one of the volumes in that twenty year period.1-^ These facts tend to support F. L.

Pattee's statement that Clark nursed the magazine into senility.Although this statement seems a bit strong, It seems to be closer to the truth than the statements which speak of a rapid, almost overnight decline. Clark left the magazine because he had not changed and it had not changed as much as the country had and neither had adapted nor been able to keep pace. Clark and his magazine were almost indistinguishable; "Indeed, he was the magazine, said F. L. Pattee. And in the years when both Clark and his magazine were most effective, the Knickerbocker featured not only most of the major writers of the day, but also some outstanding articles that testify to the magazine’s position as purveyor of unique and often timely literature. Mott’s summary of the magazine’s contents emphasized the broad appeal encom­ passing the entire country, and his conclusion is worthy of notices But this summary gives no idea of the variety of the Knickerbocker in its best years. Such an article as "Mocha Dick, or the White Whale," by one J. N. Rey­ nolds (printed in May, 1839» twelve years before Mel­ ville’s famous treatise on cetology with a similar name) is characteristic. Another unknown had con­ tributed in the proceeding month one of the most striking comments on the railroad building of the period, in a story, "The First Locomotive," with a sequel quite as excellent. Then there was John Water's once famous story of the wooden-legged ghost, "The Iron Footstep," in April, 1840; and many other rather racy and unusual tales ...."io 8 In addition Clark offered an article on Napoleon in 1834; anticipating the very popular series in Harper’s Magazine by more than fifteen years. Clark’s article appeared with a special note from the editor attesting to the importance of this "recent French work.The series of articles on Napoleon that appeared in Harper’s later have been given much credit for the early popularity of that magazine. The Knickerbocker under Clark not only led the way in many areas of literature, but also confined its interests to literary matters, certainly to the exclusion of social and political affairs. One striking example was revealed by the magazine’s contents leading up to and during the period of the Mexican War. There are no articles dealing with this war and there is no mention of it until January of 1850.1® Here in the "Literary Notices" Clark reviewed a book titled The War with Mexico by R. S. Ripley. This is the only reference to the war and the review came almost two years after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Clark’s avoidance of mention of the impending Civil War followed the same pattern with a slightly different twist. Here again there are no references to the growing split and no social or political comments. Again Clark used the "Literary Notices" and this time he "attempted to carry water on both southern and northern shoulders" (to use a phrase of Mott’s in other context). As late as October of i860 he reviewed Frederick Law Olmsted’s A Journey in the 9 Back Country; IQ7 on the next page he printed his review of The Sunny South edited by Prof. J. H. Ingraham of Missi­ on sslppi. In this way he gave each side roughly equal time but still made no direct reference to the growing crisis. 16

CHAPTER II

THE MAN

Lewis Gaylord Clark had a twin brother, Willis Gaylord Clark. There are several dates given for their birth, but 5 October 1808 seems the most reliable. In any case the boys were born in upstate New York in Onondaga County, both their parents having come from New England. Their mother, Lucy Gaylord, had come from Connecticut, and their father had come from Massachusetts. Eliakim Clark, the father, died in 1828, and their mother died in 1840, just one year before the death of Willis. The family was close and the writings of both men attest to an almost idyllic, pastoral childhood. Their maternal uncle, Willis Gaylord, was a noted agricultural writer of the day, and this had a very strong influence on the twins’ interest in literary careers. Another maternal relative, the Reverend George Colton, apparently was responsible for a rather strong religious flavor in their writings. Both boys started their careers in journalism on local newspapers, and Willis finally settled in Philadelphia, where, after establishing himself as an editor and a poet, he took charge of Reif’s Pennsylvania Gazette, the same newspaper that Benjamin Franklin had "1 managed so successfully almost a century before. 11 Lewis followed his brother’s lead and also went to the city; however, he chose New York, where he was intro­ duced to the literary people by the editor of the Knlcker- 2 booker. Although Clark was to write so often of the simple joys of country life, he was a confirmed urbanite and bon vivant. He loved New York, the excitement, the people, and most of all, the action. He was one of that vast group of people in the early part of the nineteenth century who gravitated to the exciting urban centers from the quiet rural areas, and his New England background put him in the same mold as the group Van Wyck Brooks wrote about, saying: Thus the three leading New Yorkers of the moment were a wandering village showman [Barnum], a backwoods revivalist minister [Beecher] and a rural printer [Greeley], ---- transformed in scale alone, unchanged in nature, ---- all of them New Englanders and all reflecting the rustic tone that still prevailed in the metropolis as throughout the country.> Although the Knickerbocker was a literary success, Clark barely kept his head above water financially for the entire time he was editor. His letters are full of his money problems and all accounts of the publishing of the magazine deal with the financial involvements, requests for loans, excuses to contributors for late or even non-payment, and failure of many readers to pay for their subscriptions. It seems he had outside help with his living expenses (he lived comfortably) in addition to personal loans and an occasional government job. 12 Although Clark kept the magazine out of politics and politics out of the magazine, after his retirement he worked in the Customs House on an appointment from his 4 brother’s old friend, W. H. Seward. A letter to Longfellow in December of 1841 after Willis’ death gently accused the professor of indifference and of being in Clark’s debt some three or four letters. Then before closing with a paragraph referring to his brother’s death and the sadness with which he collates his papers, Clark referred to the money that the Knickerbocker owed Longfellow: Now, my Dear Longfellow, I hope you know that a pecuniary thought was with me the last, in con­ nection with the K. Beyond the means that gave me leave to toil for its interests, God knows, I never cared; and to be able to pay those friends who helped to make it eminent, was my most anxious wish. How the business has been managed ---- how this management has grieved me ---- what privations often, and what trouble always, have weighed upon me, you do not know. But your friend Ward can tell you now (what until yester­ day or day before he did not know) that every­ thing that I could do has been done, and that at a sacrifice which I have been unwilling to communicate, even to you. So much for the ’’old matter" ---- which so far from wishing to be "cancelled," I desire only effectually to remember. But whgfl this can be done, I cannot tell. Out of |5,8 00 due us from subs, at the transfer of half the good will in June I have not received one penny. If you will let me hope to do you but justice, sh’d justice ever be done to us, I shall like it better than the "cancelling" which you seem to think would be acceptable to me. In the meantime, as I told Ward months ago, the new publishers will be as liberal and prompt with you as any of their contemporaries. I hope you see why I wrote as I did ---- and I hope you will pardon the medium ---- the ex­ aggerated lines of a friend who thought himself aggrieved.5 13 It is a tribute to Clark’s personal charm or at least to the fine relations he had with his contributors that he was able to consistently hold and attract so many of the writers of the day. The younger, unknown authors might put up with no payment or slow payment just to have the exposure the Kniokerbocker could give them, but it is interesting that Longfellow stayed on Clark's roster and was even willing, apparently, to cancel the back payments that were due him. Long after he had received world recognition Washington Irving also continued to contri­ bute to Clark’s magazine even though he was never able to collect his yearly salary of $2,000. The fact that many authors, known and unknown, contributed to the magazine for so many years, knowing they might be paid little or nothing suggests several things. First, the established authors might have been convinced that the magazine performed a valuable function so they were willing to continue with their articles in spite of unsatisfactory payment. Either the magazine performed this function or it gave these writers the kind of vehicle they wanted; both point to the importance of the magazine in the eyes of these established writers. Next, the majority of contributors might have had a measure of affection for Clark and respect for what he was trying to do, which made them continue their support. Last, the almost universal quest for a national literature 14 must have had some influence on all of the contributors. This quest was a strong element in Clark’s writings, in the statements from the earlier editors, in the articles of many contributors, and even in some of the letters from readers. Of course, the temper or mood of the times would also suggest and support this; we shall return to this quest later. Whether for these reasons or for others, it is a tribute to the man that he could draw from the major writers of the country for the entire time of his editorship. It also points to his influence in the period of America’s literary infancy and to the importance of his magazine. When Clark first came to metropolitan New York he was a writer of miscellaneous items, and he soon became acquainted with the literary people of the city. This was made possible largely through the introduction by Hoffman, which was enhanced by the reputation of his brother, Willis, in Philadelphia. Lewis Clark was a handsome man, vivacious and full of gentle good humor. He was credited with good taste and good judgment, and ”he wielded a powerful and healthy influence upon American authorship.The importance of Willis’s reputation is supported by Duyckinck in his CAL; here he mentioned first o the twin from Philadelphia and gave him the longer article. Lewis Gaylord Clark quickly established himself as a prominent member of New York’s literary family and 15 became active in many societies and organizations. He was a charter member of the Century Club along with Asher B. Durand and William Cullen Bryant. He was for years an active member of the St. Nicholas Society and every February, as exclusive reporter, enthusiastically chronicled the annual meeting in his magazine.He helped young artists as well as young writers and reported on many art exhibits throughout his years as editor. During this period when New York was fast becoming an important literary center, Clark knew well and was friendly with almost all of the literary people of the city. In addition to the large group of friends he had among the writing community of New York, he maintained a long lasting relationship as correspondent with most of the major writers of the day. Among this large group of regular correspondents were Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, Fanny Kemble, William H. Seward, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Fitz-Greene Halleck, and Charles Dickens.In addition to the above regulars Clark wrote to Nathaniel Hawthorne, John Pendleton Kennedy, Jared Sparks, Rufus W. Griswold, E. A. Duyckinck, Francis Park- man, G. P. Putnam, and L. A. Godey.In a letter to Godey he gently and politely declined to contribute to the Philadelphian’s magazine, pleading the lack of time caused by the running of his own publication. And, indeed, Clark devoted tremendous amounts of time to his 16 beloved. "K. ” During the last three weeks of the month he would arise early and often work past midnight to get the magazine ready for publication, ready in a manner consistent with his high standards. He worked very closely with his printers and even the typesetters; the best evidence of this careful supervision is the lack of errors in the magazine.13 Almost 40,000 pages were scanned in this study, and although this was not a proof-reading exercise, only one misspelled word was noted and this was before Clark’s editorship. 14 Clark was also dedicated to the search for suitable material for his magazine. His letters to this latter group of authors dealt largely with business matters as he solicited "one, or an occasional article" from Kennedy in a letter addressed: "To the author of ’Horse-Shoe Robinson.’" This was in 1835, the year Kennedy’s book appeared.In a letter to Francis Parkman, Clark thanked him for his "excellent sketch" and requested more. Parkman had chosen the Knickerbocker for his first article and Clark had printed it in 1845.^^ Two years later The Oregon Trail appeared serially in Clark’s maga­ zine. Another example of Clark’s concern for the contents and material he would offer is demonstrated in his courting of Washington Irving. Shortly after he took charge of the Knickerbocker he made a point of vacationing near Irving’s home on the Hudson in order to meet the man who had pro­ vided the name for his journal; not only was he successful 17 In meeting Irving and signing him as a regular, they became close friends. Clark spent his summers on the Hudson close to Irving, and when they were in town Irving often visited the editor in his office, which was in his home, and he and Irving would often read proofs and trade gossip through the af ternoons.-^ Along with the solicitation of material for the Knickerbocker and the actual editing of the magazine, Clark wrote the "Literary Notices." Mainly literary reviews, this department occasionally covered a scholarly lecture or a speech that might be of interest to the editor and his readers. Clark’s reviews were generally favorable. He was a strong supporter of American letters and, as will be seen, was vitally interested in the development of a national literature. This interest plus the practice of "puffing" were probably responsible for so many favor­ able reviews. Yet in I856, Clark wrote over five pages of comments on Rose Clark, a sentimental novel by Fanny Fern. The review did not praise and it did not condemn; it offered a number of quotations and covered the story, but it did show Clark to be a rather competent judge of the mood and culture of the times, as well as the taste of the country. Then too it showed some aesthetic discernment and a certain reluctance to praise everything just because it was American. The close of his article showed this as he wrote: 18 But ‘Rose Clark’ will be read, and widely read: and every reader will judge for himself,or her­ self. For ourselves, we ’do n’t exactly like it.»18 In addition to his editorial duties and job as literary critic, Clark developed his own personal column, titled the "Editor’s Table." About this column Duyckinck said, "He has become widely known by his monthly Editor’s Table and Gossip with Readers and Correspondents." This latter was a portion or subdivision of the entire feature. These were characterized by "jests," "on dlts of the day," and "a light running comment,The popularity of Clark’s column caused him to be chosen to develop a similar one for the Harpers when they started their new magazine. This column, the "Drawer," was patterned after the one Clark was still writing for his own magazine. He wrote this for Harper*s Magazine until 1854, when a Methodist minister, the Rev. S. Irenaeu Prine, D.D., said to James Harper: This Drawer in your MAGAZINE contains a good many objectionable anecdotes; you sometimes ad­ mit a profane word, and I occasionally find mat­ ter that I do not think is in the highest degree delicate. When Harper interrupted him to ask if he could do better, on Prine said he could and he got the job. It is interesting that Clark lost this job for not being as "delicate" as the minister desired; just the year before he had asked a contributor to the Kni ckerbocker To change a line in a ooem. The objectionable phrase was, "Forward! — fire 19 and thunder!---- forward,’” Clark was afraid that people other than a "brave commander” had given the offensive "fire and thunder” a meaning that was too vulgar.22 When the poem appeared in print the offending line had been changed to, "Forward.’ — like the pealing thunder. ”2^ Whatever Clark’s problems were with Harper’s, there is nothing off-color about the contents of his "Editor’s Table." This column gave the Kniokerbocker a distinctive, personal character and stamped it throughout with Clark’s taste and good humor. The column had a very intimate style which was enhanced by the addition of the section titled "Gossip with Headers and Correspondents," which encouraged and received literary contributions from readers as well as letters dealing with many things. In a way this column was a forerunner of today’s gossip and advice columns, as well as being one of the first to encourage the sending of letters to the editor. Every person who has written about the Knickerbocker has given credit to this department as being an indis- pensible part of the magazine. Mott’s description is one of the best; in it, after stressing the importance of humor in the magazine and the contribution to the magazine's humor made by this section, he says: Not that the "Editor’s Table" was wholly humorous. It varied somewhat in its existence from 1837 to Clark’s retirement in i860, and more after that; but it usually had some chat with correspondents, some talky book notices, and notes on the drama, 20 music and the fine arts, many clippings from con­ temporary newspapers, some gossip and reminiscences, selected verse (oftenest of a comic cast), and many well-told anecdotes. There was not much in it that was serious, and nothing at all that was heavy. Most of the materiel was borrowed, and conversely the department was much borrowed from. It brought Clark a reputation, and had as many correspondents as the "colyum" of a modern newspaper. ... By 1853 it was occupying a third of the pages in the magazine; and, being printed in smaller type than the rest, furnished at least half the total words. Though devoid of illustration, the "Table" was one of the best comic journals ever published in America.24 Although Mott was a little enthusiastic about the percent­ age of space that was devoted to the ’’Table,” he put his finger on one of the reasons for the magazine’s long life and success, as well as the principle reason for the mag­ azine’s hold on its readers. Clark’s rather remarkable memory made him an ideal man for such a column. He was credited with being able to ”go through the entire morning and evening service of the Episcopal Church, and vary it without mistake in word, for each succeeding Sunday."2-’ This ability enabled him to reach quickly into his memory for the poem, quota­ tion, or anecdote that he needed for his column. One of Clark’s greatest accomplishments, one that might be expected to be strongly touted in his column, was engineering Charles Dickens’s visit to the United States. Clark initiated a correspondence with the English author that grew and lasted for many years; he has even been given credit for suggesting that Dickens visit this 21 country. Dickens did in time make this visit In 1842, and, having landed at Boston, he eventually came to New York. Clark received him and had the honor of enter­ taining him on the day of his arrival. In deference to his American friend, Dickens and his wife joined the Clarks at their home for one of Lewis’s famous dinners. Other guests were Dr. and Mrs. Wainwright (he later became a bishop), Irving, Halleck, David Graham, Dr. Cogswell, and Henry Inman, the artist. Here was an excellent opportunity for Clark to bask in the reputation of his famous guest, but, he not only made no mention of the dinner, he had previously "notified his readers that he should not give any detailed description of his [Dickens’s] progress through the country."2^ Normally he left no

stone unturned in his efforts to promote his magazine. That Clark should not even mention Dickens’s visit and, most especially, his being entertained in his own home is Indeed baffling. Both the dinner and the tracing of the Englishman’s journey would have been excellent grist for the mill of Clark’s column. Yet not a word or reference can be found other than the statement above that no mention would be made. After his retirement from the magazine, Clark worked in the New York Custom House during I863 and 1864.2? In a letter dated 24 April I863 he solicited placement for some of his literary reviews, reviews 22 similar to those featured in his "Literary Notices." Here he "repudiated the idea of being thought a simply ’humorous’ man." Admittedly he was trying to sell his services, but his interest in current literary matters was evident as he referred to a character from a popular play of the period. In spite of his initial repudiation even his sense of humor was evident as he referred to being "in the service of our common ’Uncle’ Samuel" and noted that he had a private office and plenty of time in which to write the reviews with adequate care. The letter ended as Clark said he would take whatever pay was deemed fair. One gets the impression from this letter that here is a man who has outlived his time, and, indeed, F. L. Pattee suggested this when he wrote that Clark had nursed the Knickerbocker into senility. Clark’s obituary in the New York 'Times stated that his magazine had "stood its ground" for twenty years but failed for lack of new, younger contributors.2^ One of the most revealing articles supporting this fading away of the old order was titled "Knickerbocker Literature" and appeared in The Nation six years before Clark’s death. Occasioned by the death of Fitz-Greene Halleck, it reminisced about the "school of writers which produced this literature." This school, which acknowledged Irving as master, was compared to America’s literary giants, Longfellow, Emerson, Hawthorne, 23 and Lowell, who had thrown the early group "Into utter eclipse." The article closed by stating that Irving’s group was probably not very valuable in the minds of the average critic of the day, but Americans, generally, would be glad it had existed. There was the hint these "’prentice hands" had led to the great men listed. Interestingly Clark was mentioned twice in the article. He was noted as an "ex officio" member of the Irving school, by virtue of his editorship of the Knlckerbocker. The other mention, coming just seven years after he left the magazine, said: Lewis Gaylord Clark came again to the surface the other day after a perfectly characteristic fashion — a fashion characteristic, at any rate, of the school of which he was one, not, perhaps, characteristic of him; we know next to nothing about him — in a letter written a propos of Mr. Dickens’s arrival.3° Clark also surfaced from time to time with an article for Harper*s or some other periodical on the order of the reference made to Dickens in the article from The Nation. He still formed one of the few links with this past, and his articles were largely reminis- cent and personal in nature.-317 In 1873 he suffered a stroke and died shortly thereafter. The last two sentences of his obituary seem to best describe his passing: With him may be said to close the literature of the past, of which Washington Irving may be taken as the chief exponent. It was scholarly, it was humorous, it was pleasing, but it produced no strong man, and was, indeed, a reproduction of English classics, an echo from the Addisonian era.32 3i

CHAPTER III

THE VALUE OF GERMAN LITERATURE

By the time Clark had taken charge of the Knicker­ bocker, Germany had already exercised a strong influence on American literature. Henry A. Pochmannhas outlined this influence adequately, and it needs no summary here except to mention that the Gothic and the Storm and Stress were declining factors as America entered the antebellum period. William Charvat has remarked of George Bancroft — Gottingen-trained in both religion and the new historical method — that his attitude was fairly typical of this early nineteenth century period: ’'Americans disliked gloominess in literature, and rarely failed to remark on it in their reviews of the Germans, of Byron, and of such of our own poets as indulged in it.’’^ During Clark’s editorship evidence of this change can be seen, and although some of the literature Clark offered was gloomy and even, at times, rather wild and melancholy, most of it was moving away from the late eighteenth century in­ fluence so evident in Charles Brockden Brown’s Wieland. In addition, one can notice this charge in Clark’s stated attitudes toward German literature. In this chapter Clark’s attitudes toward German literature and his reasons for offering it will be con­ sidered. As noted earlier this was the period of 25 Pochmann’s "German craze" and Goodnight’s "German fad." Goodnight further defined this early nineteenth century period by breaking it into three sections and listing the relation of German literature to each one. The first period covered the years from 1800 to about 181?, and during this time America’s German literature came from England, from the English periodicals and the English scholars who had made translations from the German. The next period covered the years from approximately 1818 to the middle 1830s. At this time the first fruits of American scholarship were being realized as German litera­ ture was introduced to the colleges and universities by the Americans who had been trained in that country. There were also a number of German scholars who moved to this country at that time. The third and final period covered the years from about 1835 to 1846. Here Goodnight used the demise of the Dial as an arbitrary stopping point. He labeled this the period in which German literature was Introduced to the general American public through the p magazines and other periodicals. It was during this last period Clark presented the bulk of his German offer­ ings to his readers. Interestingly the early editors of the Knicker- bocker offered more German literature in the magazine’s first sixteen months than Clark did in his first two and one-half years as editor. Even in this span, from his 26 assumption of the editorship through 1836, Clark printed only three poems that were more than just two or four line introductions to other works. It was not until 1837 that a distinct change began, for starting with this year Clark offered, almost without exception, literature from the German that was complete in itself, not just an introduction or prefix to another piece. This practice of attaching prefixes or epigraphs to articles was very similar to the Puritans* earlier use of passages of Scripture for the Illumination of a text. If one merely counts the insertions from the German, then Clark used more than his predecessors, and this indicates that from the beginning he gave it some position of importance. Lack of available translations could have been responsible for this rather small number of complete works during his early years, but, for whatever reason from 1837 on through 1843 Clark offered sixty-two of the approximately 150 pieces of German literature that were reproduced in the Knickerbocker.®

In an unpublished doctoral dissertation Herman E. Spivey devoted a chapter to foreign literature that had appeared in the Knickerbocker, and although there were translations from twenty different languages, over forty i), percent of the insertions came from the German. Spivey echoed Pochmann and Goodnight as to the importance of presenting this German literature to the American reading public. 27 In Clark’s mind and in the minds of many of his con­ tributors one of the central functions of German literature was to stimulate the fancy or imagination. This can be seen, of course, as a link with what has been called Romanti cism and as a turning away from the Age of Reason. Any popular journal is to a large extent a mirror or reflection of its day, but one of the concerns of this study is the question of whether Clark might have been more than just a mirror for the culture of the time. This study supports the contention that Clark played a decided role in the shaping or molding of some of the attitudes of the day. This can be seen in the fact that he assumed a position of leadership in the offering of German translations, and it is also reflected in his reasons for offering this litera­ ture. These reasons assume great importance as his emphasis on mystery, awe, and gradeur become apparent. This emphasis which stresses the use of the imagination, is linked to Romanticism and puts Clark’s taste and influence directly into the mainstream of the great American literature that was produced in the 1850s. Although there was much in the Knickerbocker that can be linked to the "feminine fifties," this (additional) emphasis also links him with Hawthorne.

Fancy, Imagination, and a National Literature At the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century America had stood up to England in two wars, had presented to the world its functioning democratic form of 28 government, and had reached a level of inventive and mechanical competence that was fast becoming the envy of all. In many areas this new country had matched or even surpassed the accomplishments of Europe, but America lagged in the arts and there was a universal yearning for some sort of excellence in this area, particularly the area of literature. The early editors of the Knickerbocker before Clark had expressed this longing for a national literature on three separate occasions starting with the very first article in the first issue. Hoffman and Langtree had stressed the need for a truly original American literature in the last article of the second volume;? thus the year 1833 opened and closed for the

Kni okerbocker with this plea for a national literature. These articles were not so optimistic as Emerson about the fullness of the time; nevertheless, they anticipated his publication of Nature and The American Scholar. In I833 the opening article of Volume II pled for "a National American Literature . . . the dearest idol of our heart.” fi When Clark assumed the editorship of the Kniokerbocker he set forth his philosophy for the direc­ tion of the magazine in a short "Advertisement" saying that there would be no extravagant promises, just a magazine that would stand upon its "work." He concluded that, "With this brief Programme, the KNICKERBOCKER MAGAZINE is submitted to a discerning and generous 29 public, to stand or fall by their decision.This emphasis on catering to the opinions of his reading public runs throughout the period of Clark’s control, and whatever his role as molder or shaper of opinion, it was subtly, almost unconsciously, done, Clark was unlike B. 0. Flower of Arena, who, at the end of the nineteenth century carried a bright torch for all kinds of causes. To this emphasis on pleasing his readers Clark added that his desire was to create a national magazine that would "do honour to American Literature."^ He must have

been imbued with the current spirit of nationalism, because his cry was not for a truly great American literature; rather he hoped to produce a magazine to match the native art. Apparently he, like Emerson, felt that the time had arrived. To aid in the development of its own national literature America could look to two'models: England, mother country, with the mother tongue and her great literary tradition; and Germany, Teutonic ancestor just recently emerged from barbarism, with her literary position of eminence. In one of the early articles (before Clark) calling for a national literature a conversation takes place between the author and old Diedrich Knickerbocker, the magazine’s patron and namesake. The old "shade" approaches the end of the conversation by saying: As it is, we must wait until the vast inequality of surface with population will be proportioned ---- until 30 that unceasing current, which the necessities of the old societies of earth has caused to flow for three hundred years into the bosom of this land, shall have restored the level of the world ---- until its vast regions and unexplored territories shall have ceased to cry ’give, give, give’ ---- in the satiety of their flourishing improvement ---- then, my son, and not till then, we may look for a native Milton, whose song will be pregnant with celestial fire -— then we may look for a Skakspeare, [sic] whose genius, ’dipped in heaven’, can catch and communicate the glorious but unrevealed imaginings, whose pulsations throb through every scene. Then we may look for that truest poetry, the poetry of feeling. Then we may expect that loftiest eloquence, whose images and energy spring only from the heart.H The fact that America must wait for the land to be filled with people before a national literature could develop was not consistent with Clark’s views. He, as noted., was more optimistic. Yet this quotation is typical of both Clark and his magazine as it stresses the word ’poetry’ as synonym for literature and as it speaks of this literature of feeling as something that would spring from the heart. Clark did not agree with the idea of the late flowering of America's literature, but he was heartily in accord with the idea that great literature was linked to and sprang from the heart. In his first year as editor Clark offered in the issue for January 1835 an article titled "The Hosicrucian Philosophy"; it opened by stating that: Mankind have become more learned if not wiser, and perhaps better than they were some three or four centuries ago, but probably no happier and certainly less poetical. The schoolmaster is a fierce and relentless iconoclast, and has broken and cast down 31 with an unsparing hand the beautiful Images upon which our Imaginative forefathers lavished their false, but sincere and enthusiastic worship. The march of intellect has scattered and trodden under foot all that was lovely in superstition ---- all that appealed to the fancy ---- ... .12 Clark was not alone in his desire for a literature or a literary climate that would bring about a larger play of fancy or imagination, a literature that would appeal to the heart, the feelings. He did, however, recognize these characteristics in certain German literature, and he did offer to his readers large quantities of such literature. He was an early supporter of Schiller, 13 and although Goethe's personal life and outlook put him off more than a little, Clark used some of his poems and Interspersed unfavorable criticism of the German with bits of praise. In fact, in his first three years with the Knickerbocker there were five notices or reviews of books translated from the German. These were in addition to the regular articles offered in the magazine as well as the references and insertions in his column. In March 1839 there appeared an article that dealt with travel through Europe, and the section devoted to Germany stated that that country was now a mighty land, even though only a short while back it had been "synonomous with barbarism." Having listed printing, gunpowder and the Reformation among Germany's contributions to the world, the article continued: Above all, and in truth among the greatest miracles of human intelligence, towers the glory of having 32 created and inspired with life and wondrous beauty, a literature, of which modern times cannot equal the splendor or originality. Comparison was made with France and the French language, and both suffered by it.1^

Not Transparent, Not Opaque, But Translucent Very quickly Clark limned more fully his stand concerning the value of German literature as a stimulator of the imagination. The old style, the plain, matter-of- fact, almost scientific style, of the eighteenth century was too sterile, but the change to be sought must not move toward too much obscurity lest the literature become unfathomable. This was the trend to which Clark now addressed himself. The seeking of an antidote for the old style had carried many too far in the other direction ---- toward obscurity. This was not stimulation of the imagination; it was just plain confusion and undecipher­ able nonsense. In mid 1839 the Knickerbocker rather emphatically signalled, with two major reviews, this further definition concerning German literature. In the "Editor’s Table" for July, in a section headed "Ger­ manic Infections: Dr. Channing" Clark rejoiced to have found in the Edinburgh Review "a severe critique upon the literary Germanosltles of the day." He referred to "a vague and shadowy style of writing," which had cropped up in imitation of Coleridge and most recently Carlyle. Clark allowed that the two English authors, though 33 promoters of this school, did. relieve their "pompous word­ iness ... by gems of thought," but that reading their imitators, "who seek out unmeaning conceits, and pad out their sentences until they are as stiff as the bust of an exquisite," was "at best, a soporific employment." German literature, which had been held in awe, was to some extent challenged indirectly through its proponents and their imitators. This criticism from Edinburgh was an attack on Dr. Channing, who had stated in an article, ’Remarks on the Character and Writings of Milton,’ that in any literary style energy and richness were "qualities vastly nobler and more important than simplicity." Clark sided with the criticism from Edinburg, and, having presented some of Channing’s arguments from his article on Milton, Clark then challenged these arguments. In one instance he cited Channing’s example that many writings were clear because they, like small rivers, were shallow, whereas, the ocean with its great depth was not to be compared to a "calm inland stream." To this argument of Channing’s Clark posed these questions, Did Dr. Channing ever sail near the Bahamas,' and gaze, on a calm day into the clear, far-down deep? If he has, will he tell us whether that mighty element was less sublime, because its vast abysses could be fathomed with the naked eye? In further support of the position against Channing Clark quoted large portions of the Edinburg article. This 34 article was extremely harsh and the portion Clark quoted accused Channing, among other things, of being a riddle maker; it referred to his style and "its evil influence, in most careless thinking and most faulty diction." One portion of this ended by stating that this type of writing was usually done by those who were seeking novelty or who were just plain lazy. Then Clark quoted another section which had applauded Sir Walter Scott’s great art of description in regard to nature and character along with his ability to display passion and feeling. The reason given was that "he would draw on his own fancy for filling up the interstices, or supplying vacancies in the models which nature furnished." This was followed by a long wordy example taken from the realm of painting. Clark closed his article with a single sentence after this last quotation: We commend this article of the Edinburgh to the young writers of our country, and to all such as aspire to be ’baptized into the inner soul of nature,’ or in other words, who hanker after German mysticism, as, by contrast, a clear and valuable model for exerci tati on. In the next issue Clark wrote about "German Manner­ isms." Citing an article in the Foreign Quarterly Review he said that that magazine had at last realized the "Germanomania" had been overdone; there was indiscriminate admiration for all that bore "the shadowy, subtile, and meditative impress of German peculiarity." These views were stated in the first two sentences. Clark had 35 apparently received, some comments and. reactions touched off by his article about Dr. Channing, because the second sentence was footnoted as follows: It may not be amiss to mention, in this place, that the remarks in our last number, upon the ’Germanic infections* of the day, were not intended to apply, as some have seemed to infer, to the general style of Dr. Channing. We were ’rejoiced to find a severe critique upon the Germanosities of the time,’ in the Edinburgh Review, because an uncanvassed verdict in their favor, from so high an authority as Dr. Channing, would be likely to increase them an hundred fold, through the license which would at once be taken by Inferior intellects. It was the new and pernicious doctrine, born, we believed, of the Germano-mania, and sanctioned by Dr. Channing, that we were glad to see assailed; and not the talents of an author, to whose distinguished aid, in the extension of our literary repute abroad, this periodical has borne frequent and cordial testi­ mony. Eds. Knickerbocker.I' Clark’s first article was certainly not complimentary to Dr. Channing, and as can be seen from the footnote, he backed away from whatever impression he might have given that would malign Channing’s style or talents. But it is extremely interesting to note that he did not disavow his protest against the "new and pernicious doctrine" and the support that it had received from Channing. Here Clark’s attitudes toward German literature are given further definition. Apparently, in I839, he held that German literature had great value as a stimulator of the imagination, that Coleridge and most recently Carlyle were the chief English proponents, and that they had faults as well as "gems of thought." More importantly, 36 Clark felt that these faults had been carried to excess by the "second-hand" Imitators, i.e., the imitators of Coleridge and Carlyle. Clark maintained this attitude to the end of his editorship: one of the great beauties of German literature, and therefore, of the utmost importance, was a vagueness that must still be under­ standable. This is best described by an example that compares literature with glass; it should be translucent rather than transparent. In fact, here was the beauty and the stimulation to the imagination, but it must never be opaque. And here was a model for American authors to follow; they were to strike a balance between an unin­ teresting matter of fact style and an ornate style, so cloudy as to be undecipherable. Clark retreated from this sally against one of America’s leading literary men. Channing was highly regarded abroad and the spirit of the day called for support, not attack. In the second review Clark swiftly shifted to an attack on Goethe, and the balance of the article followed this tack. He moved to a safe position by comparing Goethe to Shake­ speare, saying that Goethe was, A writer who never hesitates to paint the grossest depravity, and even depicts it with a sort of zest; whose sensual scenes and sentiments debauch the understanding, inflame the sleeping passions, and prepare the reader to give way so soon as a tempter appears; Clark then quoted praise of Shakespeare from other articles.1® He was now back on firm ground; he had 37 extolled Shakespeare, whipped Goethe, and condemned the excesses of foreign influence. This influence could be expected and it was welcome, but America must abjure the faulty and take only the good. In November of the same year the Knickerbocker carried an article titled "Gimcrack the Fourth,” which was written in a style much like that of Clark’s column. In it there appeared this reference to Goethe in a short paragraph that had to do with some alleged youthful literary criticism of the German author: ’Seventy-five are essays on the genius of Goethe; but as we are among those who deny that the libi­ dinous old scribbler had any particular genius, it cannot be expected that we should waste our time in noticing the rigamarole of those who maintain a contrary opinion.’19 Goethe was both admired and condemned, and the influence of German literature was both admired and con­ demned; Clark presented both sides. In February, 1840, Clark reproduced part of a letter that came "from the pen of a young and ’talented’ correspondent, whose affection for Mother Nature passes the love of women." In the excerpt the young man reported having seen a sunset, and, as he raised his "fervent aspirations with Goethe," he quoted the German: ’See how the green-girt cottages shimmer in the setting sun’ He bends and sinks. Yonder he hurries off, and quickens other life. AJLas! that I have no wing to lift me from the ground, to struggle after him! ---- to see in everlasting evening beams the stilly world at my feet; every height on fire ---- every vale in repose; the rugged mountains, with its dark defiles; the heavens above, and under me, the waves!’20 38 Here imagination can link the sun with God or creator, and, of course, here Goethe’s quotation fits into Clark’s concept of the value of German literature and he used it. In mid 1853 Clark printed a letter in his "Editor’s Table" from a "friend and correspondent, ’Carl Benson.’" In the letter Benson referred to a German poem that he had enclosed (which Clark printed) "as a bit of German sentiment, and, as is apt to be the case with such effusions, a little bit cloudy of purport, though with 21 a great appearance of simplicity." Here is an exact echo of Clark’s view of one of the most important and distinguishing marks of German literature: the hidden meaning, barely suggested ---- the simple appearance which has deeper meaning that requires the use of the reader’s imagination before the meaning or meanings will be found. It must not be so "cloudy" however, as to be impenetrable. This repeats Clark’s views about German literature and the imitators as defined in his two articles of 1839 outlined above, a stand that he maintained throughout his editor­ ship of the Knickerbocker. Later Clark referred to a passage as being purely "Germanic and imaginative." This was from a new trans­ lation of Heine’s work by Charles G. Leland, a frequent Knickerbocker contributor, and although the editor would not have been above "puffing" his friend’s translantion, Clark’s underscored portions from Leland’s work, which are 39 here reproduced, fit the pattern as developed: Perfumes are the feelings of flowers, and as the human heart feels most powerful emotions in the night, when it believes itself to be alone and unperceived, so also do the flowers, soft-minded yet ashamed, appear to wait for concealing darkness, that they give themselves wholly up to their feelings, and breathe them out in sweet odors. ... in her breast is heaven with all its raptures, and as she breathes, my heart, though, afar, throbs responsively. Behind the silken lids of her eyes, the sun has gone down, and when they are raised, the sun rises, and birds sing, and the bells of the flock tinkle, and I strap on my knapsack and depart.*22 In a letter to Longfellow, Clark referred to another German poem that he had included in his column; here he told the professor he was stirred by the metaphors in the piece. In fact, his "hair rose up with the original conceits and wild sublimity" of the poem, when he first read it.2^ Clark’s ideas about German literature and its stirring of the imagination went beyond the province of the regular metaphor or simile, and in the "Literary Notices" for August 1842 there was a review of a book by Novalis (Friedrich Von Hardenberg). In presenting in the words of another what was his accepted view of this particular German author, Clark was merely giving his assent to the same position. In writing this article Clark was apparently pressed for time; at least, he said so at the end. All of the direct comments about Novalis were quotations of Ludwig Tieck’s, which would support Clark’s statement about being rushed. The comments, however, coincided with Clark’s ideas about German 40 literature, and the most striking of these was that Novalis considered the commonplace things or everyday- events as almost supernatural, whereas those things that were by common consent extraordinary he seemed to consider as ordinary or regular. The article stated that Novalis sang "’an unfathomable mystical song.’"2^

Clark * s Views Applied to Specific Works There is a difference between this "unfathomable mystical song" and the opaqueness that Clark criticised so much, and a poem by Ludwig Uhland that Clark offered in 1840 gives one of the best illustrations of this difference; it also presents one of the best examples of what Clark meant by the stimulation of the imagination. Parted from thee, as one entomb’d am I; Sweet Summer’s balmy blooms no longer cheer; Nor Nature’s minstrelsy delights mine ear; The very morning sun shines drearily. But when soft Slumber seals each living eye, And sheeted ghosts are from the church-yards streaming, Then does my Spirit, disenthrall'd and dreaming, O’er hill and vale to thy dear presence fly. Through the forbidden garden fearless going, And through the door that erst was closed to me, I reach the quiet chamber of my love: And does my Spirit frighten thee, sweet Dove? It is the breath of love that falls on thee: Farewell! I seek my grave: the cock is crowing! At first glance this poem tells a rather simple story of a young lover, departed, whose Spirit visits his love in the nighttime and returns to the grave at dawn. The first conclusion probably, is that the narrator is dead, but a 4l careful reading of the first line can raise some doubts. Looking closely, one sees that the narrator is "as" one dead when parted from his love. In this way the poem can become the lament of a parted lover, who dreams of his love at night. The poem can be read with the narrator dead or just separated; the narrator can be man or woman. Here then is a rather simple poem with several possible interpretations, any one of which is plausible. This poem fits as an "unfathomable song" which can be under­ stood, yet the use of some imagination is required to give the poem a complete reading. In the area of religion this German poetry Clark featured allows the imagination much play, and although there is much in the literature that is religious, it is religion without doctrine, creed, liturgy, or church. It is an offense to no one, hence can be accepted by all. God is presented as loving Father, a sort of big Innkeeper in the sky. This is not necessarily anti-Christian, but it is a far different emphasis from that of the Puritans. This can be seen in one of the very few poems that has a definite Christian meaning, though a first reading may not reveal it. In November of 1842 Clark reviewed a book of German songs and ballads. After a brief description of some of the characteristics of these translations, he devoted a few lines to Piety, and introduced this poem by saying, 42 Piety can ask no more beautiful expression of Its most soothing and elevating sense of the omni- prescence of a loving Father. The poet speaks in a spirit akin to that of Him who said that he was never alone, and who ’had seen the Father.’ There followed immediately the poem "Mountain and Valley" by Friedrich Krummacher.

MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY On Alpine heights the love of God is shed: He paints the morning red, The flowerets white and blue, And feeds them with his dew. On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. On Alpine heights, o’er many a fragrant heath, The lovliest breezes breathe; So free and pure the air, His breath seems floating there. On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. On Alpine heights, beneath his mild blue eye, Still vales and meadows lie; The soaring glacier’s ice Gleams like a Paradise. On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. Down Alpine heights the silvery streamlets flow; There the bold chamois go; On giddy crags they stand, And drink from his own hand. On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. On Alpine heights, in troops all white as snow, The sheep and wild goats go; There, in the solitude, He fills their hearts with food. On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. On Alpine heights the herdsman tends his herd; His Shepherd is the Lord; For he who feeds the sheep Will sure his offspring keep. 2z On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells. In much of this literature a Christian interpretation can be found or traced but usually it is a matter of personal ^3 interpretation as in the poem of Uhland’s that was just considered. The Christian thread is often there if the reader wishes to read the poem that way, just as he could consider the narrator dead or alive, man or woman. In Krummacher’s poem the opening lines state that Cod’s love is shed upon the Alps; this is repeated in every stanza as the last line of each states, "On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells." A quick reading of the poem gives little more than this plus a strong celebration of Nature; however, a closer examination reveals th pronoun *Hls* italicized twice. In each case the pronoun starts a line and is naturally capitalized; in the context of the poem italicizing the pronoun makes it stand for God. The last stanza opens, "On Alpine heights the herdsman tends his herd; / His Shepherd is the Lord;" the pronoun before Shepherd would refer to herdsman of the previous line if it were not italicized, as it is it refers to God. Like­ wise, earlier there is a reference to "His breath," which becomes the third part of the Trinity with very little imaginative reading. Here then is God, the loving Father; God represented as Son when "His Shepherd is the Lord;" and God as Holy Spirit with "His breath." This is one of very few pieces of this literature that has any Christian content and here it must be looked for. In addition one poem has a maid quoted as giving praise to Jesus Christ, but it is no more than a phrase in her conversation;2? another poem has a knight returning from p Q the crusades. Here then is one poem with the Trinity- implied, one poem with the crusades mentioned, and one poem with the mention of Christ, in conversation; this German poetry is singularly devoid of Christian emphasis. Still the reader can work it in as he comes across familiar phrases and settings and with the use of some imagination he can give a Christian thrust to many of the poems.

Other Supports for German Literature In a long review of another book of German songs and ballads featuring a new translation of Schiller’s "Song of the Bell," Clark devoted most of the space to comparisons of different translations of this poem. There are, however, two points of interest. He praised German poetry for "loftiness," "power," "delicacy," and "tender­ ness," stressing its Impact on our literature. He also, seemingly for the first time, called attention to the close affinity of the two languages, English and German. Here he spoke of cognates and "adherence in word and syllable."29 This meant that the German translated into English more easily and faithfully than French, for example. It followed, In Clark’s mind, that the German language and literature presented an excellent example or model. In January of 1859 Clark reviewed the first part of Carlyle’s History of Friedrich the Great. His views 45 about the Englishman had. not changed appreciably over the years; Clark still wrote of the good and the bad points and stated that Carlyle’s writing was quite cloudy and at times even more obscure than some of his earlier work. "The clear, simple style of his earliest essays is in deep contrast with the mysticism and involutions and the whimsical philological tricks of his later writings." In spite of this "affected" obscurity Clark found in Carlyle’s later writings, he almost grudgingly admitted to the genius of the Englishman. The important part of the review, for the purpose of this study, lies in the one quotation from Carlyle that Clark included. Many of Clark’s reviews were sections of the book or article reviewed strung together with a sentence or two of his own writing. One can almost guage the importance that Clark gave to a work (or the time available) by the number or percentage of words he himself wrote for the article. In this review he devoted almost three pages to Carlyle’s writing style and historical method, then he inserted the quotation: The Reformation was the great event of that six­ teenth century; according as a man did something in that, or did nothing and obstructed doing, has he much claim to memory, or no claim, in this age of ours. . . . Brandenburg . . . was lucky enough to adopt the Reformation; . . . This was what we must call obeying the audible voice of Heaven. To which same ’voice,’ at that time, all that did not give ear ---- what has become of them since; have they not signally had the penalties to pay? 46 this attitude of Carlyle’s was embraced by Clark as he applauded the role of Frederick the Great of Prussia as outlined in this book, which presented "a complete and continuous history of a great nation at its most eventful period and of its foremost man from birth to death."3°

Here is another part of the picture, and it assumes a measure of importance when viewed in conjunction with the previous references to the affinity of the English with the German language, to America’s having sprung from Teutonic origins, and to the strong parallels that could be drawn from the suggestion that America should study German literature as a model because Germany had most recently risen to international literary prominence from a position of "barbarism.” Now then America, strongly Protestant, had one more important tie with Germany and that was, of course, the Reformation. In contrast an article by H. T. Tuckerman titled "Paris; and Life There" appeared in early 1861. Here the American way of life is touted as one filled with virtue because it was built around the "Home." On the other hand Paris is referred to as a "metropolitan encampment," and the comparison drawn between the home and family oriented Anglo-Saxon life and the rootless existence of the metropolitan Parisian is one of the strongest pro- German, anti-French statements in the magazine. There were a number of articles that showed ^7 partiality to the German, but in fairness it must be remembered that this was a popular period for Germany. One of the reasons for the predominance of German litera­ ture is given by Clark rather indirectly as he reviews five books that had been translated from the French. In this article, in the January 1860 issue, Clark applauded the new translations of works by DeStael, Voltaire, Pascal, Chateaubriand, and LaFontaine. He developed a line of thought that is pertinent and interesting. First, Americans should study English literature; to give them background and knowledge which, in turn, would create a desire "to know other literature, to obtain a good general idea of the standard authors of antiquity and of modern Europe." He then outlined a progression for studying foreign literature starting with the classics from the Greek and Latin. These were first on his list because good modern translations were available in these works. This was doubtless a reference to the work of England’s Augustan Age. After this came the translations from Germany; here Clark stressed their popularity and the fact that so many of these translations had been "executed by our own countrymen." He closed the article by stating that the New York publisher of these books was to be commended for his plan of giving the public a complete set of the best obtainable English translations of the standard authors of France. Heretofore, such of them as were to be found at 48 book-stores or in public libraries, have been incomplete, badly edited, and inadequately translated.32 Haertel confirmed this and stated that there was a substantial increase in French offerings as the German interest declined.33 it would be a sin of omission not to credit part of the popularity of German translations to their abundance and availability, and that brings us again to the fact that Clark led in making them available to his readers. Another very important aspect of the German litera­ ture was the effect on American literature evident in the native offerings identified as "Germanic." As early as I838 Clark referred to John H. Hewitt’s Miscellaneous Poems by stating that one particular poem evidenced this German spirit. 3^ In 1849 an article subtitled "A

Germanic Sketch" had this sentence indicative of the style, "The seasons rose and fell like the waves of many seas; and amid the flowers of passionate Germany came inspiration to the heart and promptings to the mind."33

The very next year Clark himself pointed to this possible influence on Longfellow saying, "’The Building of the Ship* was probably suggested by Schiller’s ’Founding of the Bell,’ the detail in each being equally minute."3® Later in the same year Clark introduced a poem and compared it to one of Goethe’s: It appears to us to embody much of the felicity of diction and wild beauty of Goethe’e ’Bride of 49 Corinth;* at least it is the nearest English ap­ proximation to that poem which we know of. 3? Donald MacLeod» translator of a number of German poems Clark offered, wrote a story that appeared on the Knick- erbocker in 1852, and Clark called it a "’German-type.’"^

The following is from Clark’s column, March 1854, Is n’t the following, ’not from the German,’ a very pretty thing? Yea or nay? ’Little maiden, azure-eyed, Tell me, where may you abide? ’Down by the running water, she said; For I am the Miller’s daughter, she said. ’Little maid, if I may ask it, Tell me what is in your basket? *1 have been a hunting with Love, said she; And these are the hearts he has killed for me. ’Little maid, if your lips were kissed, Not a rose-leaf would be missed. ’Oh, you are a pretty man! she said, And may kiss me if you can, she said. ’Now, why did the maiden, azure-eyed, Run blindly down to the water-side? ’For she must have known, the silly lass, That the bridge was down, and she could not pass. ’Then why to the field did the maiden fly? For she surely knew that the fence was high. ’Then why did the maiden run to the wood? For she knew that the trees so thickly stood, ’That a rabbit could scarce pass in and out; Then why did she stand, and smile, and pout? ’Ah me! and must the truth be told? og Another heart does the basket hold! Edward Willett.’'5? 50 And the comparisons continued; even Ralph Waldo Emerson was not immune, as a review of The Conduct of Life stated; We say that the style is clear, and so it is. Yet it is the style of a man who dwells too much in the region of thought. Mr. Emerson has still another ’plane’ to reach; that of the living, breathing actual, about which he writes so well. He has yet to become a portion of it. Mr. Emerson is a close student of Schiller, and ’The Conduct of Life* is much after some of the essays of the great German: practical to be sure, but theoretically practical. 0 This appeared in February of 1861, just after Clark left the magazine, and was probably written by Leland; never­ theless, it follows in the same vein and certainly parallels Clark’s thinking. Vi

CHAPTER IV

THE THEMES

Although this study deals with German literature that appeared in the Kni ckerbocker under the editorship of Lewis Gaylord, a brief summary of German translations that appeared under the former editors, Hoffman, Langtree, and Flint, will be helpful. The very first issue contained an excerpt from Goethe’s Faust with some comments; this was in two parts and the second installment appeared in the following issue.1 The first issue also contained a o poem by Friedrich Krummacher. In the fifteen months that followed, prior to Clark’s assumption of control, there appeared in the magazine selections from German literature which consisted of four poems (Goethe’s "Der Erlenkoenig" and three by unknown authors) plus seven parables by Krummacher.3 These offerings of poems and parables are very similar to the poems that will be examined more closely later in this chapter. Although Clark inserted a number of German translations starting with his first issue of the magazine, most were short two and four line introductions to other articles. It was not until 1837, almost three years after taking over, that Clark used any significant number of German items in his magazine, items that had enough substance to be considered more than 52 ornament or filler. This study is centered about the poetry that appeared in a seven year period starting with January of 1837 and going through the year 1843. In the Knickerbocker poetry made up the bulk of all offerings in either German or English, i.e., in the number of individual items but not in the number of pages. The poems have been chosen for Inspection because they comprise the larger number of entries and also because this poetry by its very nature lends itself to thematic interpretation. Finally, the poems are extremely important for this period because as James D. Hart has noted: Poetry, however, was not really to be compared to the novel, for if its sales were lower its honor stood higher. . . . The novelist might be approached as an equal; to the poet a reader came, hat in hand, awaiting a statement or an interpretation of his own amorphous feelings and ideas. This coincides with Clark’s views about German poetry as noted in the last chapter. By this definition poetry is then a most fertile field for the study of feelings and ideas. These poems will be viewed in the light of broad thematic expressions. It is hoped thereby to establish some basis for the following assumptions: there was a '’Germanic” literature with distinct characteristics that Clark thought valuable for several reasons and he was a purveyor or supporter of a particular phase of the Romantic movement through the medium of this literature. 53 There are forty-five German poems included in this seven year period; this amounts to over half of the German poetry that Clark offered in his twenty-seven years as editor of the magazine. These poems alone account for almost one-third of the entire amount of German literature that he offered during his tenure. In addition to covering the highest concentration of German literature in the Kniokerbocker, this seven year period coincides with the concentration nationwide ---- the concentration that introduced German literature to the American reading public. Not only is there a marked decrease in the number of these offerings after 184-3, but also there is a slight change in the literature itself. The strict limits that give this body of literature its distinct character begin to dissolve, and the nature of the literature begins to change also. These changes and their causes are outside the scope of this investigation, but some will be identified to show how the limits of this poetry of the seven year period dissolved and reached out to cover a wider range of subjects. A number of the later offerings deal with children; there were no children even mentioned in the poetry of the period of concentration. There was a marked increase in didacticism in the later period, which was largely absent from the literature of the seven year period of concentration except for a somewhat 5^ persistent admonition to be content with one’s lot in life. These are part of a much wider range of subject matter that included humor and an increase in sentiment and romantic love. The early poetry was devoid of humor with the exception of one poem, and there was very little sentiment or romantic love either. Then too, American imitations (imitations done in the German manner) sprang up, and the first fruits of the exposure to German litera­ ture can be seen. Even in the works to be examined there is an ’'imitation" of Tieck,3 which, of course, could well be a German imitation. It does not fit into the limits of the category as well as most of the poems, but it has been identified as German by both Goodnight and Spivey, it was part of the literature Clark offered, and it will be included. This study does not concern itself with the authenticity nor the quality of the translations, nor with the literary or aesthetic value of the poetry, not even with the identity of the author. The concern here is with the material that Clark presented as German literature and with some of the reasons for his using this literature. The practice of the day which seemed to call for a certain amount of anonymity makes the complete identifica­ tion of poems and authors almost impossible. Both Goodnight and Spivey have limned the problems of author identifica­ tion and, in the case of some particular poems, the 55 problem of determining whether they are German transla­ tions or American imitations. Goodnight has identified one article, attributed to Niemand and labeled a German translation, as a burlesque and an American imitation of the German style. A Significantly for the period of con­ centration this imitation or burlesque appeared in 1845; this is an example of one of the changes that was taking place. Familiarity may not have been breeding contempt, but it seemed to be generating a certain lack of awe. Although the poems in this seven year period have a sameness and many strong similarities, there are the beginnings of a change discernible in some of the later poems; one of these is the only one to have even the suggestion of humor. These changes are not great and they are hard to pin down because a number of the later poems fit very neatly into the early category. In short, though the movement is gradual, when Clark’s German literature is viewed as a whole, the change is quite apparent and comes just before Goodnight’s date of 1845-46. The forty-five poems become forty-two because three of them were not translated; they were published in German and were used as prefixes or epigraphs to poems in English. As noted above, Clark used this same techni­ que in his first thirty-two months with the magazine. In this earlier period eleven poems out of fourteen were the two and four line introductions; however, these earlier 56 poems were printed in German and the translations accompanied them. A quick reading of the forty-two poems reveals easily discernible similarities and four recurring major themes: Death, Immortality, Nature, and God. These stand out, are easily identified, and form the basis for the examination of these poems. There are a number of minor themes such as Love, Freedom, Duty, Friendship, and others which will be dealt with along with the four major ones. In addition to the general themes or motifs, there are some other characteristics of the poetry that should be mentioned. Blue is by far the most conspicuous of the colors, it is the color of eyes, water, sky, forget-me- nots, heaven, and Faith, to mention the most prominent. And in addition to the red rose and the white lily, gold is the color of hair. Added to these are night, moonlight, close of day, and fall of year, all closely associated with or representative of Death. As noted above, Clark placed strong emphasis on German literature as a stimula­ tor of the fancy or imagination. There is about all of these poems an air of mystery and melancholy that comes from an ambiguity that exploits double meaning. This is the most difficult area to examine. Whether this is due to the translations or the nature of the poetry itself is also outside the area of this study. There is one very important subject in this poetry, and in a way it can almost stand for all the ambiguity; in fact, it 57 almost seems to be the central theme after careful examina­ tion. It is Spirit. This concrete expression becomes a most pervading essence. Almost every poem has direct reference to either spirits, spectres, or ghosts, and where specific reference is lacking, it takes little of Clark’s recommended imagination to find it in the remaining poetry. Spirit assumes many forms: sometimes God; some­ times a lost friend or lover; sometimes even another part of the self. It becomes a large arena in which the fancy can have full play, and the treatment of this theme or motif accounts more than any one single thing for the sense of mystery and awe in this literature. Of the four major themes previously listed, Death is the most prevalent; it is closely linked with Immortality, and the two will be treated together. All four of the major motifs link with each other, but these motifs or themes seem to fit most easily into two pairs: Death with Immortality and God with Nature. Life is conspicuous by its absence as a word; in fact, the poetry could almost have been written without the words "life" and "living." Clark stated in an editor’s note to one of the poems that the author was another of those German writers who viewed the world as a "Dismal Swamp" to be hurried through on the way to the peace of sweet death.'’ In this poetry Death is almost always described as something to be sought, as a release, rather than feared as some unknown. 58 Death usually ends in Immortality or some kind of enduring essence. This covers a wide range that has at one end the suggestion of a triumphant Christian resur­ rection and at the other end (in one poem only) the simple statement that all must eventually die. This attitude toward Immortality has strong par­ allels in the apparently minor role played by God in much of this literature. This God is a far cry from the God of Calvin whom the Puritans came to love, trust, and fear. In most of this literature He does little more than watch over the living while they sleep (Angels do as much). This is the initial impression that is given; it is an exaggeration that is modified by a careful study of the Spirit motif, which will be explored later. This apparent de-emphasis of God is also dispelled to a large extent when one explores the role of Nature; here there is a close link as mentioned previously. Nature’s primary role in many of the poems seems to be that of standing as God’s creation or temple; glorious Nature testifies to God’s greatness, and it Is through Nature that man knows God.

Death and Immortality Death, the most prevalent theme, is mentioned in almost all of the poems, and where there is no specific mention, it is easy to make associations; however, it plays a major role in nineteen of the forty-two poems. 59 Three of these deal with Death as a result of war. "The Watch-Fire" has five stanzas that speak of protecting family, brother, and country. Each stanza ends with the o cry, "‘Death, or Liberty.*" In the next poem "The Dead Trumpeter," though mortally wounded, holds on long enough to relay the signal for victory with a blast from his horn as he sinks to the ground, a corpse with a broken heart. The most interesting feature here in the light of so many poems about Death is that his dying sensation, as he waited for the signal he was to pass on, is that "he felt death’s thrilling pain."9 The third deals with "The Dying Hero," who laments the fact that he is too young to have any deeds of valor to his credit as he goes to appear before the twelve judges on high. An old warrior lying beside him reassures him, stating that by having "freely" poured out his life’s blood for his country, he will gain the judges’ favor. The old one closes by saying, "Now lift thy languid eye ---- / There lies our path-way through yon radiant sky!This is the only hint of Immortality in these three poems. The next sixteen poems dealing with Death all have strong links with Immortality and are to be considered in their relation to it. Although the first several poems to be examined have connections with the Christian resurrection, these links fade and the after-life merely becomes peaceful rest. It would be impossible to rank 60 these in an order of exact degree ranging from the tri­ umphant Christian resurrection to just plain extinction, but an approximate order will serve the purpose in any event. There are hints, mostly through familiar words and phrases, of the Christian resurrection, but these poems deal primarily with religion and mystery that include no doctrine, no organization, and therefore no Churchl This too will be treated in more detail later. By using familiar words and phrases the first of these poems shows the strongest link with the Christian resurrection. "Leonora" awaits the return of her warring sweetheart, and, as the other soldiers march into town, she finds that he is missing. In her grief she cries aloud wishing for Death, wishing that she had never been born. "Thus ’gainst God’s righteous providence, / She strove with anguish vain." Wilhelm, her lover, arrives at mid­ night, and she joins him on his black horse. After a long and wild ride, complete with graves, gallows, spectres, and references to a low, cold and narrow bridal bed, first a bonny, and then a bony bride, they reach their destination. Wilhelm’s armor falls off piece by piece and turns to dust revealing a skeleton holding an hourglass. The steed disappears into the ground and Leonora’s heart trembles between life and death as the spectres cry, "’Be patient, though the heart should break, / Submit to heaven’s control; / We yield her body to the 61 earth, / May God. receive her soul.’"^1 The next six poems move toward a more universal even secular sort of afterlife. "Love" is listed as the ingredient for the softening of the "smart" of Death and the changing of "our earthly moans, . . . / To triumph’s 1 o song, in HeavenJ" Interestingly one would be hard pressed to find any Christian connection other than the quotes just given. The next poem, "Death," is almost interchangeable in ranking with the previous one as it speaks of spending "eternal youth in Heaven," which is inhabitated by "birds of Eden," where one will find the "Happiness" that is just a beguiling "dream" or "phantom" here on earth.^3 "The Sower" the metaphor becomes the planting of a seed with spring as the summoner "to a happier birth." ‘The poem is short and ends with, "Think’st thou, how deeds by wisdom sown may be / Silently ripened for Eternity?"^ "Hope" smiles on the baby and remains to life’s end where it can be found sitting on the grave and pointing upward. The heart tells us, "’We are born for a happier state,’" and the poem closes by saying that what this voice from the heart tells us, "The hoping soul will never deceivel"^ '»The Stilly Land" pictures Death as a gentle quiet experience. The whole mood of the poem is one of peace and rest, and the reference in the middle of the poem to this quiet or still land as a home for "beauteous soulsi ---- the future Being’s strand,is all 62 that the poem contains of what might be called regular religious words or phrases. In "The King’s Soliloquy" the narrator, having ruled long and well, simply wishes for the repose that Death can bring now that he is old and gray. "’Oh! how I long for thee, sweet Rest! / And Queenly night, for thee!’"I?

"Cheerfulness" gives an outline for a full life that uses the senses; the proper virtues are extolled including Work. Woes are accorded their proper place and function as a sort of teacher or disciplinarian, and the final statement is: Tombs o’er which cypresses lowly depend, Soon are adorn’d by Forget-me-nots blue. Friends! to rejoice we assuredly ought; Joy is the Father’s exalted command: Joy has to Innocence ill never wrought ---- ^g Smiles she through roses, when Death is at hand. The next poem, "To a Broken Pipe," is a little out of character in that it is the only piece of German litera­ ture offered during this entire period that is not pre­ sented as an aesthetic piece of work. Rather it is pre­ sented as a piece of doggerel, an example of bad German verse, the likes of which no magazine really has to publish. Yet the poem is in no way comic; it takes Itself quite seriously even though man is compared to an inex­ pensive clay pipe. Of course it was published and with the statement that this would be the last of its kind. With all this it represents the theme of Death, and this in strong relation to an after-life. As the broken pipe is thrown away, so will man’s broken body be discarded when "the fire of life" goes out. The poem ends by com­ paring man’s soul to the smoke of the pipe ---- there are very few things in the world that are as insubstantial as the pipe’s smoke, but there is nothing in the world that is any more real than this smoke. Then a comparison is drawn for this "enduring essence," the soul. The pyramids have but the life of a dying flower when compared to the Immortality of the soul.1^

"The Dying Flower" is an obscure poem of eighty lines, and in it the narrator speaks to the flower saying that it will see another spring. The dying flower replies that it is an annual not a perennial like the tree, and so it will die without a trace. The narrator amends this by saying: Let the storm of death indeed Wide thy living atoms strew; Yet from out the dust shalt thou Myriad times thyself renew. The flower now addresses the Sun at length (narrator and Sun seem to be the same) saying, "Take, 0 take my fleeting life, / Changeless one, to thee on high!" Then after stating that any reluctance on the part of its soul had been subdued by the "magic beam" of the Sun, the flower says, "’Deathless Flameheart of the world! / Let me lose my glow in thine!’"2^

In "Spirit-Life" while the living sleep, the narrator’s Spirit goes abroad at night when "sheeted ghosts 64 are from the church-yards streaming." While abroad the Spirit visits its beloved’s bedroom and breathes "the breath of love" on its sleeping loved one, returning to 21 its grave as the cock crows. Three young men inquire after "The Landlady’s Daughter." Her mother answers that the daughter "lies upon her bier!" As the first young man looks at the body, he says that he would love her if only she were alive. The second looks and weeps, crying that the one he "loved so well, so long" has gone. The Third then clasp’d her to his breast, Fondly her cold, pale lips he press’d; ’I ever lov’d thee! ---- love thee still! Beautiful maid! ---- I ever will!*22 "Farewell" is featured twice and in two different translations. It is a tender melancholy poem addressed to his dying love by the narrator, who recalls the springtime of their love, and, now that she is weak and dying, he too is faced with Death. Here are the last lines from the poems, the last line from each; first, "But the winter, ah! for me!"23 next, "Dreary Autumn frowns for me!"2^

"The Dream-Omen" describes an omen of death, which involves the vision of a false lover. In the dream he took back a "troth-ring." The only suggestion of an after­ life is that the narrator has been dead a long time and she can still narrate.25 The last poem, "Elegy," as mentioned above merely states concerning this theme of Death that all men die, the high and the lowly.2& 65 God and Nature In dealing with the poems in the God and Nature category the following approach is used for the poems having either one or both of these motifs: first, poems primarily concerned with God; then poems dealing with both; and finally, poems in which the major theme is Nature. Nature or its elements, if only as metaphor or simile, are in or can be read into almost every poem. Likewise, God or some sort of supreme being or spirit can also be fitted into many of these works, but, as in the previous category, only those poems will be examined in which these two motifs hold a place of central impor­ tance. There are fourteen poems with specific references to God or some synonymous power such as the Almighty. These are distinct from the rather vague references to God that can be taken from the many allusions to Spirit. Three of these merely mention or refer to God, hence they will not be considered. These three poems are ballads; in one there is no more than an opening salutation that says, "God bless you." 27 The other two have instances of the taking of holy orders. In one "Sir Toggenburg" has lost his beloved while fighting in the crusades. When he returns to her, he finds that she has been given to God; at this point he starts a vigil across from her window in the nunnery that lasts until his death. In the other 66 poem a young man has taken temporary orders "Through pain of ever hopeless love."29 These ballads have no distin­ guishing marks that could place them in the Nature cate­ gory; they simply tell three stories of Fidelity and Love, which are minor themes in many of these poems and central to a few. Viewing this antebellum period as one of transition, the study of any theme involving God must consider the Puritan heritage in the background. Taking this as a sort of starting point these poems will be examined in spectrum fashion as were the ones in the Death-Immortality category. Clark’s early education influenced by his maternal uncle, the minister, and his later boast that he could recite The Book of Common Prayer from memory, as well as keep track of the order of worship on a daily basis, place him in a role as one who had more than a passing acquaintance with the religion and religious temper of the day.

God. In the light of this Puritan Calvinist background, there is only one poem of the entire group of forty-two that can be directly related to this heritage, and that is "Leonora," which has already been considered in the first group. In this poem, in addition to items cited before (the admonition to submit to heaven’s control and the futility of striving against the providence of God), are found the following phrases: 67 Mother: "Now God be praised." Leonora: "With God there is no pity." (twice) Mother: "God’s vengeance shall he ruei"3^ Although these phrases do not describe the central thrust of the poem, they are scattered throughout the first part and are extremely important as they set the scene for Wilhelm’s arrival and his taking Leonora on their wild ride. The first of these phrases regarding praise is conspicuous; because, as vital as it is to the Judeo- Christian tradition and particularly Calvin’s interpreta­ tion of this tradition, it only appears in this poem and one other. The references to God as vengeful and pitiless, are, of course, most often associated with Calvin’s view. These few references in this single poem provide the only distinctive link with America’s early religious heritage. Interestingly, this is the only poem in which the God motif overshadows that of Nature enough to place it in a group with God as the predominant theme.

God-Nature. Having set these poems into the three categories, God, God-Nature, and Nature and having pre­ sented the only poem that deals with God as central theme, it is necessary to look at one poem that is different enough to warrant separate examination, and it will be singled out as distinctive in the God-Nature category. It is very strongly Nature oriented, but, as can be seen in the poem’s closing stanzas, this poem has more than a hint of the Puritan concept of God, and it is the only 68 poem that has this traditional concept. "Nature" gives general descriptions of skies and landscape; it then moves to more particulars such as trees, stars, green meadows, stream, and flowers; it closes with: Oh! how the host of beings are made one By Love’s enduring band! The glow-worm, and the fiery flood of sun; Spring from one Father’s hand. Thou beckonest, Almighty, if the tree Lose but a bud that’s blown; Thou beckonest, if in immensity One sun is sunk and gone.31 This poem’s summation points not only to a God who is Lord, of creation, but also to the Puritan’s God, who is active in history. Because of this concept of God coupled with the very strong theme in the poem devoted to Nature, it stands alone in this category as one poem with a strong nature motif compared with the idea of a providential God. In the balance of this area or classification there are nine poems that deal with both God and Nature; these are presented in approximate order starting with the poems that place more emphasis on God and range to the poems that have a stronger emphasis on Nature. In these poems God is presented as Father and Shephard not as a God of Providence; this is more in keeping with a concept of God as some sort of grand Innkeeper in the sky. In the first poem, "Serenade," the narrator sings to his beloved and, drawing allusions from Nature, yearns for the day of their marriage. He bids his love goodnight 69 saying, "God keep thee with HIS shelt’ring might.’ / What God keeps, that is well watched o’er!"32 "Hymn of Nature," the only other poem with the statement that praise is due God, says that the stars, as well as the angels’ songs, praise Him. It continues saying, "Thy temple Nature shows thy glorious lordliness, / And gentleness as well!" It closes with, "Yet well is me! who sleeps within his Father’s arms! / The word ---- Compassion ---- wakes; he feeleth no alarms!"33

"Good-Night" is a three stanza poem that has "Good Night!" as the opening and closing lines of the first and third stanzas; the second stanza opens and closes with "Good Rest!" The next to last line of the poem, before the final "Good Night!" is "Fear not! our FATHER is awake!"3^

"Mountain and Valley" celebrates the Alps as visible proof that God is a "loving Father, who feeds the sheep." Each of the stanzas closes with the line, "On Alpine heights a loving Father dwells."33 This poem, as previously noted, has the Trinity referred to, and therefore is one of the few poems that has an unmistakable Christian thrust. The poem "To My Twin-Spirit" is an example of a fairly well-balanced blend of the God and Nature themes. The sky (in this case at sunset) and spring both stir the narrator as he gazes "on God’s glorious earth." He 70 closes by bidding farewell to his spirit and saying that they will probably meet again in "some bright world," at which time he and his spirit will be "pure as when from God" they sprang.^®

"Cheerfulness" has been examined for the Death motif and will be examined later in the next chapter. In this particular area, however, one of the reasons for being cheerful is that God’s "blessed Nature is charming," and 37 it is a joy to see this creation of His. In the poem "Death" early reference is made to that which has preceeded the coming of life’s end, i.e., life’s earlier spring-time; then as the twilight approaches, reference is made to having had the advantages of fruit and flower, gifts from God.3®

"The Lost Church" treats the experience of the narrator, who deep in the woods has what amounts to some sort of religious experience, in this case triggered by Nature. As his "soul ascended to its God," he heard loud church bells, and finally, as in a vision, he saw a large cathedral complete with altar, vaulted roof, stained glass windows (numerous enough to tell a series of stories), and statues and other sculptured stone. This vision ended as the roof disappeared (significantly) to reveal the door of heaven wide open with "every veil withdrawn. The last of these poems, "Mountain Scene in 71 Switzerland,” extols in patriotic fashion "The Switzer’s passion for his father-land.” A young man has just re­ turned from studies in Italy, and the beauty of the countryside, the Alps, has triggered a prayerful response as the young narrator says, "Devoutly then I downward sank in prayer. In the group of seventeen poems that deal with Nature and have no direct reference to God, one stands out as a simple celebration of Nature, whereas the balance of the poems fall rather neatly into two additional groups: one group of eight poems uses Nature or its elements as metaphors for Death, and the other group deals with Nature in relation to man. "Spring" has been mentioned previously as the poem subtitled, "In Imitation of the German of Tieck," and it is unique in that it is a very simple and straightforward poem and a simple celebration of the earth as it comes to life in the spring. The last two lines are these: "And the earth like a monarch majestic and old / Sits high on 41 a throne of purple and gold."

Nature as Metaphor for Death. The next group of poems, those which use elements of Nature as metaphors for Death, have all been mentioned in the Death-Immortality group. These will be listed with an identification of each metaphor or analogy. 72 The first of these poems is "To a Broken Pipe," which in addition to comparing man to a clay pipe (an earthy bit of Nature), opens with the statement that, "All nature obeys all nature’s law / Because, . . ." and goes on describing wind as a "terrible blast" or "tempest" that topples all "things brittle." This is a slightly different use of the aeolian metaphor that will be considered later. In "the Dream-Omen" the nar­ rator’s "lovely cherished myrtle-plot" has changed "to dismal rosmarine" to signify Death.In the two poems, "Farewell," one uses autumn as symbol of approaching Death; the other poem translates it as winter. By way of contrast the early meetings of these two lovers are Lit, referred to as the plucking of violets in springtime. In "Love" the breath that comes at Death, which hints of a resurrection, brings with it the "hope of Spring."^

In "The Stilly Land" Death is compared to the "clouds of evening" that hang over man; Death is also identified 46 as the tempest’s gloom. These are in addition to the very obvious metaphor in the title, which refers to the home of the dead. In "The Dying Flower" there are a number of metaphors dealing with Death and either resur­ rection or eternal life. Summer is life, spring and morning are birth or re-birth, and autumn and winter are Death. The distinction is made as previously noted between the Death of the tree in winter and its re-birth 73 in the spring and. the Death of the flower that does not bloom again in its original form.^? Here a different

type of on-going life is referred to when the force which addresses the flower speaks of the atoms and the renewal from the dust, the basic element that cannot be destroyed as quoted in the Death-Immortality section. This is a far cry from the Christian resurrection that Paul des­ cribes with the metaphor of the planted seed or corruptible body which, although it arises in new form, is still a re-birth of the body itself not just a host of particles finding new vehicles. "The Sower" uses Paul’s metaphor of the seed that will bloom in the spring; it is "Silently ripened for Eternity. Nature in Relation to Man. The next eight poems deal with Nature in various relations to man ranging from Nature as mother of man to Nature that stirs emotions in man through its components or elements. This latter takes us directly into the realm of the Spirit by means of the aeolian metaphor or slight variations on the same theme. "Whisper of One Unbeloved" is a strange poem and different as it ad­ dresses a complaint saying, "Then why am I alone forgot. / 0 Nature! thou my mother too?" This complaint stems from the fact that the narrator has no one for him to love and no one to love him.^9 "The Boy’s Mountain Song" is a

poem of jubilation that celebrates Nature and the fact the Shephard boy is the mountain’s child. The last 74 stanza ends the poem on a rather patriotic and war-like note as the boy descends from the mountain singing: When sounds the tocsin wide and high, And beacon-fires inflame the sky, Down in the vales I march along, And swing my sword, and sing my song: I am the mountain’s child.’50 The "Forget-Me-Not" speaks to the hearts of lovers remind­ ing them rather obviously not to forget each other. Blue, the color of the flower is also the color of "Faith’s un- changing hue.n>5 1 "Similitudes of Love" compares the narrator's love first to a swallow, then to a forest, and finally to a shadow, which fades at twilight and reappears in the morning.52 jn "The Beloved" the narrator is

reminded of his love by various elements of Nature: moon, sun, roaring ocean, and quiet woods.53 Just as Nature has stirred emotions within the narrators of these last poems, "The King’s Soliloquy" makes a more pointed reference to this as the king states that the noiseless music of the starry sky thrills his soul "with heavenly harmony."5^

In the "Nearness of Spirits" the elements of Nature remind the narrator of his loved one and his thoughts cling to his beloved like Ivy on a tree.55 Again in "The Spirit’s

Return" Nature reminds mortal man of another: this time a departed friend. The departed friend as narrator explains to the mortal what signs in Nature will signal to the living that the departed one is near. These are such things as the softly shining moon and the sighing of 75 the wind in the trees.36

It is apparent that as convenient as the breakdown into four categories seems to be, still the lines cannot be too sharply drawn, and the most obvious difference is in the structuring of the two pairs, Death-Immortality and God-Nature. Here Death and Immortality become almost a single unit; whereas, the category of God and Nature has less sharply defined limits and falls into more sub­ divisions. A summary shows that of the nineteen poems that have Death as a central theme, only three are related to war while sixteen deal with Death in general, and in varying degree these poems point to some sort of after­ life. Six other poems have the mention of Death or closely associated elements such as graves, etc. Although Nature and its elements appear in more poems than does Death, (almost every poem has at least a mention of Nature or one of its elements), the Death motif stands out as the strongest of the four major themes, and it is central to more of these poems. This leaves seventeen poems not related to Death-Immortality. In the God-Nature category there are twenty-eight poems that deal with God, Nature, or both in some major way. Further breakdown shows one poem with almost the entire emphasis on God rather than Nature, ten poems with varying degrees of emphasis on both God and Nature, and 76 seventeen poems with emphasis on Nature to the extent that God is not a factor in the central thematic express­ ions. These seventeen can be further classified as follows: one deals primarily with Nature, eight deal with Nature or its elements as metaphors for Death, and eight have Nature dealing in some way with man. As Nature points to God celebrating His creation or instructing man in His ways, here Nature instructs man or points the way in other areas, such as Love, Friendship, Patriotism, etc. In the two main categories there is some overlap. The most obvious is in the Nature group which uses elements of Nature as metaphors for Death; all eight of these poems, not surprisingly, are also in the Death-Immortality group. But most interesting is the fact that there are only four other poems that overlap or fall into both of the paired categories. These will be noted briefly. "Leonora" is the poem with the strongest link to the Puritan religion, and although the central motif in the poem would be labelled Death by almost any consensus, the Puritan or Calvinist emphasis bids for strong recogni­ tion. The only claim for Nature is that the ride takes place at night after her lover’s midnight appearance. "The King's Soliloquy" mentions night as metaphor for Death, but the Nature speaking to man motif is much more central to the poem. The analogy of night and Death is mentioned only in passing. 77 The two poems, "Cheerfulness” and "Death," have a fairly balanced blend of the four major motifs with each not only falling into the balanced God-Nature part of that category, but also each dealing with an after-life in connection with Death. There are seven poems that do not fall into either one of these two major groups, and of these four have a <7 mention of Death, while two of these four have reference to or, at least, a mention of God.3^ & fifth poem has a reference to God;39 this leaves only two poems of the entire group of forty-two that are not in some way linked to the four major categories. If forty of forty-two poems fall rather easily into four major categories and if the premise is valid that there are "Germanic" characteristics that can be easily recognized, then the two poems that do not fit should be carefully examined. These two poems follow: To Pleasure List a mortal’s guest, sweet Pleasure! Why so fleeting, answer, pray? Lost as soon as found, thy treasure! None can thy dear presence stay. Thank thou Fate, she cried, whose minions, All the gods, love me alone; Were I fashioned without pinions, zn They would keep me for their own!ou

Seed of Contentment Since Fate in her simple wisdom Has passed me unfavored by, I let the blind wheel of Fortune Roll on without a sigh. 78 Still blessed with humble fruition, Disdained I the proffered store; Nor to the current of youthful days Did memory wander more. Free from corrosive repining, From discontentedness free, I knew that to-day’s enjoyment . A source of to-morrow’s would be.61 This last poem could be put into a category that promotes contentment with one’s lot in life, and this, as seen above, is a minor thread that runs through several of the other poems. It also provides a link with the Puritan past and its strong admonition to stay with the status quo. Most important is the fact that this is the only poem with this idea as the central motif or thrust, and this marks it as not vastly different from the other poems, but certainly as a poem with an emphasis that is quite different from the ones that have as their central concerns the large themes of Death, Immortality, God, and Nature. The other poem, "To Pleasure,"is very definitely in complete contrast with all of the poems in the group, and it stands as an excellent example of what the German literature of this period was not. It was not light. It was not sophisticated. And it was certainly not humorous. By German literature is meant, of course, the German literature that Clark presented to his readers. CHAPTER V

SPIRIT AND THE STIMULATION OP THE IMAGINATION

In Clark’s opinion the most distinctive charac­ teristic of German literature, the German literature that he featured in the Knlckerbocker, was its ability to stimulate or excite the reader’s imagination. He mentioned other features such as melancholy, conceits, etc., but his main emphasis for the period of his editorship was consistently on the fact that here was a literature that had particular merit because it did stimulate the reader’s imagination, and this is related to ambiguity or multiple meaning. Some of this poetry’s ambiguity is doubtless caused by its being translated from German into English, and although this study is not primarily concerned with the mechanics of translation, this facet should be noted. For example "The Boy’s Mountain Song," which is the title as printed in the Knickerbocker, is listed by Goodnight as the "Mountain Boy’s Song;" he also gives the title in German as "Des Knaben Berglied."1 Without becoming involved in the details of translation and possible shades of meaning, suffice it to say that a certain amount of imagination is called into play by this sort of cloudiness ---- the impossibility of getting an absolutely precise 80 literal translation. Actually this sort of imprecision in exact meaning is not uncommon to poetry itself, poetry written and read in English, and often people dispute about the shades of meaning or even the Interpretation found in certain writings that come directly from an author with no translations involved. Clark’s principle concern here was not with subtle shades of meaning or differences that might be attributed to translation or even to what might be termed differences between prose and poetry. And even though he referred In his letter to Longfellow to the effect of the "wild conceits" of the Katzbach poem, which conceits required imaginative interpretation, his principle concern was with the very obvious stimulation of the imagination that the bulk of this literature called forth. Clark emphasized this without describing in detail exactly what he meant. He did, as noted earlier, allude to this and give examples in his magazine, but a closer examination of the literature itself is necessary in order to discover more precisely what he meant by this stimulation of the imagination, In this chapter the poems will be examined as stimulators of the imagination with final emphasis on the Spirit motif. Any writing that is worthy of being called literature must bring into play in some manner the imaginative powers of its readers. In the case of 81 this particular literature Clark was apparently referring to a heightened use of the imagination and, as examination of these poems shows, to a certain ambiguity or multiple meaning that allowed the reader in many instances to supply alternate interpretations. The imagination, thus called into play, could accept the preferred meaning. At least the reader could apply his own judgment in the matter. There are six poems that are not at all extra­ ordinary in respect to this stimulation of the imagination. Three of these are ballads, and these like many ballads tell rather simple stories.2 The other three poems in similar manner make rather simple statements. "Elegy" in twelve stanzas with many of the characteristics of the ballad makes a rather simple statement that all must eventually die.3 "Mountain Scene is Switzerland" cele- 4 brates the beauty of the Alps, and "Good Night" states that God is awake while men sleep.3

Next come four poems that are mainly nationalistic, patriotic, or freedom-oriented, and two of these, "The Dying Hero"® and "The Dead Trumpeter,"? tell straight­ forward stories about men who die honorably in battle. The other two poems, "The Watch-Fire"® and "The Boy’s Mountain Song,"9 do call more imagination into play because they depart from the telling of a story or the relating of a simple incident. Still they are not especially unusual; they are not so different from much 82 poetry that to a certain extent requires a little thoughtful consideration. The balance of the poems have been separated into three major categories in order to explore more fully this concept of Clark’s concerning imagination. The first group deals with analogies that range from simple to com­ plex, or as stated above, meanings that on the surface appear to be simple but on closer inspection reveal multiple or different possibilities. This first group deals primarily with metaphors and the more common poetic comparisons.

Simple Metaphors The first example has been examined in the last chapter; it will be noted again here. In the first three stanzas of "Nature" natural phenomena are listed, and in the last two stanzas (which are reproduced above) these are summarized as the result of God’s creation. Then comes the final hint that He is not only the Lord of creation but also the traditional God who is active in history. "Freedom" might be placed in the group of pat­ riotic poems except that it has a delightful twist that certainly must have appealed to the antebellum American imagination as it compares the loss of freedom in Europe to the sinking of the sun into the ocean. The denouement 83 comes with the statement that Freedom is not really dead but like the sun is greeted on Atlantic’s shore by Columbia. Apparently Freedom like the sun and Berkeley’s "course of empire" moved westward. 1"L "Blucher’s Ball" is not unusual except that, as Clark stated in his letter to Longfellow, the conceits made the hair stand up on the back of his neck; however the poem does become one large metaphor as it compares the battle to the last dance, or kerhaus, the one that sweeps the final guests out of the house when the party is over. 12 In "Spring" there is the strong use of figurative language with Spring as bride, and Earth, who, discarding "his gray robes" of winter, finally emerges to sit "high on a throne of purple and gold."^5

"Hymn of Nature" presents Nature as temple, show­ case of God’s "lordliness," and man as ephemeral. This poem coupled with the two translations of Goethe’s "Farewell," which use elements of Nature as metaphors for life and death rounds out the first part of the group that deals with figurative language. It would be hard to make a case for this poetry as being unique outside of some rather exaggerated metaphors and similes, but in view of the next five poems the above six form a complete group that seems to support Clark’s contention quite well.^^ 84 Complex Metaphors "The Beloved" has four short four-line stanzas; the first three point out that Nature reminds the narrator of his love. The fourth stanza presents several possibilities as it states: I am with thee ---- be thou however far ---- To me thou’rt near; The sun sinks down ---- soon lightens up each star ---- OhJ wert thou here! Does the coming of night remove his love, or does the narrator deceive himself in the first two lines? Here is a major contradiction that is left unresolved as the poem ends. There are also other minor possibilities for specu­ lation; among them ---- does the sun seem near, hence, all is well, and do the stars seem far, therefore, the world becomes cold and Impersonal? The possibilities are not exactly endless, but there definitely are multiple mean­ ings that can easily be imagined.13

"To a Broken Pipe" with its reference to the smoke as counterpart of man’s soul, that "enduring essence," has been examined with enough care that the reader can be spared a re-run.1®

"The Landlady's Daughter" is unique as the third of the dead maid’s admirers (in this case probably her lover) hugs the corpse, kisses "fondly her cold, pale lips," and pledges his undying love. Here are five four- line stanzas with a strange imagination stirring twist.1? 85 "The Dying Flower" has been considered in the light of its use of metaphors and particularly the dis­ tinction between the tree’s perennial nature and this particular flower’s annual nature, which is not subject to the sort of re-birth that spring normally brings. In addition to this, which is the central thrust of the poem, the last stanza is worth special attention: ’Deathless Flame-heart of the world! Let me lose my glow in thine! Heaven, spread thou thy tent of blue, Sere and faded sinketh mine. Hail, oh! Spring, to thy soft sheen! Morning air, to thy sweet sighs! Without pain I fall asleep, Without hope again to rise.’’1® The last sentence, especially the last line, seems to pre­ sent a problem. No attempt will be made to force the workings of this author’s imagination on those of the reader, only the mention that this is the cloudiest of all the passages that were examined. The thought does arise that here might be a problem with the translation. If this is the case, it is the only one that presents this type of problem. In spite of the fact that these trans­ lations have not been checked against the original German there is no problem in establishing the author’s meaning for any of this literature, at least, as interpreted by the translator. The attitudes of the day toward this literature and Clark’s specific statements support the fact that these poems had discernible and intentional 86 multiple meanings, and there is no confusion about this as one reads these translations. So it seems safe to assume that this was translated as the interpreter intended, even though it is quite obscure. It is even possible that this type of obscurity, which would be more frequent in the translations than in the original, is part of Clark’s emphasis; however, this is pure conjecture and in the absence of comment from Clark it should be dis­ carded. There is no indication that Clark knew much about the German language, but checks were made on translations, and in these instances the translations were accurate. In addition another reason for presenting this literature was that the translations were done by American scholars, whose work was the result of up-to-date, advanced schol­ arship and, therefore, accurate. Discounting a certain amount of patriotic rhetoric it still seems that these translations were both up-to-date and accurate. One has only to read about the regimen of those who studied in Germany to be Impressed with their ability. "The Sower,” last of this group, is reproduced in its entirety: See, full of hope, thou trusteth to the earth The Golden seed, and waitest till the spring Summons the burled to a happier birth; But in Time’s furrow duly scattering, Think’st thou, how deeds by wisdom sown may be Silently ripened for Eternity?1^ 8? As noted in the last chapter, here is the classic example of the planted seed which has always been a basic metaphor for re-birth ---- in this case a "happier birth." But the last three lines suggest an interesting and provoca­ tive thought with the scattering of good deeds that might be harvested or maybe counted for credit at some future time. These lines compress a whole host of associations into a very small space, and here is a significant dif­ ference between the cloudiness that stimulates the imagina­ tion and an obscurity that is undecipherable. This literature, even in translation, has very little that is opaque. The most notable example was just considered above.

Personifications The second major group also deals with figurative language, but in this case, primarily with personifica­ tions or transformations. Of all forty-two poems even the two poems that did not fall into the four major categories of Death, Immortality, God, and Nature fall into this group. In "To Pleasure" Pleasure is addressed and questioned by the narrator; Pleasure answers in the second stanza and refers to a personified Fate.2^ The same is true of the other poem, "Seed of Contentment," which also personifies Fate (here as a female) and then refers to "the blind wheel of Fortune."21 88 "Whisper of One Unbeloved" has the speaker com­ plaining to Nature, his mother. His complaint is in the form of a question that asks why is there no one to love him and why is there no one for him to love.22 "Love" personifies Song, Earth, Winter, Spring, Death, Patience, Sorrow, and Triumph in addition to Love itself.23 "The King’s Soliloquy" personifies "sweet Rest and Queenly Night," as the weary king longs for both in the ?4 form of Death. In the poem "Death" both Death and Moon are per­ sonified along with Happiness.2-’ "Similitudes of Love" finds Love compared to the swallow, the forest, and the shadow, as each goes through a change or departure of sorts and then a return. The total effect of the poem is to stimulate the reader’s imagination to invest the narrator’s love or even love in general with an evanescent quality that makes her or it come and go in cycles much as night and day or winter and summer.2®

"Hope" is personified as the previous treatment of this poem indicated when it "sits on the grave and points to the skies;" however, the poem closes with an assertion that might be challenged, and this controversial assertion makes this poem an imagination prober with: 89 Nor is this the fair dream, unsubstantial and vain, Of a head with wild fancies elate; The heart from within echoes loudly again, ’We are born for a happier state:’ And what that voice would bid us believe, The hoping soul will never deceive.’27 Here is an apparent paradox or controversy; at least, it is a statement not subject to confirmation, and in the context of the body of poetry in this concentration and the Antlnomian crises in the earlier history of the country there are doubtless grounds for considering this poem as a disturbing element to some people. "Forget-Me-Not: ’Myosotis Avensis’" is the last poem in this group, and it can stand as an excellent example for the entire group. It is a complex blend of personifications, and here are all three stanzas: There is a flower, a lovely flower, Tinged deep with Faith’s unchanging hue; Pure as the ether in its hour Of loveliest and serenest blue. The streamlet’s gentle side it seeks, The silent fount, the shaded grot, And sweetly to the heart it speaks, Forget-me-not, forget-me-not. Mild as the azure of thine eyes, Soft as the halo-beam above, In tender whispers still it sighs, Forget me not, my life, my love! There where thy last steps turned away, Wet eyes shall watch the sacred spot, And this sweet flower be heard to say, Forget! ah, no! forget-me-not! Yet deep its azure leaves within Is seen the blighting hue of care; And what that secret grief hath been, The drooping stem may well declare. The dew-drops on its leaves are tears, That ask, ’Am I so soon forgot?’ Repeating still, amidst their fears. My life, my love! forget-me-not!^8 90 The flower is compared first to Faith, which is personi­ fied, and then to the ether or sky. Then the name of the flower is repeated twice, probably as an injunction al­ though the hyphens are retained whereas in the second stanza they are removed. Here is an area where one can speculate. In the second stanza the flower again stands in comparison; this time its whisper is as mild as the auditor’s blue eyes. Here there is no doubt about the command to not forget, which is followed by the reference to tears just before the repeat of the injunction. In the last stanza the opening increases the sadness of the mood as the blue of the flower is compared to the blueness of sorrow or care, this is brought on by the narrator’s fear that his love will not heed the injunction. This command begins to sound like a plea and this new note is heralded by the drooping stem and the dew as tears, and it asks "’Am I so soon forgot?’” These same tears then repeat the former command now as plea. This poem offers many opportunities for the reader to exercise his imagination, and the most prominent of these are to be found in relation to the name and color of the flower. These both signify faithfulness, and the flower conveys this mes­ sage with these two characteristics, as it speaks to the heart. Of more interest, however, is the parallel pro­ gression of these two characteristics through the poem and the subtle change in meaning as they move from 91 speaking "sweetly to the heart" to their final position of "repeating still, amidst their fears." The flower is an excellent symbol of faithfulness, and as long as it lives the love it signifies will also live. But flowers die and, in turn, their colors fade as the "drooping stem" indicates. And so love fades, and the loved-one is forgotten. Here a poem, that on the surface speaks very simply of faithfulness in love and its possible change, employs the Death motif on another and slightly cloudier level. As individual pieces these two groups of poems are not unique and are not so different from much of the poetry available either then or now. In short, the characteris­ tics that have been stressed so far are not particularly unusual. What is unusual, however, is that when they are examined as a body, striking homologies are evident. Few collections of poems by individual authors exhibit much more consistency; yet here is a group of twenty different poems (by at least eight and possibly eleven different poets), which exhibit striking similarities.

Spirit The final group of poems is unique, as it deals with the motif of Spirit in various forms. This section consist of four poems that list spirits as visible spectres or ghosts, one poem that has reference to the Christian God through the Holy Spirit, and two sub-groups 92 that treat Spirit as either a sort of alter-ego or some­ thing even more vague. In ’’Serenade'' the narrator walks at night; this is the "hour when spirits are in view."29 In "Leonora" the poem ends with Leonora’s seeing the rider revealed as a skeleton, while she trembles between life and Death. "Now round her, in the pallid light, / The wheeling spectres fly," as they cry out with an admonition and a final benediction of sorts. "The Dream-Omen" has a false lover who appears before his betrothed at night. This apparition takes the "troth-ring" from her hand and substitutes a different ring made of watery pearls; this second ring in time dis­ appears. 31

"The Stilly Land" features a beckoning spirit, who holds a burning torch upside down. He is the guide who directs the Dead to their new home.32 "Mountain and Valley" has been examined in an earlier chapter. This is the poem that on close examination presents God as Trinity. The second stanza in referring to the pure free air of the mountains states that, "His breath seems floating there."33 This in the context of the poem is an indisputable reference to that part of the Trinity known as the Holy Spirit or Ghost. This is also the first of seven poems that has a distinct and major reference to what Meyer H. Abrams has termed the 93 correspondent breeze or Aeolian metaphor.In this poem there is no doubt that the breath referred to is the Holy- Spirit. The exact nature of Spirit as presented in the rest of the poems is not so easy to identify. After carefully making a distinction between the more general Aeolian metaphor of ancient lineage and the "correspondent breeze," this latter defined as a "dis­ tinctively Romantic image" of the early decades of the nineteenth century, Mr. Abrams added a new dimension. This "air-in-motion," external prompter of internal man, not only stirred the artist to creative effort, but also, as a wild and free force, Inspired the "purifying revo­ lutionary violence," which was to tear down the old and corrupt so that it might be rebuilt in new and purer form. This was a destruction that was supposed to preserve.35 In this group of poems that stress the stirring of man’s heart or soul by an outside force "Cheerfulness" is the only one that lacks a specific reference to breath or wind as the motivator. Still the first stanza does not permit this poem to be placed with any other group: Open the soul to the bliss that illumes: Hear! it is heard in the linnet’s low song; Breathe! it the thicket of roses perfumes, Feel! it is rippling the small brook along: Taste! in the juice of the small grape it glows, Seasons the fruits in the wild rural bowers; See! in each herb and leaf greener it grows, Paints us the view of the Valley of Flowers.3° 94 The ecstasy or, in this case, "the bliss that illumes" comes from using all the senses, and each of the five is listed with its correspondent message from Nature. This is not an Aeolian metaphor as defined by Mr. Abrams, but it is exactly the same technique and even breathing is involved. "Spirit-Life," which was reproduced above and discussed before, has specific reference to both Spirit and breath in the following lines: "And does my Spirit frighten thee, sweet Dove? / It is the breath of love that falls on thee."®? The traditional, classic origin for

both the Spirit and the breath that stirred usually came from God, gods, or Nature. In this poem it comes from the narrator, who is in all probability a human. This is a mark of these German poems, i.e., the stirrings of the soul are quite often accomplished by man as well as God or Nature. In almost all of this literature can be seen a raising of the level of man—higher and closer to that of God. Here is a human exaltation that contrasts sharply with the Puritan view of man’s sinful nature. This loosening of the limits of the definition as given by Mr. Abrams, whose article referred to English literature, also seems to be a characteristic of this poetry. It seems to support well Clark’s contention that here was a literature that did indeed reach out to stimulate the imagination. Apparently this was a dimension that was 95 added to the Romantic literature of the period by the German authors. "Nearness of Spirits" also secularizes the metaphor by referring to the effect produced by a "brother-spirit’s breath." This is later compared to "hymnings soft / From moistened lute, with pensive note."3®

"To My Twin-Spirit" has the speaker addressing some sort of counter-part or alter-ego and wondering about their relationship. This speculation is brought on by the "twilight hour." In dreams the narrator seems to see his Spirit watching and here "from a low and touching voice, / Springs forth celestial harmony." This communica' tion appears to be much like the wind metaphor but with no specific reference to wind or breath at this point. The next stanza is devoted to further speculation as the narrator deals with the fact that he has never really seen or been contacted by his Twin-Spirit. He also wonders if his alter-ego might be trying to contact some one else just as he, the speaker, is trying to contact his own Spirit. The next stanza has specific reference to the metaphor as it states: As when the first bland breath of spring, Plays round the brow of manhood’s prime, And summons from their quiet graves The memories of by-past time; Thus gaze I on God’s glorious earth. My inmost soul its beauty thrills; A throng of feelings undefined, With rapture strange my bosom fills. 96 In the conclusion the narrator speculates further, this time about life as episode; hence, some prior existence, is posited. The poem ends as he suggests a possible meeting with his Twin in some future world; at which time they would be "pure as when from God" they came.39

"The Lost Church" deals with the traditional "correspondent breeze" plus Mr. Abrams’touch of violence. The poem has an original and different device, however. The narrator is walking in the woods, and as his soul ascends to God in a sort of communion inspired by Nature, he hears the loud ringing of a bell. "The higher my devotion soared, / The louder boomed that pealing bell." The speaker attributes this to an outside power and then proceeds to describe what might well be the outskirts of heaven with the turrets of a great cathedral visible in the distance: The bell with clear resounding peal Rang through the rocking tower; No human hand had touched the string, It felt the storm-wind’s power. My bosom trembling like a bark Dashed by the ocean’s foam, I trod with faltering, fearful joy, Beneath the mighty dome. Here is a unique variation in which the storm wind act­ ivates a bell rather than a harp; however, the bell serves exactly the same function and the narrator’s bosom trembles as cause and effect are mixed and blurred. As the poem closes, the lines that refer to the trappings of a church are immediately followed by: 97 Yet when I raised my eyes once more, The vaulted, roof was gone; Wide open was heaven’s lofty door, And every veil withdrawn. What wondrous visions I beheld, What sounds were in the air, Sweet as the wind-harp’s thrilling tone, Loud as the trumpet’s blare— These mortal tongue may never tell; Let him who fain would prove, Pause when he hears that pealing bell, In yonder twilight grove. Here is not only the metaphor again but also a truly rev­ olutionary stance toward the church, its forms, and dog­ mas. Early nineteenth century readers would have been familiar with the biblical accounts of Christ’s cruci­ fixion and the tearing of the temple curtain as He gave up His spirit. It takes little imagination to place the narrator in parallel position with the early Christian. The tearing of the old Judaic temple curtain was symbolic of a fresh start or a new look at the "true” religion. Here in this poem is the same new look at "true" religion as the formalism of organized Christianity is challenged in much the same manner. Christ, as revolutionary had set the pattern; Luther and Calvin had followed. The Puritans came to New England, but they were unable change the pattern, as the Unitarians and then the Transcendenta- lists folio-wed in short order. With a little imagination the reader can blame Clark for helping to sow the seeds that brought forth the Mormons and the Christian Scientists "The Spirit’s Return" offers yet another variation, 98 and the entire poem follows; If, in the evening’s latest red, A figure with a laughing eye. In the oak wood, on mossy bed, With nod and beckon past thee fly— That is the spirit of thy friend, Which joy and peace to thee will send. If in the moon’s soft wav’ring shrine, Love does thy dreamings beautify, Through cytisus and mournful pine, Wild melodies in murmurs fly, And through thy breast forebodings pour— That is, my spirit hovering o’er. Feel’st thou, when blessed thoughts are stealing Into the past time’s fairy land, A soft and spiritual feeling, Like zephry-kiss on lip and hand, And waves the taper's light about— ’That is my spirit, do not doubt! Hear’st thou beneath the silvery star, Within thy silent chamber quiver, Like to ASolian harps afar, The words of friendship, ‘Thine for ever!* Then slumber on; my spirit's nigh-t- It bids thee from thy sorrows fly!^1 The first stanza suggests that the auditor might be able to see the spirit; however, it seems that the narrator's help is necessary for proper identification. Then in each of the following stanzas the wind metaphor is used complete with cause and effect. In the second stanza the sound comes from the shrubs and trees as the wind blows through; this brings about an apprehensive breast. In the third stanza the zephyr kisses the hand and the candle light flickers. In the fourth stanza the quivering words are compared to Aeolian harps. Here indeed is an imaginative and glorified expression of human friendship, 99 and interestingly the progression has moved from wind through trees to a zephyr to a silent stirring, as the metaphor goes from external to an almost completely internal action. |Ôû

CONCLUSION

This study has looked at the Knickerbocker maga­ zine and its principal editor, Lewis Gaylord Clark. The focus has been on certain German literature Clark pre­ sented and also on his assessments of the value of that literature. Particular attention has been paid to the German poetry featured during the years 1837 through 184-3. These forty-two poems comprised approximately one-third of the German literature offered during the thirty-five years of the magazine’s publication. This figure excludes those lines used as epigraphs or prefixes to other articles. The poems were examined for broad thematic expressions, and four were found to be of major signi­ ficance (Death, Immortality, God, and Nature). These four major themes or motifs, along with the overriding concept of Spirit, indicated strong links with the Romantic movement. This poetry was also examined in the light of some of Clark’s assessments of its value. Clark found particular merit in this German literature: it stimulated the imagination; it had cognate affinities to the language of America; it was among the best literature of the world; and it had come from a nation recently emerged from barbarism. For these and other reasons Clark felt that America could learn much from these writings that would help bring its own 101 literature to an equally high position. In his mind the most important facet of this literature was its ability to stimulate the imagination. Great literature must have depth; it must have a certain "unfathomable" quality or "cloudiness of purport" that would involve the reader’s mind in a search for different levels of meaning or pos­ sibly just for alternate and equally valid interpreta­ tions. With all this, the literature must not be obscure. Simply, it must be translucent; not transparent, and not opaque. This translucence was the ingredient found in great literature, it was the ingredient found in this German literature, and it was the ingredient America must put in its own literature. This rather sophisticated attitude toward the stimulation of the imagination was not the general tenor of the Knickerbocker, but it is to be found in a signifi­ cant number of articles and also in many of Clark’s writ­ ings. Clark was certainly not alone in his desire or quest for a national literature; he was merely one of many. And he was certainly not alone nor was he the least bit original in proclaiming the value of imagination as a contributor to the artist’s creative force or as a hallmark of great literature. One has but to read Hawthorne, Poe, or Melville on this subject to find that wiser heads than Clark's had high regard for imagination as a creative force and for imaginative 102 literature that stimulated the reader’s fancy. Clark was merely presenting to his readers echoes of two of the principal literary tenets of the day. His peculiar con­ tribution, however, seems to have been the emphasis on German literature as the model that would help America break the ties with England and eventually produce a native literature worthy of this great country. A.nd to this end he offered and then touted the value of this German literature. The general tenor of the Knickerbocker, which is reflected in its reputation, was that of a popular liter­ ary magazine, by and large a mirror of the sentimental mood of America’s antebellum period. An examination of the magazine supports this. Clark was as responsible as anybody for this deserved image, in fact, more so. In addition to his regular duties as editor and columnist, he published Knick-Knacks from an Editor’s Table, which was a compilation of articles from his column selected by the editor himself. One must look long and hard to find for the period a more typical example of trite, maudlin, sentimental anecdotes interspersed with dialect stories and naive jokes. Here then by the man’s selection from his own writings in his magazine was further support for this generally accepted view. Clark was a good- natured bon vlvant and this is reflected in his magazine, in his personal writings and much of the literature he 103 offered, and most certainly in his selections for the Kniok-Knacks. Along with this accepted view of the Knickerbocker, and quite overshadowed by it, is, however, another side of the magazine, which is represented by Clark’s treatment of German literature and his stated views concerning its value. Here the obvious link with F. L. Pattee’s sentimental ’’Feminine Fifties” is joined by another that leads to Hawthorne and some of America’s truly great literature. He presented an entirely different face with the German offerings and his writings about them. In contrast to much of the rest of his magazine, the German literature was serious and it dealt with serious and important subjects. Very little literature has addressed itself to matters of more serious concern than the four major themes found in this German poetry, and apparently few editors have stressed the importance of a single function of such a body of literature, i.e., the stimulation of the imagination in order to help create a great body of native literature. lOM

NOTES 105

NOTES

PREFACE

-^Fred Lewis Pattee, The First Century of Ameri can Literature, 1770-1870 (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1966), p. 492. 2 Henry A. Pochmann, German Culture in America (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1957)» P. 63, p. 359. ®Scott Holland Goodnight, German Literature in Ameri can Magazines Prior to 1846, Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin (Madison: 19$7)» p. 55« ^Herman S. Spivey, "The Knickerbocker Magazine, 1833-1865: A Study of Its History, Contents, and Significance,” Diss. University of North Carolina, 1935» pp. 217-218. 106

NOTES

CHAPTER I

^Goodnight, p. 8n. 2Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1741-1850» I (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966), ¿O6-6O9. 3lbid., p. 606. ^William B. Cairns in The Cambridge History of American Literature, ed. William P. Trent et al. (New- York: Putnam’s, 1918), II, 167. ^Mott, pp. 606-607. ®Mott, p. 606n.

7Mott, p. 613. ®Joy Bayless, Rufus Wilmot Griswold, Poe*s Literary Executor (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1943)» p.238»CHAL, p. I67. 9The Knlckerbocker Magazine, LIV (July 1859)» 94; Mott, pp. 608-6O9. ^Bayard Tuckerman, ed., The Diary of Philip Hone, I (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company] 18897, 71» 11"Our Magazine Literature," The New World, VI (11 March 1843), 302. 12Kni ckerbocker, LI11, 449. 13lbld., LIX, 1. 1^Pred Lewis Pattee, The Feminine Fifties (New York: D. Apple ton-Century Company, 19^-0), pp. 322-323« 15pattee, FCAL, p. 494. l6Mott, p. 611. ^Knickerbocker, IV, 442. 107 ^Knickerbocker, XXXV, 68. 19ibld., LVI, 4l6. 20Ibid., 417 108

NOTES

CHAPTER II

^Leslie W. Dunlap, ed., The Letters of Willis Gaylord Clark and Lewis Gaylord Clark (New York : The New York Public Library, 1940), pp. vii-xi. 2C[linton] M[lndl], "Clark, Lewis Gaylord," DAB (1958), p. 137. ®Van Wyck Brooks, The Times of Melville and Whitman (New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1947, 1953)» P* 10. ^Dunlap, p. 133«. ®Ibid., pp. 115-116. 6Mott, p. 608. ?T. B. Thorpe, "Lewis Gaylord Clark," Harper’s, XLVIII (March 1874), 587. ®Evert A. and George L. Duyckinck, Cyclopedia of American Literature, II (1856, 1866; republ. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1965), 400. ^Thorpe, p. 589« 10Ibid., p. 588. ^Dunlap, pp. iii-v. 12Ibid., p. 115. 1®Ibid., p. 109.

"Shakespeare" is spelled "Shakspeare" throughout the magazine. In the error noted it was spelled "Skakspeare" (Knickerbocker, II, 10). ^Dunlap, p. 90. l6Ibid., p. 122. ^Thorpe, p. 588. 109 18Kniokerbocker, XLVII, 77.

x9çal, II, 400. 20 James H. Harper, The House of Harper (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 191277 129. 21Ibid., pp. 34-35. 22Dunlap, p. 129. 23Kniokerbocker, XLI, 418-419. 2Sïott, pp. 609-610.

25Thorpe, p. 592. 26Ibid., p. 591. 2?Dunlap, p. 133n. 28Ibld., p. 133.

29New York Times, 5 November I873, p. 7« 3°"Kniokerbocker Literature," The Nation, V (5 December I867), 460. 31DAB, II-2, 137. 32Times, p. 7. 110

NOTES

CHAPTER III

^William Charvat, The Origins of Ameri can Critical Thought, 1810-1835 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1961), p. 18. 2Goodnight, p. 3^. 3Ibld., pp. 172-227. ^Spivey, p. 211.

3lbid., pp. 212-217. ®Knlckerbocker, I, 1-14.

?Ibid., II, 484-492.

8Ibid., II, 7. 9ibid., Ill, 321-322 10Ibid. X1lbid., II, 10. 12Ibid., v, 35. ^Goodnight, p. 49. 1^Knickerbocker, XIII, 225-227. x3lbid., XIV, 90-91. l6Ibid., XIV, 91-92. 1?Ibid., XIV, I89. l8Ibld., XIV, 190. 19lbid., XIV, 429. 20lbid., XV, 165. In isolation this has the appearance of satire, but in the context of the column it really seems to have been presented quite seriously. 21Ibid., XLI, 561. Ill ^Knickerbocker, XLVI, 407-408. 2®Dunlap, p. 111. 2^Knickerbocker, XX, 193. 25Ibid., XVI, 466. 26Ibld., XX, 485.

2?Ibld., XII, 132-133. 28Ibid., XX, 248-249. 29Ibld., XXXVII, 358-36I. ®°Ibld., LIII, 83-87. ^Ibld., LVII, 1-11. ®2Ibid., LV, 81-83. 33Martin Henry Haertel, German Literature in Ameri­ can Magazines, 1846 to 1880 (1906;rpt. from the Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1908), pp. 23- 24. ^^nickerbocker, XII, 79. ®®Ibid., XXXIII, 227. 36Ibid., XXXV, 79-80. 3?Ibld., XXXVI, 403. 38Ibld., XL, 245. 39Ibld., XLIII, 320. ^°Ibid., LVII, 218. 112

NOTES

CHAPTER IV

xKnlokerbocker, I, 33. 2Ibid,, I, 19. z 8I6id., II, 197; 1» 273; II. 263; III, 197; II, 96ff, James D. Hart, The Popular Book: A History of America*s Literary Taste (Berkeley: University of Cali­ fornia Press, 1961), pp. 126-127. ^Kniokerbocker, XV, 331. ^Goodnight, p. 239.

?Kniokerbocker, XIV, 211. 8Ibld., XX, 572. 9Ibid., XX, 476. 10Ibid., XIII, 134-135 lxIbid., XIII, 197-198 12Ibid., XVI, 122. 13ibld., xvi, 383. l4Ibid., xxi, 549. x5ibid., XXII, 297. l6Ibid., xvi, 233. X?Ibid., xvi, 320. 18Ibid., XVI, 46. x9lbid., XIV, 428. 20Ibid., xxi, 515-516. 21Ibid., XVI, 466. 113 22Knickerboeke r, XVI, 308. 23lbid., XVI, 42. 24Ibid., XVII, 506. 23lbid., XV, 512. 26lbid., XIV, 211-212. 2?Ibid., XX, 485-486. 28Ibid., XX, 248-249.

29Ibid., Xu, 132-133* 3°Ibid., XIII, 197-198. 3!lbid., X, 207. 32ibid., X, 213. 33lbid., XV, 3^2. 3^lbid., XX, 162. 33ibid., XX, 485. 3®lbid., XIII, 51. 3?ibid., XVI, 46. 38lbid., XVI, 383. 39ibid., XIV, 430. ^°Ibid., XV, 144. ^Ibid., XV, 331. ^Ibid., XIV, 428. ^3ibid., XV, 512. 4¿íIbid., XVI, 42; XVII, 5O6 43ibid., XVI, 122. ^®Ibid., XXI, 515-516. ^Knickerbocker, XXI, 515-516. 114 ^Knickerbocker, XXI, 549. ^9Ibid., XVI, 9. 5°Ibid., XXI, 74. 51lbld., XXII, 48. 52Ibld., XXI, 212. 53ibid., IX, 160. 3^lbld., XVI, 320. 55ibid., XV, 422. 55ibid., XII, 119. 57ibid., XIII, 116; XIV, 563; XX, 248-249; XX, 485-486. 58Ibld., XX, 248-249; 485-486. 59ibid., XII, 132-133. 6oIbid., XXII, 6. 6lIbid., XXII, 451. 115

NOTES

CHAPTER V

•^Goodnight, p. 225. Knickerbocker, XII, 132-133; XX, 248-249; XV, 485-486. ®Ibid., XIV, 211-212. Kbid., XV, 144. ®Ibid., XX, 162. 6Ibld., XIII, 134-135. ?Ibld., XX, 476. 8Ibld., XX, 572. 9Ibid., XXI, 74. 10Ibid., X, 207. 11Ibld., XIII, 116. 12Ibld., XIV, 563. 1®Ibid., XV, 331. 1Kbid., XV, 342; XVI, 42; XVII, 506. 15Ibid., IX, 160. l6Ibld., XIV, 428. 1?Ibid., XVI, 308. 18Ibid., XXI, 515-516. l9Ibld., XXI, 549. 20Ibid., XXII, 6. 21Ibid., XXII, 451. 116 ^Knickerbocker, XVI, 23lbid., XVI, 122. 22iIbid., xvi, 320. 23lbid., xvi, 383. 2®Ibid., XXI, 212. 2?Ibid., XXII, 297. 28Ibid., XXII, 48. 29lbid., x, 213. 3°Ibid., XIII, 197-198 33-lbid., XV, 512. 32Ibid., XVI, 233. 33lbid., XX, 485. 3^Meyer H. Abrams, "The Correspondent Breeze: A Romantic Metaphor," The Kenyon Review, XIX (Winter 1957), 113-115. 33ibld., 126-130. 3®Knickerbocker, XVI, 46.

3?Ibid., XVI, 466 38Ibid., XV, 422. 39ibid., XIII . 51 4oIbid., XIV, 430 ^Ibid., XII, 119 IIs?

BIBLIOGRAPHY 11$

LIST OF WORKS CITED

Abrams, Meyer H. "The Correspondent Breeze: A Romantic Metaphor." The Kenyon Review, XIX (1957), 113-130. Bayless, Joy. Rufus Wilmot Griswold, Poe’s Literary Execu­ tor. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 194-3. Brooks, Van Wyck. The Times of Melville and Whitman. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 194?, 1953« Cairns, William B. "The Knickerbocker Magazine," The Cam­ bridge History of American Literature. Ed. William P. Trent, et al. New York: Putnam’s, 1918. II, 166-16?. Charvat, William. The Origins of Amerlcan Cr 1tlcal Thought, 1810-1835« New York: A. S. Barnes, 1961. Clark, Louis Gaylord. Knick-Knacks from an Editor’s Table. New York: D. Appleton and Company, T552. Dictionary of American Biography. Ed. Allen Johnson and Dumas Malone. New York: Scribner’s, 1958. Dunlap, Leslie W., ed. The Letters of Willis Gaylord Clark and Lewis Gaylord Clark. New York : The New York Public Library, 194-0. Duyckinck, Evert A. and George L. Cyclopedia of Am erican Literature. 1856, 1866; republ. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1965« Goodnight, Scott Holland. German Literature in American Magazines Prior to 184-77 Madison: Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, 1907. Haertel, Martin Henry. German Literature in Amerlcan Magazines, 184-6-1880. 1906; rpt. Madison: Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, 1908. Harper, James H. The House of Harper. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1912. Hart, James D. The Popular Book : A History of America* s Literary Taste. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961. "Knickerbocker Literature." The Nation, V (5 December), 4-59-4-61. 119 The Knickerbocker; or, New-York Monthly Magazine, 1833- June 1861 (I-LVII). Mott, Frank Luther. A History of Ameri can Magazines, 1741- 1850. Vol. I. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966. New York Times. 5 November 1873. "Our Magazine Literature." The New World, VI (11 March 1843), 302-314. Pattee, Fred Lewis. The First Century of American Literature, 1770-1870« New York: Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., W ______. The Feminine Fifties. New York: D. Appleton- Century Company, 1940. Pochmann, Henry A. German Culture in America. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1957« Spivey, Herman E. "The Kni ckerbocker Magazine, 1833-1865: A Study of Its History, Contents, and Significance." Diss. University of North Carolina, 1936. Thorpe, T. B. "Lewis Gaylord Clark." Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, XLVIII (March 1874), 587-592. Tuckerman, Bayard, ed. The Diary of Philip Hone. Vol. I. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1889• I2P

APPENDIX 121

THS POEMS 1837-1843

"Blucher's Bail," Folien, XIV, 563. "Brother Gray-Frock and the Pilgrim," Burger, XII, 132-133. "Cheerfulness," Salis, XVI, 46. "Death," Uhland, XVI, 383. "Elegy," Matthisson, XIV, 211-212. "Farewell," Goethe, XVI, 42. "Farewell," Goethe, XVII, 506. "Forget-Me-Not: ’Myosotis Avensis,*" Anon., XXII, 48. "Freedom," Anon., XIII, 116. "Good Night," Korner, XX, 162. "Hope," Schiller, XXII, 297- "Hymn of Nature," Anon., XV, 3^2. "Leonora," Burger, XIII, I97-I98. "Love," Matthisson, XVI, 122. "Mountain and Valley," Krummacher, XX, 485. "Mountain Scene in Switzerland," Houwald, XV, 144. "Nature," Matthisson, X, 207. "Nearness of Spirits," Matthisson, XV, 422. "Seed of Contentment," Anon., XXII, 451. "Serenade," Burger, X, 213. "Similitudes of Love," J. E. Schlegel, XXI, 212. "Sir Toggenburg," Schiller, XX, 248-249. "Spirit-Life," Uhland, XVI, 466. 122 "Spring,” Tieck, XV, 331. "The Beloved," Goethe, IX, 160. "The Boy’s Mountain Song," Uhland, XXI, 74. "The Dead Trumpeter," Anon., XX, 476. "The Dream-Omen," Burger, XV, 512. "The Dying Flower," Ruckert, XXI, 515-516. "The Dying Hero," Uhland, XIII, 134-135. "The King’s Soliloquy," Uhland, XVI, 320. "The Landlady’s Daughter," Uhland, XVI, 308. "The Lost Church," Uhland, XIV, 430-431. "The Nobleman and the Pensioner," Pfeffel, XX, 485-486. "The Sower," Schiller, XXI, 549. "The Spirit’s Return," Matthisson, XII, 119. "The Stilly Land," Salis, XVI, 233. "The Watch-Fire," Anon., XX, 572. "To a Broken Pipe," Kruntz, XIV, 428. "To my Twin-Spirit," Anon., XIII, 51. "To Pleasure," Anon., XXII, 6. "Whisper of One Unbeloved," Burger, XVI, 9«