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AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN SIERRA LEONE Sandra Wolton Thesis Submitted for Examination PhD in International Development University of Portsmouth School of Area Studies, History, Politics and Literature (SASHPL) November 2019 Blank Page DECLARATION While registered as a candidate for the above degree, I have not been registered for any other research award. The results and conclusions embodied in this thesis are the work of the named candidate and have not been submitted for any other academic award. Word count: 80,320 Signature [Sandra Wolton]: ............................................ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I dedicate this thesis to Edmond, the UN driver who accompanied me on several field visits and who sadly succumbed to Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in 2014 and to everyone whose lives were claimed by the virus. I acknowledge the lives that were lost and the families who were devastated as a result of the mudslide in Freetown 2017. My sincere thanks to all staff members at the British Council for their guidance and support throughout this project and for their provision of a cool haven in the heat of Freetown’s midday sun. I wish to express my gratitude to Augustine for his enduring friendship during my time in Sierra Leone. My sincere thanks to Augustine for his assistance in the coordination of fieldtrips to Makeni and Gbanti Kamaranka (Bombali) and for liaising with communities and sharing his knowledge of local customs and practice which enabled me to gain an understanding of the challenges faced by women and girls. I would like to say how much I appreciate the enthusiasm and dedication shown by researchers Hannah, Gifty, Osman, and Mainah who accompanied me on field visits in Freetown. My sincere thanks to Ivor Leigh, community leader in Kaningo for introducing me to the residents, for his advice on the observation of community protocols and for the time he devoted to this project. In particular I wish to express my admiration for women’s groups I met in each location on numerous occasions who were building strong foundations for themselves and their children so they would have better lives. I wish to thank all the inspiring participants in Makeni who demonstrated remarkable resilience and resolve in resettling and in the reconstruction of their lives. Last but by no means least I would like to thank everyone in all the villages I visited in Gbanti Kamaranka (Bombali district) for the warmth, hospitality and generosity they demonstrated and for allowing me to share their stories. ii ABSTRACT This investigative thesis aims to gain insight into the contextual reasons for women’s low status in selected urban and rural districts in Sierra Leone through the collection and analysis of primary data that is absent from the development debate, and to examine routes of progression through combining practical fieldwork with the application of concepts referenced in my theoretical framework. The study has four principal objectives. Firstly: to identify the main historical, economic, social and cultural issues that obstruct women’s and girls’ progress. Secondly: to identify the factors undermining the success of large-scale development programmes intended to empower extremely poor women. Third: based on results of my research to offer recommendations that demonstrate potential to resolve main issues that obstruct women’s progress. Fourth: to examine possible routes of progression and propose ways in which they may be integrated into future policy and programming. I apply a semi-ethnographic, qualitative approach in collecting and analysing the key data that constitute the core of this study, comprising material drawn from interviews with women’s networks, women’s advocacy groups and community women. I contrast this data with perspectives of funders and actors responsible for delivering development initiatives – UN agencies, INGOs, senior government officials and civil servants, NGOs and CBOs. Applying this method of triangulation enables me to identify and crosscheck disconnects in development structures. I highlight the prime factors that block successful outcomes of such initiatives: the toleration of corruption; elite distancing from objectives and the absence of a dialogue between women and the bureaucratic structure. Based on the results from my research, I advocate the revision of development policy and programming so that it is contextual (country and district specific) and inclusive of women, fully recognising women’s role as integral in the development process. I propose the adoption of Contextual Development (CD), a comprehensive concept rooted in local knowledge that prioritises and addresses the needs of the disadvantaged as a route of progression that has the potential to improve project impact and outcome. iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS A4P Agenda for Prosperity ADBG African Development Bank Group AdB African Development Bank APC All People’s Congress ARCSR Architecture of Rapid Change and Scarce Resources BDWN Bombali District Women’s Network BRA Bike Riders Association BRAC Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee BV Buen Vivir CADEPS Community Action for Development Programmes and Services CBE Competency-based Education CBO Community Based Organisation CCT Conditional Cash Transfer CLTS Community Led Total Sanitation CLTSP Community Led Total Sanitation Programme CRA Child Rights Act CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CSA Cassette Sellers Association DFID Department for International Development ECOMOG The Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EFA Education for All ESP Education Sector Plan EU European Union EVD Ebola Virus Disease FAO Food Aid Organisation? FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists FGC Female Genital Cutting FGM/C Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting FSU Family Support Unit GBV Gender Based Violence GDI Gender Development Index GDP Gross Domestic Product iv GEC Girls’ Education Challenge GEI Gender Equity Index GEM Global Education Monitoring GII Gender Inequality Index GoSL Government of Sierra Leone GT Grounded Theory HDI Human Development Index HDR Human Development Report HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HND Higher National Diploma ICAI Independent Commission for Aid Impact IDC International Development Committee ILMS Ivor Leigh Memorial School IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation IVS Inland Valley Swamps JSS Junior Secondary School LMU London Metropolitan University MDG Millennium Development Goal MEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology MM Milton Margai MMCET Milton Margai College of Education and Technology MP Member of Parliament MRU Mano River Union MSF Médecins Sans Frontières MSWGCA The Ministry of Social Welfare, Gender and Children’s Affairs M&E Monitoring and Evaluation NASSIT National Social Security Insurance Trust NCSO National Commission of Sexual Offences NEP National Education Policy NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NHI National Happiness Index OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RUF Revolutionary United Front v SBV Sexual Based Violence SDG Sustainable Development Goal SHG Self Help Group SIGI Social Institutions and Gender Index SLAUW Sierra Leone Association of University Women SLPP Sierra Leone People’s Party SLWMP Sierra Leone Women’s Movement for Peace SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSS Senior Secondary School TBA Traditional Birth Attendant TD Transition Discourse TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children Fund UPE Universal Primary Education UPRSL Universal Periodic Review of Sierra Leone Sierra Leone US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development VAG Violence Against Girls VAWG Violence Against Women and Girls WASH Water, Sanitation, Hygiene Public Health Programmes WB World Bank WEF World Economic Forum vi MAPS, DIAGRAMS, TABLES & IMAGES Page No 1. Maps 1. Map of Sierra Leone 05 2. Map showing location of Freetown, Makeni and Kamaranka, Bombali 06 2. Diagrams 1. Conceptual framework 18 2. Communication flow between district and community members 19 3. Communication flow between key actors 19 4. Lateral contextual model of development 184 3. Tables 1. Comparative development indicators within the Mano River Union 02 2. Source of data sets and type of analysis 14 3. Summary of meetings and participants 16 4. Contextual response to development 185 5. Rural women’s groups established post-conflict 197 6. End-of-Programme Progress, 2015 198 7. Legislation in support of gender equality and women’s empowerment 199 8. Education structure of Sierra Leone 200 4. Images 1. Madam Yoko 44 2. Teachers and children at Charlotte school 1880’s 45 3. Ivor Leigh Memorial School, Kaningo 80 4. Traditional Sowei Mask 139 5. Kakua secondary school 150 6. Interior of Kakua secondary school 150 vii DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH Conference Papers and Presentations: March 2018: The Role of the Academy in the Advancement of Women’s Studies. Invited lecture at the ‘International Conference on the Advancement of Women’s Studies’. Mumbai, India. May 2017: Sierra Leone: presentation and project development with Njala University on behalf of the University of Portsmouth (UoP). Freetown, Sierra Leone February 2017: Sierra Leone: Women’s Role in Integrated Rural
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