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African Social Studies Series Kenyan Khat African Social Studies Series Editorial Board Martin R. Doornbos, Institute of Social Studies the Hague Carola Lentz, University of Mainz John Lonsdale, University of Cambridge VOLUME 15 Kenyan Khat The Social Life of a Stimulant by Neil C.M. Carrier LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data LC Control Number: 2006050018 ISSN 1568-1203 ISBN-13: 978 90 04 15659 3 ISBN-10: 90 04 15659 3 © Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands In fond memory of Douglas Webster A guide, philosopher and friend CONTENTS List of Maps and Plates .............................................................. ix Acknowledgements ...................................................................... xi Introduction .................................................................................. 1 Chapter One: Cultivating Miraa in the Nyambene Hills ...... 27 Chapter Two: From Mutuati to Manchester: Miraa’s Trajectories .............................................................................. 63 Chapter Three: Transporting Miraa .......................................... 103 Chapter Four: Bargaining over Bundles .................................... 123 Chapter Five: Trust, Suspicion and Conflict in Miraa Trade Relations .................................................................................. 159 Chapter Six: Chewing ................................................................ 181 Chapter Seven: Miraa and the War on Drugs ........................ 225 Conclusion .................................................................................... 253 Glossary ........................................................................................ 259 Bibliography .................................................................................. 261 Index ............................................................................................ 267 LIST OF MAPS AND PLATES Map 1: Kenya and principal towns Map 2: The Nyambene Hills Map 3: Igembe zone of cultivation Plate 1: M’Mucheke, cat and khat tree Plate 2: View from Nkinyang’a to savannah below Plate 3: Mzee Baariu and his wife in shamba of intercropped miraa and tea Plate 4: Sections of a miraa tree (illustration by Rachael Shepherd) Plate 5: Tycoon picking miraa from an ancient mbaine tree near Karama Plate 6: M’Mucheke picking miraa from skeletal sections of a tree, Kabache Plate 7: A chewing session near Mutuati on a bed of leaves stripped from graded miraa Plate 8: Matangoma, a low quality variety of miraa Plate 9: Charles, son of M’Thuranira, harvesting miraa from a young tree, Karama Plate 10: Preparing shurbas at the Brilliant Café, Karama Plate 11: Image from page 8 of Gitonga na Stano, copyright Stanislaus Olonde (1996). (Reproduced here with the kind per- mission of the Publishers: Sasa Sema Publications Ltd., P.O. Box 13956, Nairobi 00800, Kenya.) Plate 12: M’Mucheke and Musa at Kimathi Kiosk, Isiolo Plate 13: Philemon outside Sunrise Kiosk, Nairobi Plate 14: Borana men and women miraa retailers, Isiolo Plate 15: Preparing ncoolo, a ceremonial bundle of miraa Plate 16: Ncoolo, the finished product Plate 17: ‘No munching’ at a Marsabit café Plate 18: Grading miraa at the Manchester Café, Karama Plate 19: Chewing miraa in Mutuati Plate 20: The ‘Khat Busters’ uniform badge ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Carnegie Institute helped fund preliminary research in Kenya in 1999–2000, as did the Department of Social Anthropology of the University of St Andrews. The main bulk of my research on miraa was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council as part of a research studentship held 2000–2002. I conducted further research on the substance while working as a research assistant on the Khat Nexus project funded as part of the AHRC/ESRC Cultures of Consumption programme. Thanks to Frank Trentmann for all his effort on that programme. The work was finished with the help of an ESRC Postdoctoral Fellowship held at St Antony’s College, Oxford, 2005–2006. I owe Pauline Whitehead a great debt of thanks for her kind donation in the early days of the project. Roy Dilley guided the project and me into midseason form with invariably felicitous suggestions that have shaped the work into its present form. I am forever grateful to Mario Aguilar for suggesting the project in the first place. Nigel Rapport, Elaine Baldwin, Stan Frankland, David Riches, Shelagh Weir, Anne-Marie Peatrik, Sam Hall, Kathryn Cesarz, Mark Lamont and my fellow Ph.D. students at St Andrews, have all given me ideas, time and encouragement. Thanks to William Beinart, and all at St Antony’s (especially Kate Rogers and Wanja Knighton), and David Anderson, Susan Beckerleg, Degol Hailu and Axel Klein, whose work The Khat Controversy will be, I hope, complemented by my own. Paul Goldsmith, both in per- son and in his authoritative writings on miraa, has been of great assistance, while he and his family also accommodated me gener- ously at their Meru home. Abdulkadir Araru and Hassan Arero have been fantastic help in the UK, as have Hanan Ibrahim, Nasir Warfa and all my other Somali friends. Noel Lobley and his interest in the topic gave a great boost to my fieldwork at a time when it sorely needed one. Paul and Pat Baxter have helped me greatly over the last few years with off-prints, newspaper cuttings, anecdotes, cake and tea. They have also been good sports in becoming Bramhall’s first miraa farmers. My parents, Irene and Michael Carrier, have helped in ways too numerous to list. Many thanks to Sasha Goldstein, and all the team on Brill’s ‘African Social Studies Series’. Rachael xii acknowledgements Shepherd’s artistry provided the illustrated miraa tree (plate 4), while Lila Luce at Sasa Sema Publishers (Nairobi) and Stanislaus Olonde have improved the work greatly by allowing me to use images from Stano’s Gitonga cartoon (plate 11). Dr Rashid Aman and the staff at the National Museums of Kenya helped forge me a path through bureaucracy and into the field with remarkable efficiency. The Catholic network looked after me won- derfully well despite my agnosticism. Thanks to: Sister Elizabeth, Anastasia, Father Mwangi, Peter, Opiyo, Mugambi, Speranza, Bety, Christopher, Sister Bertha, Sister Evangeline, Christine, Joseph, Jamila, Father Tablino, Sister Monica and all at the Isiolo Catholic Mission, Marsabit Mission, and the Flora Hostel in Nairobi. Gratias to Stefano Locati. Without the following Kenyan friends and miraa-chewing accom- plices I would have greatly struggled: Julius Likaria and family, Stephen Eloto and family, Wily, Kamaro, M’Ithai and all at the milk depot, the Makatas (especially Georgie), Eliud, Philemon, Musa and all at Kimathi Kiosk and Sunrise, Meshach, Gitonga and Sammy, Patrick in Eastleigh, Miaka, Kamau, Kibongi, Benson, Zakayo, Ahmed, Hassan, Rose, Geoffrey Baariu and family, Jackson and family, Charles and M’Thuranira, M’Naituli, M’Iweta, Tycoon, Moreno, Mururu, all at Karama and the Manchester regulars, Kimathi Munjuri and Mr L.N. Bariu. The Mwambia family—Andrew, Priscilla, Joshua, Judy, and Karimi—adopted me as one of their own: Karama really does feel like home from home. The other constituent of the Mwambia family, Nico M’Mucheke, is the lifeblood of this work. I very much hope he likes it. Sadly, Bishop Locati—who helped me much during my time at Isiolo—was tragically killed in 2005, and Douglas Webster—whose intellectual honesty and lucidity have inspired many over the years, including myself—died in September 2004. To them both: nimeshukuru sana. Map 1: Kenya and principal towns Isiolo Gachuru xiv Kavache village Mutuati Kaelo Lare To Igembe Kinna & KK Meru Biriri village Kipcorner National Kangeta Muringene Park Subuiga Nkinyanga Maili Tatu Junction Kaweru Kiutine Karama Kiengu Kamiruna Tigania Muthara Murere Mbaranga Maua Itieni (District Headquarters) Kianjai maps 2514m Kirua Miathene Amugaa Mikinduri Imenti Meru Distance Meru Maua = 60km (approx.) Nkubu Enbu & Nairobi Map 2: The Nyambene Hills maps xv Map 3: Main Igembe zone of cultivation INTRODUCTION The one thing in this world that’s right up my street is chewing veve. —M’Mucheke, December 2000 Introducing miraa, veve, gomba, mbachu, khat, mairungi... This book traces from farm to consumer some of the many trajec- tories that one particular substance follows in its ‘social life’ (Appadurai 1986) within Kenya and beyond. The substance in question is more widely known as qat or khat, and comes from a tree with the botan- ical name Catha edulis (Forsskal). In Kenya many terms are applied to it, and these include the following: veve, gomba, shamba, green gold, Igembe grass, mairungi, mbachu, topong the power, and, of course, miraa.1 The consumption of Kenyan miraa has gone global thanks to the spread of a miraa-consuming Somali, Ethiopian and Yemeni dias- pora. Consignments
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