Bayport-Bluepoint Union Freeschooldistrict Bayport,Newyork

BAYPORT-BLUEPOINT UNION FREESCHOOLDISTRICT BAYPORT,NEWYORK

Board of Education

Thomas McMahon, President Roger P. Smith, Vice President

Virginia E. Briefs Kevin P. Foley Judith A. Gordon Charlene Lehmann Nancy Letsch Rosemary Martin Andrew 1. Wittman, Jr.

DISTRICTADMINISTRATION

Richard W. Curtis Superintendent of Schools Dorleese J. Stewart Chief BusinessAdministrator

Joan E. Grazda Director of Curriculum and General Administration

MARINE BIOLOGY

Writers Donna Edgar William Hutchinson DavidWeinstein

Summer 1994 Revision

(Adopted 1994-1995 School Year) The 1994 rewrite of the Marine Biology course has a few deletions and many additions. The additions concentrate on lab and resource materials to enhance the course for the students. A major change is in the flow of content and the times in the

year they are done - these changes allow the content to be more understandable and meaningful during the progression of the course. I would like to acknowledge the help and support for this course given by the administrations and the support office during the past years; without the ongoing commitment it would not have been as successful as it has become.

Respectfully,

Donna Edgar William Hutchinson David Weinstein Table of Contents Introduction and Prerequisites Safety Statement

Topic One: The Marine Environment Two: The Ocean: Physical Factors Three: The Ocean: Chemical Factors Four: Unity and Evolution Five: The Pelagic Environment Six: Estuarine Community Seven: Sandy Beaches and Dunes Eight: The Rocky Intertidal Zone Nine: Coral Reefs Ten: The Benthos Eleven: The World of Marine Plants Twelve: The Invertebrates Thirteen: Vertebrates: The Fish Fourteen: Vertebrates: The Reptile Fifteen: Vertebrates: The Birds Sixteen: Vertebrates: Marine Mammals Seventeen: Marine Fisheries: Societal Influences Eighteen: Marine Pollution: Societal Influences

Appendices: The Metric System The Microscope I

MARINE BIOLOGY FULLYEAR-i UNIT CREDIT Prerequisite: Biology and Biology Teacher Recommendation

This course (5 lecture periods per week and lab alternate days) introduces students to the natural aquatic and marine environments with an emphasis on the wide variety of plant and animal life in local waters. Organisms will be related to overall delicate ecological balances and the impact of humans on such ecosystems will be fully explored. Oceanography includes the physical and chemical nature of water. Along with materials provided by biological supply houses, specimens will be collected regularly on field trips, and some specimens will be cultured in aquaria for laboratory study. Successful completion of assigned labs will be a requisite for passing this course. The course will employ demonstrations, computer simulations, computer assisted instruction, guest presenters, videotape films, filmstrips, and lectures to facilitate learning.

Taken from Course Offerings Bayport High School 92-93 This laboratory course is designedto help you to gain a greater understanding and appreciation for marine organisms and the interrelated processes occurring in the marine environment.

Textbook. Lerman, Matthew, t-larineBiology—Environment,Diversity and ECology: Benjamin /Cummings Publishing Co.,Reading, Massachusetts; 1986.

Laboratory Materials from a variety of resources

Course Requirements: Courserequirements shall include written homework assignments, laboratories with appropriate lab reports, field trips with field notes/reports, and special reports on selected topics. There will be a test after each major unit of study with appropriate quizzes (as necessary) ; a Midterm ,Final Examination and Laboratory Practical(s).

There will be a variety of field experiences which you are expected to participate in . These will be announcedshortly as to destination anddate. Permission slips must be handedin

Major Areas of study shall include: TheWorldOceans MarineVertebrates Waters UniqueProperties MarineInvertebrates Compositionof Seawater HumanInfluence Saltwater Aquariums MarineEcology DissolvedGases/Temperature/LightIn the Marine Environment Classification of MarineOrganisms MarinePlants—Macroscopic!MIcroscopIc/Flowering 2

MARINE BIOLOGY

FIELD TRIPS

In a course such as marine biology, field trips are not to be considered an enhancement or frivolous. There are numerous activities that can be pursued in our immediate area. There are also many institutions that have student programs, i.e., Long Island University (Southampton Campus), State University of New York (Stony Brook campus) and B.O.C.E.S., to name a few.

Funds should be allocated for these types of activities. Below are just a brief listing of activities that are available or that we have taken part in previously:

Whale-watching by boat Seal-watching at Montauk Point Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Fire Island National Seashore Collecting of specimens in Great South Bay 3

Safety Statement

Careful planning and preparation, as well as common sense and an awareness of safety hazards, can keep accidents to a minimum. Before beginning a laboratory activity, be certain that the correct procedures are clear. Require that students wear safety glasses during activities that present a danger to the eyes. Emphasize that any accident or injury, no matter how insignificant, should be reported to the teacher at once.

Familiarize the students with the use of the fire extinguisher, safety shower, fire blanket, and eye bath. Discuss proper laboratory cleanup procedures with the class. When working with chemicals, remind students that ALL procedures must be followed exactly as the teacher specified. Students should never taste, touch, or inhale any chemicals. Encourage students to develop serious attitudes towards laboratory methods. For each lab, go over the safety procedures. Name Date ______SAFETYSYMBOLS The Biology:TheDynamicsof LifeProgram usesseveralsafetysymbolsto alert you to possiblelaboratory dangers.Thesesafety symbolsareexplainedbelow.Besurethat you understandeachsymbolbeforeyou begin a lab activity.

DISPOSALALERT ANIMALSAFETY This This symbol appears when care must symbol appears whenever live be taken to dispose of materials animals arestudied and the safety of properly, the animalsandthe studentmustbe ensured.

BIOLOGICALSAFETY 1OA1’’E SAFETY This symbol appears when thereis danger involvingbacteria, fungi,or This symbolappears when radloac protists. tive materials are used.

CLOTHINGPROTECTIONSAFETY OPENFLAMEALERT This symbol whensub This when of appears symbol appears use an stances used could stain or burn flame couldcausea fire or an open clothing. A laboratory apron should explosion. beworn whenthis symbolappears.

THERMALSAFETY FIRESAFETY reminder This symbol appears as a This symbol whencare to cautionwhenhandlinghot appears use shouldbe takenaroundopenflames. objects.

SHARPOBJECTSAFETY EXPLOSIONSAFETY This symbol appears when a danger This symbol appears when the of cutsor puncturecausedby the misuse of chemicalscouldcause an useof sharpobjectsexists. explosion.

EYESAFETY FVMESAFETY This when This whenchemicals symbol appears a danger symbol appears to the exists. chemicalreactionscould eyes Safetygoggles or cause shouldbeworn whenthis symbol dangerousfumes. appears.

ELECTRICALSAFETY POISONSAFETY This symbol appearswhencare This when shouldbe takenwhen symbolappears poison- using oussubstancesareused. electricalequipment.

PLANTSAFETY CHEMICALSAFETY This symbol whenchemi This symbolappears whenpoison- appears with thorns calsusedcancauseburnsor are ousplantsor plants are if absorbed the . handled. poisonous through skin.

CopyrightC 1991byMerrillPublishingCompany UsersofBIoIogyTheDynamksofUfe.Laborato,yManualhavethepublisher’spermiulonto reproducethispage. xvi SAFETYRULES

1. Alwaysobtain your teacher’s permission before 9. If a fire should break out in the classroom, or if beginning an activity. your clothing should catch fire, smother it with 2. Studythe procedure. If you have questions, ask the fire blanket or a coat, or get under a safety your teacher. Be sure you understand any safety shower. NEVERRUN. symbols shown on the page. 10. Report any accident or injury, no matter how 3. Use the safety equipment provided for you. small, to your teacher. Gogglesand a laboratory apron should be worn when any Investigation calls for using chemicals. 4. Always slant test tubes away from yourself and others when heating them. Followthese procedures as you clean up your work 5. Never eat or drink in the lab, and never use lab area. glassware as food or drink containers. Never Inhale chemicals. Do not taste any substance or 1. Turn off the water and gas. Disconnect electrical draw any material into a tube with your mouth. devices. 6. Ifyou spill any chemical, wash it off immediately 2. Return all materials to their proper places. with water. Report the spill immediately to your 3. Dispose of chemicals and other materials as di teacher. rected by your teacher. Place broken glass and 7. Know the location and proper use of the fire solid substances in the proper containers. Never extinguisher, safety shower, fire blanket, first aid discard materials in the sink. kit, and fire alarm. 4. Clean your work area. 8. Keep all materials away from open flames. Tie 5. Washyour hands thoroughly after workingIn the back long hair and loose clothing. laboratory.

FIRSTAID Injury Saferesponse Burns Applycoldwater.Callyourteacherimmediately. Cutsandbruises Stopany bleedingby applyingdirectpressure.Covercutswith a clean dressing.Applycoldcompressestobruises.CallyourteacherImmediately.

Fainting Leavethe personlyingdown.Loosenanytightclothingandkeepcrowds away.Callyourteacherimmediately. Foreignmatterin eye Flushwithplentyof water.Useeyewashbottleor fountain.

Poisoning Note the suspectedpoisoningagentandcallyourteacherimmediately.

Any spillson skin Flushwithlargeamountsofwateror usesafetyshower.Callyourteacher immediately.

SAFETYCONTRACT

I, , have read and understand the safety rules and first aid Information listed above. I recognize my responsibility and pledge to observe all safety rules in the science classroom at all times.

signature date

CopyrIght0 1991byMerrIllPublishingCompany UsersofBiology:TheDynamicsofLife,LaboratoryManual havethe publisher’spermissionto reproducethispage. xv 4

Topic One THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT - Geological Factors

I. OVERVIEW

The structure of the ocean bottom is highly variable from one place to the next and reflects the processes in the earth’s interior. The world ocean consists of a series of inter connecting basins.

II. CONCEPTS Bottom topography Plate tectonics Sea level

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussion and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Identify major ocean basins B) Compare area, volume and mean depth of major ocean basins Q Compare temperature and salinity of major ocean basins D) Identify major geological features of ocean basins E) Understand the movements of crustal plates F) Understand the impact of changing sea levels

I V KEYTERMS

Oceanography Sea Mount Ocean Basins Canyons Topography Plate Tectonics Sonar Asthenosphere Continental Margin Magma Continental Shelf Rifts Slope Hydrothermal Vents Rise Sea Level Abyssal plain Mid-ocean ridge Trench 5

V. ACTIVITIES

1. Pangea/Plate tectonics Lab/Puzzle 2. Oceans of the World Lab 3. Sonar Depth Lab Drill Exercise 4. Earth History NTE #305 5. Ocean Features Model - Hubbard

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data CD Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. A/V Resources

BOCE Films Title #101062 Continental Drift #108377 Blue Planet #100457 Evidence of Ice Age #101026 Earth It’s Oceans #101054 Portrait of a Coast #104191 Our Dynamic Earth #108096 Science Studies the Moving Continent #102439 This Land Map of the World

90° 120° 150° 180° 1500 120° 90° 0° 30° 60° Eurasia

North America

South America 6

Topic Two The Ocean - Physical Factors

I. OVERVIEW Water is moved in a variety of ways over the face of the earth, the most familiar being by surface waves. Tidal movement is the result of the gravitational interaction of the earth, moon and sun. Where winds blow over large areas with a reasonable consistency of direction and strength, significant volumes of water move across the oceans.

II. CONCEPTS: Waves Tides Rip Tides Currents Pressure

III. OBJECTIVES: Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Predict when a wave will break B) Interpret local tide tables for high and low water C) Graph semidiurnal and diurnal tides D) Identify major ocean currents and areas of upwelling E) Identify deep-ocean circulation thermohaline currents F) Graph hydrostatic pressure with increasing depth

IV. KEYTERMS Wavelength Tide Ekman Spiral Height Tidal Range Upwelling Amplitude Semidurnal Tide El Nino Period Diurnal Hydrostatic Pressure Frequency Tidal Currents Crest Thermohaline Currents Trough Coriolis Effect Tsunami Gyres

V. ACTIVITIES: Tidal Charts 1. Weiss, Dorsey- An Introduction to the Tides 2. Investigating the Marine Environment- The Moon, the Sun, and the Tides 7

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory Reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, amd problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by reponsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. A/V RESOURCES

BOCE Films Title 100459 Waves on Water 103244 Tides of Long Island InvestigatingTheMarineEnvironment: A Sourcebook

writtenandeditedbyHowardM.W&ssandMichaelW.Dorsey withcontributionsbyassociatesof ProjectOceanology illustratedby CarmelaVenti AnIntroductionto theTides The tides are the alternating rise a-d fall of sea levelcausedby the gravita tionaJ pull of the moon and the sun on the earth. The timing and height of the tides areaffected by manylocal factors suchas the shapeof the coastline and the depth of the water.Thus, no two locationshaveexactlythe sametidal cycle. Somegeneralastronomical factors affecting the,tides are presentedbelow in a seriesof simplediagrams.Thefactors affecting the daily tidal changesare presentedfirst. followed by the changesthat occur monthly.These changes ‘c m.ri!y duc.to the earth-moonsystem.Annualchanges.which involvethe sun-earth system. are mentioned at the end. Rememberthat all the astro nornic& factors e modified n many ways by local conditions. Centrifugal Force In Figure 1, the man is swinging a heavy weight aroundhim.Noticethat hemust lean back somewhatto swing the weight.Actual ly, both the manandthe weightarerevolving about a common point (dotted line). This commonpoint is closer to the manbecause he weighs morethan the weght. Theweightwouldfly off in a straight line if the man should let go. The force that pulls the weight away from the manis called cen trifugal force. The force of the man’s muscles counteracts the centrifugal force, preventing the weight from flying off. Since the man is also revolving, cen trifugal force will cause him to fall in a (top view) of straight line if he should let go the weight. Fig. 1. Centrifugal force The effect of centrifugal force can be seen on the man’s hair, which is being pulled away from his head in a direction directly op posite the swinging weight.

The Earth-Moon System We usually talk about the moon revolving about the earth. Actually, the moon and the earth (like the man and the weight) both revolve around a common point, called the barycenter (Fig. 2).The barycenter is marked with an X. It is located closer to the earth because the earth is much heavier than the moon. (The barycenter is actually within the earth.) The moon completes one revolution around the barycenter in 29.53 days. The gravitational attraction (Fg) between the moon and the earth keeps them from fly- Fig. 2. The earth-moonsystem

0 & 0- 0— .0—

6hrs l2hrs 18 hrs 24 hrs 24 hrs50 mm Tide: exactly nearly nearly nearly nearly exactly high low’ high low high high FIq. 3. The tidal day(Anikouchineand Sternberg,1973). ing apart.This net forcedrawsthe watersof earth, one facing the moon (dueto the net the earth toward the moon,creating a high. gravitational force, Fg)and one facing away water bulge in this direction.Sincethe earth from the moon (due to the net centrifugal is revolvingabout the barycenter,there is a force, Fc). Any point on the earth directly net centrifugal force (Fe) in the opposite under these tidal bulges will experiencea direction. This net centrifugal force draws high tide. Any point on earth underthe tidal the waters of the earth awayfrom the moon depressionswill experiencea low tide. (like the man’s hair in Figure 1),creating a The earth is spinning on its axis and second high-waterbulge. The water in the makesa completerevolutionevery24hours. bulges is drawnawayfrom the intermediate As the earth rotates, point X on the earth locations. These areas have low-water movesfrom a tidal bulgeto a low-waterarea, depressions. to a bulge and so on. At the sametime, the moon is revolvingaroundthe earth(actually TheTidal Day aroundthe barycenter),and after 24hoursit hascompleted1/29.53of its orbit (about12°). The diagrams in Figure 3 represent the As a result, an additional 50minutesare re earth as viewedfrom abovethe North Pole. quired for point X to “catch up” with the tidal shown the There are two bulges on moonand movedirectly underneathit again. Thus,every24hoursand 50minutespoint X experiences two high tides and two low tides. This time period of 24 hours and 50 minutes is called a tidal day.

The Declinationof the Moon The axis of the earth is tilted 23.5°away sun from its orbit about the sun. In addition,the orbit of the moonis tilted another5° (Fig. 4). Thus, during the course of a lunar month (onerevolutionof the moonabouttheearth), the position of the moonrangesfrom 28.5° south of the equator (position S) to 28.5° north (position N). Twice each lunar month the moonis directly abovethe equator(posi tion A).Theangleof the moonrelativeto the Fig. 4. Thedeclination of the moon equatoris called its declination.

moon at high 0 declination moon over equator

(A) (B)

Fig.5. Theeffect of declination of the moon on the type of tides = 24 hours SOmm.

0000 0600 1200 1800 0000 0600 1200 1800 0000 Day 1 24 hrs - Day 2 24 hrs Fig. 6. Semi•diurnaltide

0000 Day 1 24 hrs -,.Day2 24hrs Fig. 7. Mixed tide

0000 0600 1200 1800 0000 0600 1200 1800 0000 Day 1 24 hrs -.Day 2 24hrs Tg . (Thrfl& fltje The Effectof the Declinationof the Moonon theTides Whenthe moonis directly overtheequator (Fig. 5A), points a and b experience two similar high tides and two similar low tides eachday.This tidal cycle is called semidiur nal and is graphedin Figure6. When the moon is to the north or to the south of the equator (Fig. 5B), point b has one high tide (b) which is much higher than the other (b’): This tidal cycle is called the mixedtide and is graphedin Figure7. Underthe sameconditions (Fig.58), point a experiencesonlyone hightide eachday(a) since it is neverunderthe secondtidal bulge (a’):This tidal cycle is called a diurnal tide, and its pattern is graphedin Figure8. Fig. 9. Thedistanceof the moonfrom earth The Distanceof the Moon third fromthe Earth quarter The orbit of the moonaroundthe earth is elliptical, and the distance between the neaptides rr’’n a the earthvariesduring the course of a lunar month (Fig. 9).Whenthe moon is closest to earth it is said to be at perigee. spring The attraction between the tidesp gravitational sJ -W earth and the moon is greatestat this point, new full and the heights of the tides increase.The moon moon heightsof the tides decreaseduring apogee, neaptides when the moon is farthest from the earth. The Phasesof the Moon first So far, the only tide-generatingforces we quarter have considered are those related to the — 10. Phasesof the earth-moonsystem. The sun also exerts a Fig. moon tlde-gerieratingforce that includes both the sun’s gravitational attraction and a cen trifugal force created by the earth’s revolu tion around the sun (actually the barycenter of the earth-sunsystem).Sincethe sun is far therawayfrom theearththan the moonis, its tide-generating force is only about four tenths of the moon’sforce. Evenso, the sun has significant effects on the tidal cycle. Whenthe moon is betweenthe earth and the sun, it reflects sunlight away from the earth at tarth at earth. This is called the new phase of the aphelion perihelIon moon(Fig. 10).Whenthe moon is on tne op -posite side, nearlyall the sunlight striking it Is reflected toward the earth: This phase is called the full moOn.During the first and third quarter-moonphases the direction of th. morjnis at right anglesto thedirection of FIg. 11. Thedistancefromthesunto earth the sun. About half of the sunlight striking separately. In reality, all these factors are the moonis then reflected back to earth. operatingat once,andthe resultingtidesare Whenthesun,the moon,andthe earthare due to their net effect (Fig. 12).Forexample, alt on the sameline (duringthe new-andfull- the mooncould simultaneouslybeat perigee moon phases), their gravitational forces and full, while the earth is at perihelion.This combine to create exceptionally high and would result in extremetides. low tides,called spring tides. (Springmeans An analysisof the interactionsof all these “welling up” and has nothing to do with the forces is complicatedbut necessaryfor tidal season.)Springtides occur twice eachlunar predictions.Tidal predictions must alsotake month. into account manylocal factors,suchas the When the direction of the sun and moon shapeof the coastline and the depth of the are at right angles (first- and third-quarter water. In recent years, computers have been phases), their tide-producing forces used to make these numerous calculations. counteracteach other. High tides are lower In the unit “Predicting and Analyzing Tidal and low tidesarehigherthan average.These Cycles from Tide Tables” you will learn how are called reap tides (from the Greek word to use tide tables to make tidal predictions. meaning scanty”). You will also use the tide tables to analyze The Distanceof the Sun the effects on the tides of some of the astronomical forces described above. from the Earth In “Measuring the Tides and Studying Ac There are many different daily, monthly, tual Tidal Cycles” you will measure the rise andannualcyclesin the tides createdbythe and fall of the water level and compare the relativemotionsof the earth,moon,andsun. actual tides with those predicted. One annually occurring cycle is due to the (Co,iln,je fl Vo 3.p 743) elliptical orbit of the earth around the sun (Fig.11).On January 2 of each year, the earth is closest to the sun (called perihelion), and the sun’s attraction is gravitational greatest. moon On July 2 of each year, the earth is farthest from the sun (called aphelion), and so the gravitational attraction is weakest. The height of the tides is affected by this change. The Earth-Moon-SunSystem in the above discussion each tide. generating force has been considered Fig. 12. The earth-moon-sunsystem

Day 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Ft. A FE Moon last quarter Moon ne,, Moon 11 - Itl in apogee on Equator I . ;oston

2 Galveston - I —1 FIg. 13. Typical tide curves for two United States ports. An Introductionto theTides

TO THE TEACHER centrifugalforce on the sideof theearthfac. ing the moon. On the oppositeside,thecen AdditionalBackground trifugal force predominates Theresultantor The forces that produce the tides and the net force producesthe tides. cyclic changes in these forces are very com Figure2 suggests that the tide-producing plicated. The orbital movements of the earth forces lift the water by pulling vertically on and moon can be separated into more than the oceansurface.Actually, theseforcesare 70 distinct cycles, called tidal constituents, not strongenoughto producethetidesbyex having periods from 12hours to 1600years. A erting a vertical pull. Instead, the water is harmonic analysis work sheet is shown in drawntowardthe tidal bulgebytheresultant Table 5 of Predicting and Analyzing horizontal vector (called the tractive force), Tidal Cycles from Tide Tables.” It gives the as shown in Figure 14. dimensions of the 20 tidal constituents All of the tidal theory in the student sec used to predict the tides in New London, tion presumes an idealized frictionless Connecticut. The introduction to tidal theory system. In such a system, the tidal bulges in the student section, therefore, must be should occur directly under or oppositethe considered highly simplified and in. moon.Actually, the tide is a wavewith a very complete. Teachers should consult the long wavelength and behaveslike a shallow references in the bibliogaDhy for a more water wave that feels” the bottom. The comprehensive and sophisticated treatment speedof a shallow water wavedependson ot tiaa neory. the depth of the water (see “Using a Wave One major simpfication in the student Tankto Studythe Propertiesof Waves’),and section is the discussion of the force sothe tide wavecannottravelat thespeedof diagram in Figure 2. It appears in this the earths rotation. Thus,high tide doesnot diagram that the moons gravitational force occur when the moon is directly overhead acts only on one side of the earth and that but usually lags behind becauseof friction. the centrifugal force acts only on the op Thedelay time stays about the sameat any posite side. Actually. both forces act on the particular location but varies consideabiy entire earth, as shown in Figure 14.The force from place to place. of gravity is inversey proportional to the There are two different exercises in this distance between two bodies. As a result, manual that include tidal data. The first exer the gravitational force is greater than the cise, “Predicting and Analyzing Tidal Cycles

to moon

FIg.14. The centrifugal (——-p),gravitational ( .), and resultant tide producingforce (—b.) from Tide Tables,” deals with predictea sion, The Hearst Corp.,NewYork.(This tides; andthe second,“Measuring the Tides is the boat operator’s bible, and a re• and Studying Actual Tidal Cycles,” deals vised edition is published every few with actual tides and tidal currents. Tidal years. It contains an excellent chapter data for the month of February1978in New on the importance of tides and tidal London,Connecticut,are presentedin each currents in navigation, including de. of these exercises,allowing a comparison tailed instructions on the useof tables, betweenactual and predicted tides and b - charts,and diagramsavailablefrom the tweenthe predictedtides and tidal current United States Navigational Ocean Theseexercisesalso include instructionsfor Survey.) obtaining your own tidal data, which can Clancy,E.P.1969.The Tides. Anchor Books, then be analyzed in the same way. It is Doubledayand Company,Inc., Garden recommended that these exercises be City, NewYork. assignedto thestudentsin the ordertheyare Darwin, G.H. 1962. The Tides and Kindred presented. Students should read this in. Phenomena in the Solar System. W.H. troduction to tidal theory before attempting Freemanand Co., San Francisco,Cali the other exercises. fornia. Defant, A. 1960.Ebb and Flow: The Tides of Earth, Air and Waler. The University Bibliography of MichiganPress,AnnArbor,Michigan. United States National Ocean Survey.Our Anikouchine, WiHiam A. and R.W. Sternberg. Restless Tides. National Oceanic and 1973.The World Ocean: A. Introduction Atmospheric Administration, United to Oceanography. Prentice.Hall, Inc., StatesDepartmentof Commerce,Wash :g:e..cod Olffs. New Jersey.pp. 133- ington, D.C. (This booklet is for sale 159. by the Superintendentof Documents, Chapman, Charles F. Latest edition. Piloting, United States Government Printing Of Seamanship, and Small Boat Handling. fice, Washington, D.C. 20402, for 35 Motor Boating and Sailing Book Divi. cents.) InvestigatingTheMarineEnvironment: A Sourcebook

PRZDICTINCk’D ANALYZINGTtDAL CYCLES FROMlID! TABLES

writtenandeditedbyHowardM.WeissandMichaelW.Dorsey withcontributionsbyassociatesofProjectOceanology illustratedbyCarmelaVenti PredictingandAnalyzingTidalCycles fromTideTables TOTHETEACHER Figure 8 Showsthat the predicted max imum tidal range(high highsand low lo.’is) AddUionalBackground for this periodoccurs about the time of the Thisexercise 5 partof a sequenceof tidal newand full moons.Therangeis especially analyses. large when the moonis at perigeewithin a Figures 6-8 are graphs of the predicted fewdaysof whenit is full. Smalltidal ranges tide data from Table 1. The times of the (neaptides>occurredabout the time of the various astronomical observations from first and third quarter-moonphases. The Tables2and3arerndicatedonthesegraphs. tidal range was the smallest when apogee Figures 6 and 7 show that New London occurredwithin a fewdaysof aquarter-moon has a semidiurnal-typecycle. On February phase. Refer to Figures 9 and 10 in “An 24-25the predicted heights of successive Introductionto theTides” for anexplanation tides arenearlythesamebut on February6-7 of spring,neap,perigee,and apogeetides. there is a small diurnal inequality between Successivehigh tides, shownin Figure8, one high tide and the next. These graphs arenearlythe sameheightwhenthe moonis show that there are two high tides over a overtheequator.Thediurnalinequalityis the period of approximately 24 hours and 50 greatestwhen the moonis farthestnorth or minutes. Refer to Figures 3-6 in “An Intro south otthe equator.This is in agreement duct to the Tides for an explanationof with the descriptiongivenin Figures4 and 5 the diurnal tide, the diurnal inequality,and of “An Introductionto the Tides.” the tidal day. As mentioned in that unit, a complete Figures6 and 7 also show that one tidal analysis of all tide-producing forces and bulge occurs when the moon is over the their cyclical changes can be very com horizon,and one OCcurSwhen the moon Is plicated. It is difficult to separatethe effect beneaththe horizon.However,the predicted of one factor fromanotherwhenanalyzinga time of high tide does not Occurwhen the graphsuchas Figure8.Over20differenthar moonis directlyoverhead.Thismaybepartly monicconstantsareincludedin the calcula dueto the fact that the tide — actuaflya very tions usedto derivethepredictedtide tables long,shallowwave — is hinderedby friction for New London. A sample work sheet in and cannot keep up with the speedof the Table 7 lists these tIdal constituents and earth’s rotation. their dimensions.

r • 6I’ 3m’ 1 -‘

Nt’ 0

MX XX XX p, cI7

Fig. 6. Predictedtides at New London for FIg. 7. Predictedtidesat New Londonfor February 6 and 7, 1978. February24and25, 1978. TabI. 7 TIDES: HARMONIC cONSTAN

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—— IL I 1_I1 I II I I I I I I I I II II I I I I I I 31 2 4 1 $ 10 12 14 10 1120 22 24 21 2$ 2 Jan. F.b. . S 0 .•_ N £ $ E — p A Fig. I. Predictedtidal rangesfor January31throughMarch2, 1978.

It is veryimportantto knowhowto usetide tables to predictthe time and heightof high and low water. This information can be in. valuabieif youareplanninganintertidaifield study or anchoring a boat. Predicting the speedanddirection of tidal currentsis more important than the height of the tide it you are planningto travel by boat. Tidal current tab’es,charts,anddiag’amsareavailableor this purpose.Seethe latest edition of ChapS manfor an eceItent descriptionof howan why tides and tidal currents must be taken into conside’ationwhenpiloting a boat. InvestigatingTheMarineEnvironment: A Sourcebook

.1 ii ttenandeditedbyHowardM.WeissandMichaelW.Dorsey withcontributionsbyassociatesofProjectOceanology illustratedbyCarmelaVenti Predtrg andAnalyzingTidalCycles romTideTables Thedifferencein sealevelbetweenhighandlowtidescanbeassmallasa few centimelersin somelocationsor greaterthan 16 metersin placeslike theBayof Fundy.A portionof theshore,calledtheIntertidalor littoralzone,is flooded at high tide andexposedto theairat lowtide.See“An Introductionto theTides”for moreinformation. It is importantto knowthe heightsandtimesof highandlow tides.A boat maytravelsafelyovera reefat hightidebutma•runagroundonthesamereef whenthetide is low.A field trip to thebeachor marshshouldbescheduledfor a lowtide,whentre intertidalzoneis exposed.Somefishermenfind that their catch iS best whenthe tide is at a certainlevel.A picnic lunch and beach blanketmaygetsoggyif theyareleft belowthehightidelevelwhenthetide is rising. Tidetablesarecrintedbythegovernmentandothersourcesto helppredict thetidal levelat anylocationandtimeduringtheyear.Thepredictionsin these tablesarebasedon the movementsof the sun,moon.andearthandon any predictablelocal factorsthat affectthe tidal cycle.Ananalysisof tide tables will helpyou learnabouttidal cyclesandthe forcesthat causethem. Thereare many factors, such as wind speed.wind direction,barometric pressure,and riverflow rates,that affecttheheightandtimeof the tides but which cannot be predictedmuchin advance.Sincetide tablescannot take thesefactors into account,the actual tide levelmaybe somewhatdifferent thanthat predictedby the tables. Procedure 4. Mosttide tablesarebasedon standard time only.if time is in UsingTide Tables daylight.saving effect, you must add one hour to the times you 1. Oba.n a set of te tables for the cor• recordedin step 3 Pemerrter that onehour lcca’iOris Tidetabtes in red datesaC come contains60 mnutes (not 100)whenyouadd a varety of forr’ats. Study your table to or sibtract the time corrections.For exarn determue how arid where the jrfcrrr.atjon pte 1105 tll:05 am.) rrnus 50 minutes you wart 5 presented equals1015(10:15am.) not105511105- 5C. of Most tide tab.es consist two sections. Onewayto addor subtracttimesis to add60 Oneci.es the heghts aridtimes of high arid minutesto the minutescolumnandSubtract lw water at a few locations ca;ied main one hour from the hours coumn and then refeerice stations. Ta’e 1 shows a tide makethe time correction. table in which Ne’ Lorloori. Connecticut.is the mainreferencestatOri. A secondsec1on (hm) (hrri) 1105= ‘i65 (Table2 1151$manyothr loca!’ons.Tnissec• - 50 tiori gves the COrr&ctiorifactors neededto calculate the time and height of the tides at 1015 thesecther locaor from the data gien for Time corrections may result in a reading the main .e+eer:e stations. movingaheador behindinto a differentday. If you do not havea set of your own tde For example,if a precicted tide occurs on tables.useTaLes 1arid 2to dc theexecises July 6 at 2345standardtime. the correction in this unit. for daytight.savirgtimemovesthis predicted 2. Refer to the correction factor table tide to 0045on July 7. (racie 2 n this unit). For ea:h location, this 5. Thecorrectionfactorsfromstep2 must table wit tefl you which reference station beaddedto or subtractedfrcm thetimesand tab’e to use.It will also tell youwhat conec• heigrts at the reterencestation (steps3 and tons yot must make to the data in the 4 above). referencestation table.Table2 .‘ill indicate RECORDthese ccrrected figures. These if high and tOwwater at EaCh station occL’ are the predictedtmes and heghts for the before after(4. ), or at the sametme (Otas high and ow tides at the specifiedlocaton at the refeen:e station.This tme differen:e anddate. is ;en in hours (b) ad minutes ,:rn).The tab e will atso indicate f the he:;hts f the Example ticeSateb.;her (+), lower(-v.Ortr4esame0) Calculatethe p!edcted tmes andheights as the heghts at the referencestatcri. of high arid low water at Stonirigton,Con Find the location for which you want tide riedticut.on February1, 1978. data RECOP.Dthe indicated referencesta• 1. For this eampie. tse the Sampletide tion anothe correctiOnac!ors to bemade‘o tabes (Tables1 and2,’ the times andheightso high and ow water. 2. RECORDthe indicated refereri:e sta 3. R&er to the reference station table tion eric correctionfactors I4rcm Table2): I (Table in this unit).Frid me morth andday — The referencestation for Storiirgton is of the yearyou want.Thetimes and hegrts NewLodon. ConnecicLt. of the hg arid low tides a’e given for each — Thecorrection fazto’s (difereiceS be cay. The times are given accodng to a 24 tweenStcririgton and Ne.v London)are: hcut c!Dc. iFor example.130 p.m. = 13O. 5:45 p.m. = 1745.r.’dnight = 0000) The litre heights are given relaive to a secif,c (h rr) ttE-t) reference eve).Calledthe datum, which is h;h water - 0 33 .+ 0.1 usualt meanI* water(MLW or meantower low water - 0 41 0.0 low water (MLLW).The a:e will spe..sfy wha datum is being used. 3. RECORD the predicted times and RECORDthe tmes andheightsof low an heightsOf lOW and high waterat the hih *ate•sat the referencestaton for thiS reteren:estationonthe properdate(from date. Tate 1): 2 01• 4#0 — .4 -. .‘ —. —. 41% U’ 1/’ 0 0’ •. I a ‘10.4 0 “.‘ C = (4 1 4’ C (0 0 “ 0’ a. a g f.j 0’” 7 ‘. 0 Cl 7., On ——1)’.4 — 4.) 0%l - - — C) 4(4 —(404 7., .—C) 0 7.4 - 00) —flr) — On —, ——C) 0(4 —0 0 7.0 -.4 ) -T —43 I a s. ‘a’ ‘a’ ‘4 II’ U’ I.4CS,.’, 0’ :(:‘‘(D’ ,4)%7’,, ‘ .‘‘. 0’ -- — -— (0 4(. 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P.) 0,_fl Pats IsO in .50 P411550 (5, ‘.10 00)50 CI?’ CPU ) I —‘O’.s 1) —.01.5 C) —‘0 P., 0,-’ C.P.a 0 P.3 C’S. 0 P.’ C’ PJ 01-I 0 001.10 P4000’. = S a. ‘a .3. 0- 4154.0 ..a. ,s a S —4)’ 55 (‘1 (00 P.) ia S — (1 ..‘O’ 0 .0—.0wP.1—’,oa,—.—..C,a—. C, —.) a — C, tst..———’’—’4-—P4o’———S,,.4 0 Table2 — TidalDUferencesandOtherConstants

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fTIsi nr’i O2’ ie, onl o_In; Io rIie- cta;es. 7 — Thepredictedtimesandheightsat New Londonon February1,1978,were: S

time heIght I (P1 m (feet) .4 high water 2 59 2.5 low waer 10 00 -0.1 high water 15 28 1.9 low water 22 03 -0.1 4. Daylight-savingtime is not in effect in February,so no correctionis necessary. 5. Thecorrectionfactcrs (step2)areadd I I I I I I I I ed to or subtracted from the times and OSlO 1200 1100 0000 0500 I 200 1500 0000 heights at the referencestation (step3). l’tm. 1. Plot the times and - time height FIg. predicted heights N.L. Correct. Ston. NECórrect. Ston. of high and low tide at New London for 0259 -033 0226 2.5 +0.1 2.6 February6 and 7 and 24 and 25 on two 1000 -041 0919 -0.1 0.0 -0.1 graphsset up like this one. 1528 -033 1455 1.9 +0.1 2.0 2203 -041 2122 -0.1 0.0 -0.1 Thus, the times and heights of the Table3 Timeof predictedtides at Storiingtonon February1, MoonriseandMoonset 1978.were: 1978(NewEngland) tirre height February Rise Set (Ii m) (feet) hm hm high 0226 2.6 6 0547 1619 low 0919 -0.1 7 0632 1731 high 1455 2.0 24 1923 0705 low 2122 -0.1 25 2027 0736 26 2132 0809 Analysis In this analysis you will first study the daily pattern of the tides and then the eachdaythe sameheight?Arethe low tides monthlypattern. eachday the sameheight? ThefcUowinganalysesshouldfirst becar Indicate on your graphs the times of ried out on the tide data in Tables 1 and 2. moonriseand moonset.This information is Then.if possible,carry Outsimilar analyses givenin Table3. Howdoesthe timing of the on tide tables for other locations and times. tidal cycle comparewith the rising and set 1. Predict the heights and times of low ting of the rnoon?Why? water and high water at various locations Compareyour graphs with Figures 6. 7, and dates (seeexampleabove). and 8 in “An Introduction to the Tides,” 2. Set up two pieces of graph paper as which showthe threedifferent typesof tidal shownin Figure1. cycles. Which types do your graphs Shw? Plot the predicted times and heights of Whydoesa semidiurnaltide OCCUTArnied high and1Gwtide in NewLorion (fromTable tide?A diurnaltide? Explainwhya complete 1)for February6andFebruary7.Dothesame tidal cyc!etakes 24 hoursand 50minutes. for February24and February25.Drawa line Examine Figures 6, 7, and 8 in “An In. to Showthe changein waterjevelas it alter. troductiOnto theTides”again.Does the riately rises and falls from one tide level to water level change at the same rate the next. kOw many high and low tides ae throughOutthe tidal cycle?If not,describe thereeachday’ Exactlyhowmuchtime does whenthewaterlevelchangesmostrapidly: it take betweenlow tide and high tide? Be most gradually. Did you plot straight or tween two high tides? Are the high tides curvedlinesbetweenthe highandlowtide -U • •U) • •‘Ai .,—1 • •(I) • •,--I •‘D • .•? •fl) . • • • j •.—I • •rI,I • •TO • 4 C S E •r-i • •U) ..—i • E •) •L) • .4—I .4’—) F • •‘) •u’) • •4 1’ • ‘) o c alA.) I) U) •—O E 4, •Ii)) UQ,0) ,i,.-ii--I •t’)(Qr-4CJi’) •(‘4TC) j0-C\l ru’Otfl(rlrl(T’C\) C U) _g U CQ.—4()rlrIr—i L’()O(’i -4— Q(jQCUr-iQ.--41\J,—it\ir-I I. 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- i i 31 1 V 28 1 2 Jan. tab. Mar. Fig. 2. Pot the predictedheght of the high and POWtides for each day from January31 throughMarch2 in New Londonon a g’aph set up l9cethis one. datapointson yourgraph? Which is correct? Why? 3. Setup a pieceof graphpaperasshown in Figj’e 2. Plot the predicted height of the high and low tides for each day from January 31 throughMarch2 in New London(fto Table 1).Donot atterrpt to plot the times for each tide,just the correctdayandheht. Useone symboltOifor everyother hgh tide aridise a dfferent symbcl ) for the alternate high tides. Do the same for alternate low tides. usingtwOditfererit symbolsU. £). Draw iries connecting data points having the same symt ols. PIct the astrororrical data (January 31.March 2 from Table 4 on the graph by placing the crrect symbol under the cot respoding date. What days are the highest high tides’ ,‘hen are the lowest low tides? Dothe highest highs and lowest lowSoccur aboutthe samet:me?What moon pOSitiOnS are associatedwith these maximumtides? Why?Whatarethesemaxmum tides called? What days are both high tides tre same heignt? What days are the d’TerenCeS be tweenthe twO hg tdes the g’eatest’ What moonpost c.rs are assDcatecwith the days having t.o eal h;h tides? having the greatestineq.ial:y? Why? Doesthe d.ference in the height of the low tides aso varyf?or, day tO ay Arethe differencesas great as for the high tides? Why Arethe’e twc high tides and two low tides everydày?Why? I I

THEMOON.THESUN.ANDTIDES

a io Ixp.risncs for oaseaJ and Ocesuic AvarsneI Studies

Froduced by

r(AIIJE EWIRQICIZIT CURRICULUMSTUDY MARiNEADVISORYSERVICE UI4IVERSITT OF DELAWARE

•ttd

PUTIOIJ-ENVLROt(ENT CURRICULUMSTUDY COLLE OF EDUCATION UWIVSITT OF DELAWARZ

as part of a

PW, , EMVIkO*WLAL UCATIO 4

TITLE: THE)IDOWTHESUN,ANDTIDES

‘T: l.A.

I. The earth is a finit. naeur:1 systsa.

A. THEflOPEETI!S ANDINTERACTIONS0? WATER,AIR, M THE PHYSICAL,IAETBSETTHELIMITS07 THENATURALSTST1. *frlA211E IT 2.23

2 The oceans interact with the srtb and its ato.ph.rs.

2.2 Tb. Ocean waters ax. influenced by the earth’s rotation, revolution, and position in th. solar•yst.. 2.23 TIDES RESULTPROMGRAVITATIONALroacs or m EARTH, THEMOON,ANDTHE SUN.

S1*JZCT: Earth Science

G*AD LEVEL: 6—12

PUl3: 3—4 AUTHOI: Gr.lia

* V A Concstua1 $cb. for Population—Environaant Studies, 1973. Cost $2.50.

** Pro 1ar.Environt Proposed Conc.ptual Schea., 1973. No cbar$..

th coc.ptu.1 scbeas are available fros Rb.rt W. Stegnar, Populatioo—Zavironaent ricusli Study, 310 Willard Ball, University of Delaware, Nevark, E 19711. l.A. (Mar.2.23) p. 2

INTRODUCTION

Since ar1y times, man nas b’:e consciousof the sea’speriodicrise and fall. Those wh Iivedear the shore or who dependedupon the sea!.bounties for existence soon learned the pattern of the water’smovement. Man learned that the behavior of fish and other creaturesof the sea was determinedto a large extent by the conditionof the tide. He also learned that the sea’srise and fall could be used to his advantage suchas in freeing objects from a muddy bottom and forbeaching boats. As man progressedin technologyand his activities became rnorecomplex,his need to p]an ahead becme oreimportant. For people working along th coast as coeriai. fishermen,pilots of boats, etc.,the ability to predict tides became a necessity.Today tides can be predictedyears in advance. Predcticns are fairly accurate,but limited insofar as the wind current’air pressure,and run—off,from rivers can appreciablyaffect the tides.

Knowledge of tidal movement is importantto all phases of marine science. Greater ranges between high tide and low tide mean to the marine biologist that the sea animals of such areas must adapt to long periods of submergenceand exposure. Predictionsof tidal times and height are essentialnot only to the pilot of a marine researchvessel1 but to a marine ecologistand a teacher planning a field trip to the beach or marsh as well.

083ECTIVES

At the conclusionof this unit the studentshouldbe able to explain in writing,using appropriatediagrams:

a. Why the earth experiencesa high tide on both the side facing the moonand the side facing away from the moon.

b. What effect perigee and apogee have on the tides.

c. The different types of tides, such as spring and neap tides, diurnal, semidiurnal,and mixed tides.

d. What effect the sun has on ocean tides, particularlyat perihelion and aphelion.

Given a tide table and a tab!e of tidal differences,the student should be able to: -

a. Determinethe time of high tide or low tide and the total tidal range at a particularplace included in the table.

- Griph thi tidal range for a particularplc. over a givsnperiod of time. I,

l.A. (Mgr.2.23) P. 3 SCRULE

FirstDay -

Pre—Teet,p. 17 Teacher Background information with accompanyingoverheads,pp. 3—8 Activity

SecondDay

TypicalTideCurves,pp. 10—11 TideTables,pp. 12—14 ThirdDay Activities Poet—teet,p. 19

TEACR UCKR0U

On all the seacoastsof the earth,the oceanwatersrise and falldaily in a rhythmicmovement known as the tides. The tidesare obviouslyrelatedto the moon. Like the moon rise,theyoccurfiftyminuteslatereachday on the average. The jjrane (i.e.the differencebetweenhigh tideand low tide levels) is largerat the timesof new and fullmoon v-I smallerat time. of quartermoon. Sir IsaacNewtonwas the firstto explainhow the moon and tides are related. Usinghis law of gravitation,Newtonexplainedthe production of tidesby themoon as an effectof the differencein thegravitational attractionfor the solidearthand the oceanvaters. The oceanson the side of the earthfacingthemoon are nearestthe moon and are thereforeattracted most strongly. The waterson the far side are attractedleast. The solid earthis attractedat its centerof gravity. The moon’sattractionfor the waterson the near ede is strongerthan its attractionfor solid,earth;this causesthesewatersto riseor bulge. This is the directhigh tide. On the far sideof the earththe moon’sattractionfor the waterstolassthan that. for solidearth. Here the watersbulgeaway fromthe surfacein an indirect or oppositehigh tide. Halfwaybetweenthe high—tidepoints,two areasof low tidsoare formedby the withdrawalof waterto high tide locations.

Lathe earthrotateson its axis,it bringsall partsof the surface underthe ‘oon in 24 hoursand 50 minutes. In 1/4 of thistime (roughly6 boursand 13 minute.) eachmovesfromhigh tideor low tide. After12 hours and 26 minutesthe tidechangesagain. As the earth rotates,the tide. continue to rise and fallrhythmicallyin a cyclethatis repeatedaboutfifty minutes later s*ck day. l.A. (Mar.2.23) P. 4 Somecoastalareasmay havea diurnaltidalcycle—withonlyone high tide and one tow tidea day, e.g.,theGulf of Mexico. Two dailyhighand low tidesare typita1of 5oth 913 of th At nt.4c Ocee’. Th’ts is called a sbnio.Lurnalt..al cycl€.

The sun has the same gravitationaleffecton the earth’swater,thatthe moon has,but becauseof tts greaterdistancefromthe earththiseffect is only abouthalfas greatas themoon’s. Whilethemoon is the chiefmakerof tides, the sun can helpor hinderthe moon’s effect. Tidesare alwayshigh on the part of the earthin linewith themoon and low on partsthatare at right anglesto themoon. But’when the sun is in linewith themoon,its effectis addedto the moon’s. When the sun—earthlin, is at rightanglesto the moon—earthline,the sun’seffectis opposedto the moon’s.

At new moon and fullmoon phasesboth sun and moon are causinghigh tides and low tidesat the sameplaceson the earth. This resultsin higherhigh tidesand lowerlow tides. The tidalrangeis greatestat thesetimes. These tidesare calledspringtides. They occurtwiceeverymonthand are not relatedto the seasonof spring.

At firstquarterand thirdquarterphasesof themoon the sun is in a positionto raisethe moon’slow tide levelsand to loverthimoon’shigh tid. levels. This resultsin loverhigh tides and higherlow tides. These tides are called neap tides. (Neap meansscanty.) Another variation in the height of the tide is the resultof themoon’s ellipticalorbitaroundthe earth. At 2!’ the nearestpointin its orbit, themoon is fifteenthousandmilescloserthanit is t !22L’ themoon’s farthestpointin its orbit. At perigee,smallerdistancecausestideswhich are twentypercent higher and loverthanaverage. Perigeeand apogeeboth occuronce a lunar month (i.e.,onceduringlunarorbit);rarelydofa this coincide with the in—phasealignmentof sun,earthand moon. But at least twic,a yearboth effectscoineide;fullmoon or new moon occursat perigee. The perigeetidesadd to the springtidesto produceperigeespringtides, the highesttide.of the year.

As we have said,the sun also affectsthe tides. Once a year (January3) the earth’sellipticalpath aroundth. sun is such thatit is at its nearest pointto the sun,2!E.ion. Gravitationalattractionis greatestat this time; this causes higher high tidesand loverlow tides. Likewise;oncea year (July.4) the earthis farthest from the sun; this ii called aphelion. At this time,the attractionis smallerand thiscausesloverhigh tides and higherlow tides. Perihelionperigeespring tideeare the tides with th. greatestrange. They occurwhen themoon is nearestthe earthand at full or new moon and at the timewhen the earthis nearestthe sun. Conversely, aphelionapogeeneap tidesare tides with the smallestrange. I. I .A. (Mar.2.23) p. 5 Thi differencebetweenthe levelof high tideand the levelof low tide—tidal range——wayvary for reasonsotherthanthe phaseof the won. :-l! l.lces rc at all. !‘.ea great lakesuchas LakeMichigan is raisedonly a coupleof inchesby the tides. In the openocean the tidal rangeaveragestwo to threefeetbut on the shoresof the saneoceanthe tidalrangemay be as largea. 60 feet,as in the 3ay of Fundyon the coast of NovaScotia,or as littleas two feet,as in theGulf of Mezico.

Oceanographershave shownthat the size and shapeof eachoceanbasin, gulf,or bay play largepartIn determininghow much its watersviii rise and fallunderthe differentialpullof moon and sun. They alsoknow that high tidalrangesdevelopwhen wateris tunneledfrom the open oceansinto V—shaped bays such as the Bay of Fundy. Bays thatbecomewiderfrommouth to shorelinespreadout the incomingwaterand have smalltidalranges, e.g.,as in the Gulf of Mexico. Directand indirecttidesalsodifferin heightunlessth. moon is in linewith the earth’sEquator. a.

I • A. fMar.2.23) p. 6 1 TIDE-PRODUCINGFORCES

EARTH

MooN 0

GRAVITATIONALFORCE

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

RAVITATIONALEXCEEDS CENTRIFUGAL 0

CENTRIFUGAL EXCEEDS GRAVITATIONAL !.A. (Mar. 2.23) Figure2 p. 7 SPRINGTIDES

NEW MOON SUN C FULL0 MOON

HIGH HIGH TIDES; LOW LOW TIDES

HEAPTIDES 3RD QUARTER

SUN

.1STQUARTER

HIGH LOW TIDES; LOW HIGH TIDES l.A. Figure 3 (Mar. 2.23) p. 8

PRNC1PAL ASTRONOMICALFACTORSAFFECTINGTIDES

— -0 - EARTH’S ORBIT / PERIHELION / ‘I.3) 9 APHELION \ / (JULY 14) \ APOGEE / / —— 1 ,?‘Th;-.

o 0 ERIGEE IA. (Mar, Figure 5 TYPICAL TIDE CURVES OR UNITED STATES PORTS 2.23) P’ U DAY 10 II 12 13 14 15 II 17 13 IS 20 10 ‘I r1 ° I, 10 •••_ I a 1It•ft 7 I S 4 3 a — - 0

—I .

NW YORK I — $ 4 3 a

0 —I

HAMPTONROADS 3 a

¶AVANNAM RIVtR £P4TR S ‘% 7 — . .. - S I 4 3 2

0 —I }

a I______Ktv WtST --:---. . -_ 0

a PS 01.4

0 —I I 2 I GALVISTOP4______..iiit - 0 i Luau’dill mis S ikimlua 5th,sow. lorn.Iii I urn.qs*. 1Mb,assmoos. pssse, 221;mis N *lImeIs TM

* IIKs.iiIl It Itfl5 su.rn is bern os cçsi,

Taken from Ti.ae Table. U.S. Department of Commerce 1970 Coast and Geodetic Survey I.Ae (Mar. 2.23) . 12

TIDE TABLES

Table 1 is a tide table for BreakwaterHarbor, Delaware. The date and day are given in the first column and the time in the second colunrn.The timeis based on the 24-hour clock used by mariners. 0218 would be 2:18 a.m while 1442 would be 2:42 p.m. 0000 is 12 midnight and 1200 is 12 noon.

The stateof the tide is givar in colurn three. Heightsare reckoned from the data of soundingson charts of the localitywhich are based on the mean low water. A rumber preceda by a negative (—) sign means the level of th. wateris belowmean lowwater. Nc sign before the ntmber indicates the givenheightis abovemean low water.

On October13, 1970low tidewas to occurat 0024 (12:24a.m. EST or 1t24a.m DST) and the level of the waterwas —0.3belowsea level. High tide occurred at 0648 (6:48a.w.)and the levelwas 5.0 abovesea level. Th. total tidalrangefor thisarea duringthe intervalmentionedis obtainedby algebraically subtractingthe low levelfrom the high level. 5.0 — (-0.3)— 5.3 feet

To computethe tide at a placewhich is not covered by the tid.tables, a tableof tidaldifferencesis used. Table 2, p, 14, is sucha table.

High and low tidesat Cape Henlopen,Delawarewouldoccur5 minutesbefore theiroccurenceat BreakwaterHarbor,Delaware. Low tideat MispillionRiver trance wouldoccurone hour afterlow tideoccursat BreakwaterHarbor. The highwaterlevelwouldbe 0.5 feethigherat theMispillionRiverentrance than at Breakwater Harbor. ....

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l.A. (Mar. 2.23) p. 15 Activity: Make a labeled diagram showing high and low tides in reation to the phases of the moon. (You will need to indicate the positions of the moon and the sun on your diagram.)

Answer:

High Low

Sun High EII:: New Moonand Full Moon

Low

High

Sun Low Low

High EDMoon at First and Third Quarter 10

l.A. (Mar. 2.23) p.16 Activity

Observe the relation of the tidal range to the moon’s phases from the actual observations or the Tide Tables

Given: Tide Tables for Breakwater Harbor, Delaware, 1970

Oct. 15 Time Hi Oct. 22 Time Ht. H.M. EL H.M. EL

0154 -0.6 0218 3.1 0824 5.5 0748 1.0 1436 -0.5 1442 4.1 2048 4.6 2112 0.9

Oct. 16 Oct. 23 0236 -0.5 0324 3.2 0906 5.6 0848 1.0 1524 -0.4 1542 4.0 2136 4.4 2206 0.8

From the information given above which days seem to indicate spring tides? Neap tides? Indicate on which days new or full moon might occur and on which days first or third quarter moon might occur.

Answer

The information given indicates spring tides on October 15 and 16 and neap tides on October 22 and 23. New or full moon might occur- on October 15 and 16 and first or third quarter moon might occur on October 22 and 23 11

L.A. (Mar. 2.23) p.17

1. What are the phases of the moon? List them.

2. Name two extra-terrestrial bodies that affect tides on earth.

3. What is another name for “ebb” tide?

4. At what times of the month are the ocean tides highest?

Lowest?

5. Is it ture that the tides occuring during spring are called “spring tides”?

6. The sun is a much larger mass than the moon. Which has a greater effect on the tides of earth and why? 12

l.A. (Mar. 2.23) p.18

TIEST (answers)

1. What are the phases of the moon? List them. Thephasesarenew,full,firstandthirdquarter. 2. Name two extra-terrestrial bodies that affect tides on earth. Themoonandthesunaffectearthtides.

3. What is another name for “ebb” tide? Lowtideis sometimesreferredto as “ebb”tide.

4. At what times of the month are the ocean tides highest? Lowest? Tidesarehighestandlowestwhenthemoonis fullor newandat perigee, i.e.,whenthemoonis nearestto earth. Tidalrangeis smallestat 1stand 3rdquarterandat apogee,i.e.,whenthemoonis farthestfromearth. 5. Is it ture that the tides occuring during spring are called “spring tides”? Springtidesoccuratfullandnewmoonduringeveryseason.

6. The sun is a much larger mass than the moon. Which has a greater effect on the tides of earth and why? Themoonhasa greatereffectbecauseit isclosertotheearth. ISA. Ottr92.23)

POST-TEST

1. ‘iigh tidesoccuron opposite sidesof the earth at the s tim.. th respect to the moon, what causes these tides on both the near and far aid. of th. earth?

2. Whyis it that the soon has a much greeter influence in producing tides on earth than does the sun, considering that the sun’s cii. ig so many times greaterthan that of the moon? 3. What mrsspring tides?.ow and when do they occur?

4. If th. earth did not rotatevould we still have tad..? If the earth alwayskept the same “face’towatdthe soon (in the sameway the anon does towardth. earth),would there be any tides?

. Do the gravitations],forcesof both th. sun and moon at f.cttidem on earth? Explainwhy at certain times high tidesare considerably higher sad low tides lower than at other times.

6. Using Tables1 and 2, pp. 13—1.4,find the time and heightof highwater and the time and heightof low water at Roosevelt Inlet, Delaware during the p.m. of December25, 1970.

7. Using Tables1 and 2, pp. 13—14,graphthe tidRir*ng for Caps anlo1en betweenNovember 27 and December6. I.A. (Mar. 2.2?) p. 20

POST—TEST(Answers) -

1. The tide on the near side occursbecauseof its closenessto the moon. On the far side the tide occurs’becausewater thereis fartherfrom the moon thar the centerof mass, i.e., the earth is pulled Iaway from the water.

2. The moon is much closerto the earth. The sun does causetideson earth,but they are much smallerthan thosecausedby the moon.

3. Springtides are higherhigh tidesand lowerlow tidi.which occur duringnew and full. wøons.

4. eon—rotationwould have no effecton tides. If the earth always kept the same face towardthe moon, each locationwould always experiencehigh tide, low tide or something in—between. This applies to the lunar tides. The solar tideswo.ild stillsweep aroundthe earth. Though they are much smallerin effectthan lunartidesthey would be readilyobserved.

5. Th, gravitationalforcesof both the urn and moon affecttides on earth. When the moon is betweenthe earth and the sun, tidalrange Li greatest. When the moon is at rightanglesto th. earth—sunline, th. tidal rangeis smallest.

6. Breakwater,Delaware,December25, 1970

IL.M. Ft.

1206 0.1

1800 3.0 2354 0.0

RooseveltInlet

1206 + 0013 — 1219 Low tide 12:19p.m. +0.1 + 0.0 • 01. Height0.1’ feet abovemean low water

1800 + 0009 — 3.809 High tide 6:09 p.m. 3.0 + 0.3 — 3.3’ Iteight3.3 feet abovean low water

2354 + 0013 • 2407 Low tide 12:07i.e. December26 -0.1+ 0.0 a —0.1’ Height0.1. feet belowmean low water l.A. AUDIO’VISUALAIDS (Mar. 2.23) p. 21

FILMS

1. The Moon and How It Affects Us —— Coronet, 11 sin. ô & W

2. Qcea.n tides Encyclopedia Britannica — color 14 mm.

3. Tides and Currents ——— ESSA WashingtonScience Center: Rockville, Md — Color 15 mm.

FILIISIRII’S

1. Physical Oceanography ——— National Aced. of Science, Washington,DC

1. Physical oceanography ——— National Aàad. of Science,Washington,DC 12 in. 33 1/3 RPM

TLD€ TAkLES

1. Tide Tables ——— U.S. Dept. of Commeràe knvironaentalScience Service ‘4aiiniatrationCoast d Geodetic Survey, U.S. Government Printing Office, Was1ington, DC I• A. - (Mar.2,23) p. 22 GLOSSARY

Apogee— timeat whi.chthe moon is farthestfromthe earth;occursonce each lunarmonth

Aphelion — timeat whichthe sun is farthestfrom the earth (July 4)

Perigee— timeat whichthe aoon is nearestthe earth;occursonceeach lunarmonth

Perihelion- timeat whichthe sun is nearestthe earth(January3)

TidalRange - differencebetweenthe levelof hightideand the levelof low tide

Tides — the dailyrisingand fallingof the oceanwatersin a rhythmic movement.

Diurnaltides - one high and one low tideper day. The tides along the Vietnam coastare diurnal.

Semi—diurnaltides— two high and low tide.•achday with littleor no differencebetweenconsacutive high and low tides. The tidesalongth. east coastof the UnitedStatesare semi—diurnal.

Mixed tide.— both diurnaland semi—diurnal;i.e.,thereare two high and two low tideseach day but with considerabledifferencebetweenheight.of successivehigh and low tides. The tide.along the Pacific coast of the UnitedStatesan, mixed tides.

i4eaptides— tidesoccurringwhen themoon,sw and earth form a rightangle (let and 3rd quarters);the pullsopposeeach otherand the tidalrange is smallest.

Springtides— tidesoccurringwhen the moon and the sun ars iu a straightlinewith the earth(newand full moon);the pullsreinforceeath otherand the tidalrangeis greatest. 1.

- l.A. (Mar.2.23) BIBLIO(RAPIIY p. 23

.1. American Geological lnstituce, Investigating the Earth, Houghton HLff1in Company, Ioston. 2. Arena,J. E., 1967,Tides ani TidalVagaries, Broward County,Boardof P*.tlLcInstruction,Fort Lauderdale,Florida.

3. Bascom,Willard,1964,Wavesand 3eaches, AnchorBooks,GardenCity,N.Y.

4. Irindze,Ruth,1964,The Rise and Fallof the Seas, Harcourt,Brace and World,Inc.,New York.

5. Nacmillian, D. H., 1966,Tides, CR Books Limited,London,England.

6. Namowitz, Samuel,1969,The WorldWe Live In1 AmericanBook Company,NY. 7. Turikian, Karl K., 1968,Oceans, Prentice-Hall,Inc.,EnglevoodCliffs, N.J.

8. Tides, 1966,Encyclopediaof Oceanography,ReinholdPublishingCompany, N.Y.

9. TideTables, 1970,U.S. Departmen’.of Conerc. EnvironmentalScience Services Administration. Language Arts Supplevient 1214 TIE )ON1 ThE SUNJ A}D TIDES SUGGEST BOOKLIST

Bow Did We Find Out aboutEnergy? IsaacA.simov. FrankB.,WalkerCo. 1975. Th. Mysteryof the Red Tide. PrankBonham. E. P. Dutton& Co. 1966.

Oceans of the WorId • B• Arnov. The Ssa. Leonard Engle. (Life)!atureLibrary) Tima—Life Books. 1969. The Sea aroundUs. Rachel Carson. FranklinWatts,Inc. 1961. The Tide. S. C.rtvright. Usr the Sea Wind. RachelCarson. Mew AmericanLibrary. 1941. Waves.Tides and Currents. ElizabethClemons. AlfredA. Knopf;nc. 1967.

What Do.. the Tide Do? Jean !(inney.YoungScottBooks • 1966. When the Tide Goes Far Out. torus and MargeryMime. AtheneumPublishers.197.. Ta and the Oceans. Diane Sherman. ChildrenePress. 1965. 1-4

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Topic Three The Oceans - Chemical Factors

I. OVERVIEW The chemical composition of seawater generally falls into three categories: inorganic substances (salts and nutrients), dissolved gases, and organic compounds. It is the accumulated product of millions of years of particles from air, rocks, and soil being carried by rainwater to the sea.

II. CONCEPTS Properties of Water Salinity Dissolved Gases Temperature Light Sound

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) understand water’s unique properties: boiling point, viscosity, surface tension, density, heat capacity, dissolving power B) compare the density of fresh, brackish, and seawater by the use of a hydrometer understand the relationship between the relative concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the process of respiration and photosynthesis D) compare the selective absorption of certain wavelengths of light between tropical, coastal and estuarine waters.

IV. KEYWORDS

Covalent Bond Diffusion Absorption Viscosity Dissolved Oxygen Reflection Surface Tension Saturation Point Photic Zone Density Aerobic Aphotic Zone Glycoprotein Anaerobic Turbidity Heat Capacity Carbonate Buffer Dissolving Power pH Salinity Thermocline 14

Chlorinity Ectothermic Euryhaline Endothermic Stenohaline Halocline

V. ACTIVITIES

Density Lab - Sumich Temperature - Salinity - Density Chart - Sumich Sampling Techniques - Sumich Seawater pH measurement - Sumich Nomogram for Solubility of 02 Lab - Sumich Reading Tidal Charts - Matthews

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory Reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. AV RESOURCES

BOCES Films # Title 104197 Water: A Precious Resource 008063 Oceanography (Mining) 000444 Buoyancy 15

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 2 Some Physical and Chemical Properties of Seawater

Introduction When compared to most terrestrial environments, the ocean is a relatively stable medium in which to live. Conditions such as temperature, salinity, and amounts of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide characteristically fluctuate only slightly over daily or even seasonal cycles. Nevertheless, the variations that do exist, however subtle, are extremely important in determining the type and distribution of organisms to be found. To develop an appreciation for some of the problems continually encountered by marine organisms, you must first be able to measure some of the more critical physical and chemical properties of the medium in which they live. This exercise is designed to acquaint you with some techniques for measuring density, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen. Each of these techniques are not important by themselves, but should be considered simply as additional tools to extend your understanding of the marine environment.

I. Density and Salinity

Density is a property of all types of matter, including water. Precisely defined, density is the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. The density of seawater influences several aspects of the lives of marine plants and animals. The flotation of planktonic and nektonic forms is affected by the density of their seawater medium. In addition, sinking masses of higher density seawater carry oxygen-rich waters from the surface to greater depths, while less dense but nutrient-rich water moves upward. Use a 100 ml volumetric flask and balance to accurately measure and weigh 100 ml of distilled (pure) water. Then repeat the same procedure for 100 ml of seawater. What is the pure water density?

g/cm3. The seawater? ______g/cm3. What causes the difference? One factor is temperature. Increasing temperatures cause substances to expand and become less dense, and decreasing temperatures produce the opposite effect. But temperature is not the only cause for variations in seawater. Accurately measure 10 ml of distilled water and pour it into a large evaporating dish. Weigh it (remember to weigh the dish first), then place it on a hot plate or in a 16 drying oven at 70-80 degrees Celsius. When dry, determine the weight of the salt residues and record in table 2.1. Repeat this procedure with 10 ml of seawater.

Table 2.1 Salt Content of Distilled and Seawater Samples

Distilled Water Seawater Weight of water sample

Weight of salt residue

In what way does the presence of dissolved salts affect the density of seawater?

What was the purpose of drying a sample of distilled water? What is the approximate salt content (salinity) of the seawater (see table in hundred sample 2.1) parts per (0/0)? ______%; in thousand parts per (0/00)? ______0/00. For oceanographic purposes, salinity is commonly expressed as 0/00 rather than 0/0. Salinity refers to the total amount of dissolved salts in water. Salinity values range from near zero at the mouths of rivers to over 40 0/00 in the Red Sea. Open ocean salinity values range from about 32-36 0/00. Evaporating seawater samples to determine their salt content is tedious, impractical in the field, and subject to experimental errors. A quick and simple method of measuring seawater salinity is based on a precise relationship that exists between seawater temperature, salinity, and density. If any two of these three factors are known, the third can be determined from a temperature-salinity-density (T-S-D) diagram (fig. 2.1). If, for example, a seawater sample has a temperature of 10 degrees Celsius and a salinity of 35 0/00, its density is 1.027 g/cm3. Now reverse the process and determine the salinity of a water sample with a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius and a density of 1.024

g/cm3. ______0/00. Siniiy. pm(‘I..) 30 31 32 33• 34 3 37 39 40

20 U S S 15

I 10

0 Figure 2.1 Temperature-salinity-density diagram.

Thus, to measure the salinity of any water sample, all you need is a thermometer and an instrument known as a hydrometer to measure the density. A hydrometer is a precisely weighted sealed glass tube that floats in water at different levels, depending on the density of the 18 water. Some hydrometers measure the density of water and require a T-S-D diagram to convert to units of salinity. Others, specifically designed for measuring salinity, are calibrated in units of salinity and provide direct salinity readings without referring to conversion charts or tables.

A. Sampling Techniques

Water samples may be collected by any convenient sampling device. Sample bottles should be completely filled and tightly sealed to prevent evaporation losses. Bottles should not be opened until the salinity determination is to be made. If convenient, salinity determinations may be made in the field. 19

Name______Section______Date______

B. Determination Procedure 1. Fill hydrometer cylinders about two-thirds full of each of the water samples to be analyzed. 2. Carefully float the salinity hydrometer in the cylinder and give it a gentle spin. 3. Allow the hydrometer to come to rest. Then read the value to the nearest 0.5 0/00 and record it in table 2.2 and on the blackboard. 4. Determine the water sample temperature and record in table 2.2.

At what temperature is your hydrometer calibrated? _____ If the water temperature is different than the calibration temperature, what effect will the difference have on the salinity reading?

Table 2.2 Salinity Determination Results

Sample A B C Your salinity values Class range Class mean Water temperature, C

Compare your results to those of others in the class. Determine and record the class range and mean (average) values for each sample in 2.2. How do your results compare to the class average?

C. Salinometers

Salinity determinations using good hydrometers are accurate to within +1- 0.5 0/00. This degree of accuracy is usually sufficient for biological studies. If additional accuracy is required, several types of portable and laboratory salinity meters, or salinometers, are available. If your school has one, your instructor will demonstrate its care and operation.

II. Seawater pH The pH of a solution is a measure of its hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. Values on the pH scale range from 1 to 14. A value of 7 on the pH scale indicates neutral pH, a solution that contains an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. A solution with a value of less than 7 is considered acidic and represents a high H+ concentration. Conversely, a solution that has a value greater than 7 is basic, or alkaline, and has a low H+ concentration. See figure 2.2. 20 Acidic Basic I I I I I I— i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1314

Figure 2.2 The pH scale.

A. pH Sampling Variations of seawater pH can easily be studied in the field using a very accurate, portable pH meter. This instrument is convenient to use and rapidly provides accurate results. The operation of this instrument will be discussed by the instructor. When you are sufficiently acquainted with the methods of operating the pH meter, use it (or a laboratory pH meter) in the following procedure: 1. Place 100 ml of seawater in a 150 ml beaker. Following the directions provided by the instructor and the operating manual, determine the pH of the sample. Record the pH in table 2.3. 2. Now add two drops of 0.1 M HCI (hydrochloric acid) to the sample, stir, and record in the pH. 3. Continue adding HCI in two-drop increments. Record in table 2.3 the pH of the sample after each two-drop acid addition. 4. Repeat steps 1-3 using distilled water in place of seawater. 21

Table 2.3 pH of Seawater and Distilled Water Samples with the Addition of Acid

Drops of 0.1 M HCI 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 pH Seawater Distilled water

Using the data in table 2.3, draw two curves on the graph in figure 2.3, one for distilled water and one for seawater. Label each curve.

8 L : I E E . L 7 M 2- 6 — — — — — — — — E E E E — -: —: 5 a :: pH 4 3 . : 2 ======I =! 0 , 0 2 4 8 8 10 12 14 &ogsof0.1MHcI.ddsd

Figure 2.3 The pH changes of seawater and distilled water samples as acid is added.

Which water sample best resisted pH change? 22

Most living organismscan tolerate only slight pH fluctuations near the neutralregionof the pH scale. Underopen oceanconditions, an effective pH “buffering” systemslimits seawaterpH values to a narrow range between7.5 and 8.4. This bufferingsystem results from the interactionof dissolvedcarbon dioxide (Ca2) and water (H20). Muchof the CO2 dissolvedin seawatercombineswith water to producea weak acid, carbonicacid (H2C03). Normally,carbonic acid dissociatesto producethe H+ ions and bicarbonate(HCO3-) or carbonate (C032) ions. Thesereactionscan be summarizedas chemical equations:

Cot + H2O ‘-2co, carbon water carbonic dioxide + H2CO, HC03 + -‘ carbonsc hydrogen bicarbonat Co hydrogen c$rbnate 23

Section Name ______Date

Normally, the carbonate-bicarbonatebuffering system limits large-scalefluctuationsin seawaterpH. Even so, in restricted bodiesof water, such as tide pools and other areas of limited circulation,the pH of the water can vary enoughto adverselyaffects the organismsliving there.

Ill. OxygenConcentration The concentrationof dissolvedoxygen(DO) in seawateris greatest in well-mixedwaters near the surfaceand is less in deeperwaters. Yet even in these oxygen-richareas the amountof 02 is small, rarely exceeding8 parts per million (ppm). In contrast, air-breathing animalsobtain 02 from an atmospherewhich is 21%, or 210,000 ppm, 02. As the supplyof 02 in seawateris limited,even small changes in DO availabilityoften seriously affect the well-beingof marine organisms. A. OxygenDeterminationMethod The most commonlyused methodfor determiningdissolved°2 in fresh or salt water in the WinklerTitrationMethodand is based on the followingchemicalreactions. A manganesesolutionis added to the water sampleto be analyzed. After treatmentwith an iodide base, the manganesecombineswith the dissolved02 in the waterto form a stable oxygen-manganesecomplex -- the visible precipitate that is formed. The solution is next treated with sulfuric acid, which dissolvesthe oxygen-manganesecomplexand forms free iodine in an amountproportionalto the original amountof dissolved 02. All that then needsto be done is to measurethe amountof free iodine in the solution. This is done by titrating with a solution(in this case standardizedNa2SO3) until all the free iodine(12)is changedto iodide (I-). Ordinarystarchturns purple in the presence of iodine but is colorless in contact with iodide. Therefore,starch is used to indicatethe end point -- the point at which all iodine has beenconvertedto iodide. The amountof a knownconcentrationof thiosulfate solution (Na2SO3) requiredto titrate the free iodine to the end point is proportionalto the amountof 12,which in turn is proportionalto the originalamountof dissolved02. The amountof dissolved 02 is thus calculatedfrom the amountof thiosulfate solution used. 24

B. Sampling Techniques Water samples for 02 analyses are usually collected in glass stoppered,300 ml BOD (BiologicalOxygen Demand)bottles. Be careful when collecting water samples to avoid splashing or bubbling the sample as this can increasethe 02 concentration above its true value. In the field and in the lab, extreme care must be taken in filling bottles. The bottle should be rinsed twice, filled to overflowing, then stoppered so that no air bubbles are included. In order to reduce the effect of included organisms changing the true values of dissolved °2’ the first two steps of the Winkler technique should be performed in the field, as soon as the samples are collected. In this manner, the water sample is “pickled,” and actual titration can be delayed up to 48 hours without affecting the results. 25

C. Laboratory Techniques 1. Fixation Procedure. The following fixation procedure assumes a standard 300 ml BOD sample bottle is used. a. As rapidly as possible,add 2 ml of manganesesulfate (MnSO4) with the tip of an automatic pipette about 1 cm below the surface of the water. This is done to eliminate an introductionof 02 through turbulence. The reagent will sink rapidly to the bottom of the bottle. b. Add 2 ml of alkaline iodide reagent, using the same precaution to avoid introducing 02. Restopperthe sample bottle, neglecting any overflow. Take care not to trap air bubbles. c. Shake vigorously. Allow the precipitate to settle and shake again. When the precipitate has settled a second time, remove the stopper and add 2 ml of concentratedsulfuric acid (H2S04), allowing the acid to run down the inside of the neck of the BOD bottle. Handle the acid carefully! Addition of the acid will cause the precipitate to dissolve (with the aid of some shaking).

If excess H+ ions are present, the reactions above proceed to the left, removing Hi- ions from solution and preventing the solutions from becoming too acidic. If too few H+ ions are present, more are made available by converting carbonic acid to bicarbonate (HC03) or carbonate (C03-2) and releasingH+ ions. 4O

35- —7

30— H8

j 25— —9 -

20- :10 j -

- - : .11 IIS —

10— —12

5— —13

0— -14

FIgure2.5 A nomogramfor d•tervniningthe solubilityof 02inwatlr of difVirentsalinitiissrd tempraturss.

14/Exercise2 • SOLUBIUTY CURVES

140 130 120 hO 0N 100 0 0 90 uJ 70 U) 60 t&. .0 50 U, 2 40 30 20 l0

0 10 203040506070 090100 TEMPERATURE‘C

Sabnirv.PØt 30 31 32 33 34 .33 38 37 38 39 40 30

20 U .

• I I0

0 T•mpsratur•s&inityd•nsitydiegram.

I • 26

Topic Four - Unity and Evolution of Sea Life

I. OVERVIEW Living things are of primary importance in determining the character of the earth’s surface, atmosphere, and waters. Classification and diversity of marine life is discussed.

II. CONCEPTS Life Processes Organic Compounds Cells Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Abiogenesis Evolution Binomial Nomenclature

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Define life by seven life processes B) Identify the 4 major classes of organic compounds C) Identify the parts of a eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell D) Understand the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis of the origins of life on earth E) Understand the Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution F) Understand binomial classification and phylogenic relationships

IV. KEY TERMS Life Processes Eukaryotic Phylogeny Nutrition Prokaryotic Binomial Nomenclature Transport Primitive Earth Taxonomy Respiration Abiogenesis Excretion Aerobic Heterotrophs Synthesis Natural Selection Regulation Homologous Structures Reproduction Chronological Diversification 27

V. ACTIVITIES

Invertebrate Classification and Identification Lab - Sumich Key to Common Phyla Marine Benthic Invertebrates Lab - Sumich Using a Dichotomous Key Lab - Mollusks (Sea Shells) Marine Zooplankton Lab - Sumich Marine Decomposers - Eubacteria - Sumich Cocci, Bacilli, Spirilla Marine Decomposers - Myxobacteria - Sumich Marine Decomposers - Spirocheta - Sumich

VI. EVALUATION

A. Laboratory Reports B. Construction of graphs from experimental data C Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D. Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of equipment

VII. AV RESOURCES

BOCES Films# Title 108896 Biology of Water 040572 Classifying Plants and Animals 28

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 3 Invertebrate Classification and Identification

Introduction At first glance, a coral reef or a rocky intertidal habitat seems to be populated with a bewildering array of plants and animals. But in this overwhelming diversity of form and function, some simplifying patterns become evident. Features that are common to large groups of organisms form the basis of the modern taxonomic systems for classifying organisms into related groups and for clarifying the relationships between these groups. As it is unlikely that you will have the opportunity in this course to actually encounter a previously undescribed type of marine plant or animal, the emphasis in this lab will be on the development of techniques needed to identify common groups of already described organisms and to arrange these groups into their existing hierarchy of classification.

I. Classification A basic method of scientific procedure is generalization -- drawing inferences about a large group from observations of a relatively few members of that group. Thus, although it is impossible to examine every clam or porpoise in the world ocean, we can still state with some assurance that, based on previous observation of a limited number of clams and porpoises, all clams have a two-pieced hinged shells, and all porpoises have two eyes and lack rear legs. The classification system described here draws on such generalizations to define a group, or taxon, of related organisms sharing a number of common features. By grouping organisms in this manner, the enormous variety of existing organisms can be reduced to fewer but more workable categories. The taxonomic system of classification is based on a formal hierarchy of organization for the following defined groupings, or taxa, beginning with the largest group, the kingdom, and subdividing that again and again to the smallest group, the species: 29

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Prefixes such as sub-, super-, or infra- are often used to subdivide or recombine these six basic taxonomic categories. The position of these groups in this classification scheme is not completely arbitrary; Rather, they are arranged to reflect evolutionary relationships that are known or thought to exist between animal groups. Thus, understanding the taxonomic position of any organism will lead to a better insight into its evolutionary history. In order to facilitate your understanding of this system, a brief examination of the classification of some common terrestrial organisms with which you are all familiar is presented.

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata -- animals with a dorsal, tubular nerve cord; a supporting structure along the nerve cord called a notochord; and pharyngeal gill slits which may develop in the adults into gill bars, jaws, parts of the middle ear, pharynx, etc. Class: Mammalia -- warm-blooded animals, live birth, hair or fur, and mammary glands that produce milk. Order: Carnivora -- flesh-eaters, usually with teeth appropriately modified (canines), usually four to five clawed toes on all feet. Family: Canidae -- carnivores with nonretractable claws. Genus: Canis -- dogs, wolves, jackals, coyotes, etc. Species: Canis familiaris (or C. familiaris)

You surely recognize the species as being the domestic dog. All of the taxonomic terms are capitalized with the exception of the second half of the species name. It is always written with a lowercase letter. In scientific literature, genus and species names are either italicized or, where italic type is not available, they are underlined, e.g. Canis familiaris. This taxonomic system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne), a Swedish naturalist in the 1750’s, and uses the so called binomial approach to classifying species. According to the binomial approach, each species’ name has two parts. The first portion 30 of the species name is the same as the genus of the organism and may be abbreviated if the genus has already been given. The genus name is usually a noun, and the second portion of the species name is usually an adjective describing that noun. In the case of Canis familiaris, the generic portion, Canis, refers to dogs of all sorts, and familiaris obviously refers to the common, or domesticated, variety. The two terms, together, form the species name. To see how one may determine the relationship that exists between certain organisms, we may compare the dog’s phylogenetic tree (evolutionary line of descent) with that of the house cat.

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae -- carnivores with retractable claws (lions, tigers, etc.) Genus: Felis -- typical cats (mountain lions, house cats, etc.) Species: F. domistica (or F. catus by some authors)

By comparing the dog and cat, it may be seen that they are not too distantly related (both are in the same order); yet they are not as closely related as the house cat and lion. In the marine environment we utilize the same system to classify organisms. The common edible mussel found in both the Pacific and Atlantic may be classified thusly:

Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Mollusca -- soft-bodied animals, usually with a calcium carbonate shell and muscular foot. Class: Pelecypoda --- those mollusks with a bivalved, or two-part, shell and hatchet-shaped foot. Order: Filibranchia -- W-shaped gills; usually two adductor muscles holding the shells together. Family: Mytilidae -- mussels that produce threads to attach to the substrate. Genus: Mytilus -- the true mussels. Species: M. edulis -- the edible mussel.

As you can see, the edible mussel is only distantly related to either cats or dogs, as they are in the same kingdom but separate phyla. 31

II. Identification Identification of marine organisms that you may encounter in labs and on field trips is really a process of deciphering the organism’s previously established placement in the taxonomic classification system. This process requires the use of some type of identification guide to direct you through the maze of marine plant and animal taxa. These identification guides are generally written for specific geographical regions and for restricted groups of organisms. Titles such as Common Intertidal Invertebrates of Southern California or Common Marine Invertebrates of the Northwest Gulf Coast are representative of such identification guides. 32

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 7 Marine Decomposers

Introd uction In any ecosystem, whether terrestrial, fresh water, or marine, the importance of the availability of nutrients to the primary producers is well established. In the terrestrial environment, water-soluble nitrates and phosphates are often leached from the soil, and plant growth becomes visibly limited. Anyone who has ever noticed the effects of adding fertilizer to house and garden plants is well aware of the important role nutrients play in plant growth. In the same fashion, marine plants are dependent on the availability of nutrients for optimum growth. Once incorporated into plant tissues, they become available for use by a variety of herbivores and eventually carnivores but are no longer immediately available for other plants to use. The release into the environment of the nutrients locked in the tissues of dead plants and animals and the waste products of living organisms is the role assumed by a variety of organisms called decomposers. In the marine environment these decomposers are usually bacteria and microscopic forms of fungi. The study of marine bacteriology is only a few decades old, and marine mycologists (those who study fungi) have only reared their heads in recent years. This is quite understandable when one considers the relatively small disversity of species of marine bacteria and fungi. Of the esimated 1,500 different species of bacteria, only 12% are considered to be marine. In fact, many of these species are found only in resistant spore stages in marine sediments. They grow when cultured in the laboratory, but it is not known whether they are truly marine, or if they are simply terrestrial or freshwater forms that are waiting for suitable conditions before they germinate. Some of the terrestrial fungal spores can live for many years in this state under severe environmental stress. The diversity of the marine fungi is even less marked than the bacteria. Of the approximately 75,000 species of fungi in the world, less than one-half of one percent are found in the sea. 33

The variety and abundance of marine decomposers in coastal environments can best be appreciated by isolating and identifying a few of them. Decomposers are quite abundant in the open ocean, but the sampling procedures for obtaining pelagic bacteria or fungi are somewhat complex, so they are not included here. A small sample of bay mud or beach sand collected during field studies and placed in sterile containers will provide an abundance of decomposers for examination and identification. After they are isolated on the proper growth medium, they will require about one week to grow. Another laboratory period is then necessary for examination and identification of the isolated types.

I. Bacterial Types The majority of the bacteria, either parasitic or free-living decomposers, fall into three types: the Myxobacteria, the Eubacteria, and the Spirocheta.

A. Myxobacteria The Myxobacteria are single-celled, rod-shaped organisms generally with pointed ends and the capacity for gliding over solid substrates. When grown in laboratories on solid agar growth media, the edges of the colonies often have a lacy, flame-shaped form. The colony will show a marked capacity for covering the surface of the medium in a relatively short time, although the method whereby they spread is unknown. r

is - ‘ sV

‘‘ 4

;‘• • :.‘ . — S.

• —.Sr*---- — — — * S C Figure 7.1 Eubacteria generally exist as one of these three basic types: (A) cocci, (B) bacilli, or (C) spirilla.

B. Eubacteria The Eubacteria are by far the most common and important bacteria •in all environments. Differences in the chemical composition of the cell walls cause the cells to be stained differentially when properly treated. This staining technique, called the Gram stain, was developed in the late 1800s by a Danish physician, Christian Gram. When treated, cells 34 retaining a violet color are called gram-positive and those with a pinkish-red color are called gram-negative. Three basic shapes are evident among these bacteria: cocci, round spherical forms; bacilli, cylindrical, rod-shaped forms; and spirilla, helical, or bent rod, forms (fig. 7.1). 1. Cocci (Singular, Coccus). Almost all of the cocci are gram-positive and in the marine environment are usually found in irregularly shaped clusters or in groups of eight. In other environments they may form long chains or groups of two or four. None of the cocci are capable of locomotion. 2. Bacilli (Singular, Bacillus). Bacilli, or rods as they are often called, occur in both gram-positive and gram-negative forms. Some move by using flagella. Some gram-positive rods produce heat resistant spores (such as those causing the diseases botulism, teteanus, and gangrene) and are found in the marine as well as in the terrestrial environment. The most common marine bacteria, members of the genus Pseudomonas, are flagellated gram-negative rods. Members of the genus Photobacterium are exclusively luminscent marine forms. They are also gram-negative rods. Some are free swimming, while many occur symbiotically with fish. 3. Spirilla (Singular, Spirillum). These forms are all gram-negative flagellated organisms.

C. Spirocheta The spirochetes are very long, slender helical cells with thin cell walls. They are quite common in marine muds where their rapid spiral movements are easily seen under a microscope. They apparently swim by contracting bundles of fibers, known as axial filaments. These filaments are made of protein threads and lie just beneath the cell wall. Most spirochetes are anaerobes (organisms that live in region devoid of dissolved 02), either free-living or parasitic. The best known marine member of this group is the genus Cristispira, found in the digestive tract of clams and other mollusks. 35

Name______Section______Date______

II. Isolation and Culture Techniques for Marine Bacteria Whenever dealing with bacteria, it is absolutely necessary to develop and use sterile techniques. It is quite common for airborne spores of terrestrial bacteria and fungi to contaminate and grow on marine growth media. To avoid contamination, it is necessary to use a Bunsen burner to sterilize some equipment. Other equipment is sterilized in a high-pressure, high-temperature device called an autoclave (simply a large, elaborate pressure cooker).

A. Bacterial Isolation Marine decomposers normally occur together in a confusing abundance of species. Before you can recognize and identify these organisms, it it necessary to isolate them from each other and from the sediment in which they live. Part of this isolation procedure is purely mechanical. The organisms are suspended in water, then diluted and spread out. They are then placed on plates of growth media that contain agar (a gelatin- like material made from the red algae Gelidium) and a mixture of nutrients known to be effective for growing specific types of organisms. After a few days, each individual bacterial cell, if it is capable of growing on the medium provided, will multiply and produce a colony containing millions of cells, all of one type. The cells of different colonies can be separated from each other and used in subsequent procedures. 1. Take two fresh sediment samples, one from a bay or estuary and one from an open-coast sandy beach, and, using a sterile spatula, fill two stoppered, sterile test tubes one-third full with each of the sediment samples. 2. Add approximately a third of a test tube of sterile seawater to both of the sediment samples, and replace the stopper. 3. Agitate the plugged samples thoroughly, then allow to stand until the sediment settles. These solutions will be used as your source of bacteria and fungi for subsequent experiments. Since you will be using it to inoculate various growth media, it will be called the inoculum. 4. Take three petri plates containing bacteria growth media and, using a marking crayon, label each dish with your name, the word bay, and the temperature at which each plate is to be incubated. Suggested temperatures are 5 degrees Celsius (refrigerator), a typical deep-sea temperature, the temperature that the bacteria ordinarily experience (about 15 degrees Celsius), and 37 degrees 36

Celsius (human body temperature). Where in the marine environment might bacteria encounter a temperature of 37 degrees Celsius?

If normal environmental temperatures cannot be maintained in the laboratory then a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius (room temperature) may be substituted. 5. Remove the stopper and flame the mouth of the test tube containing the inoculum (fig. 7.2A). 6. Dip a sterile cotton swab into the bay inoculum and streak the 37 degree Celsius plate. Use a fresh swab each time and repeat for the other two temperatures following the streak technique shown in figure 7.2A-F. 7. Repeat steps 4-6 using the beach inoculum instead of the bay inoculum. Be sure to label the plates with the term beach. 8. Before incubating, invert the inoculated petri plates so the half containing the medium is on top. By so doing, any moisture that may condense will not drop on the growing culture. 9. Seal plates with Parafilm or plastic sandwich bags to prevent dessication. 1 0. Place the six petri plates in their proper incubation sites in the dark, and allow to grow for one week. 37

Topic Five The Pelagic Environment

I. OVERVIEW The pelagic environment is the largest division in the marine world. It has a major influence on all parts of our biosphere. Many biological, chemical and physical parameters occurring here have a major effect upon all life on Earth.

II. CONCEPTS Stratification Plankton Vertical Migration Trophic Levels Symbiosis

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Identify the major zones and layers of the pelagic environment. B) Examine the adaptability of the phyto and zooplankton in the pelagic environment. C) Show the interrelationship between sunlight and productivity in the photic zone. D) Compare synbiotic relationships within the pelagic environment.

IV. KEYWORDS Stratification Phytoplankton Bloom Trophic Plankton Red Tides Planktivores Nekton Neurotoxin Primary Neuston Brown Tide Productivity Neritic Zooplankton Detritus Epipelagic Holoplankton Fecal Pellets Mesopelagic Meroplankton Symbiosis Bioluminescence Deep Scattering Layer Bathypelagic Vertical Migration Abyssopelagic Diurnal 38

V. ACTIVITIES Pelagic Food Web Interpretation Lab Seasonal Planktonic Production Cycles Graph Lab Phytoplankton Lab NTA Zooplankton Lab NTA Diatoms Assorted Slides Lab

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on the successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment 39

Topic Six Estuarine Communities

I. OVERVIEW “A tidal marsh means different things to different people. To some it is an evil smelling eyesore; to hunters and naturalists a haven for wildlife; and to still others a piece of real estate of great potential value. But to the marine biologist, the tidal marsh is a prehistoric heritage” A Beachcomber’s Botany -- Petry

II. CONCEPTS Glaciation Abiotic Factors Zonation Adaptation Conservation Food Webs

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Examine the glacial history of our estuarine ecosystems. B) Understand the variations of aboitic factors that occur within the estuary. C) Identify the dominant flora and fauna of the estuarine ecosystem. D) Describe the interrelationships between abiotic and biotic factors of the estuary. E) Understand both the ecological and economical importance of the estuary.

IV. KEYWORDS: Glaciation Substitute Planktivores Estuarine Flushing Carnivores Mangrove Wetland Herbivores Salt Marsh Zonation Productivity Mud Flat Detritus Sea Grass Brackish 40

V. ACTIVITIES Three-Ply Representation of Major Organ Systems of Quahaug (M. Mercenaria)

Clam Lab -- Marine Resources Clam NASCO Lab Clam Model Lab Marine Arthropods Lab -- Sumich Horseshoe Crab Insects Blue Crab Lobster (Crayfish Substitute) Marine Mollusks -- Sumich Squid Lab Clam Lab Estuary Food Web Lab Zonation of Estuarine Communities Lab N.A.S.A. Coastal Zone Changes Lab Coastal Wetlands Field Study Lab - Sumich Distribution of Salt Marsh Life - Schroeder & Haughey 41

Cross Section Coastal Wetlands Lab -- Sumich Benthic Diatoms Microscopic Primary Producers Terrestrial Plants Phytoplankton Epifauna Infauna -- high tide line Infauna -- low tide line Fish Zooplankton Birds Mammals

Physical & Chemical Conditions of Water & Sediment -- Sumich Water Motion Temperature Water Salinity Dissolved 02 pH

pH % sand Sediment: % silt % clay Color Percolation DISTRIBUTION OF SALT MARSHLIFE

by Schroeder and Raughey

A Learning Experience for Coastal and Oceanic AwareneneStudiee

Producedby

MARINEIRONT CURRICULUMSiuu’ MARINEADVISOR! SERVICE UNIVERSITYOF DIAWARE

and

POPUTTON—ENVIRONMENTCURRICULUMSTUDY COLLEGEOF EDUCATION UNIVERSITT OF DELAWARE

as part of a

PLAN FOR ENVIRONMENTALEDUCArION INTRODUCTION

As a resultof this fieldtrip,it will be obviousthat thereare many distinct zonesof plantand animallife in a tidalsalt marsh. Thereare many physicalfactors which interactto causethis zonatiort.Someof thesefactorsare physiography,tidal inundation,heightof thewater table,soil type seepage,drainage,aeration,salini.ty, nutrients, and climate.

Tidal inundation is probably the most important factor. However, the height that the tide reachesis dependenton the physiography of the marsh, i.e., elevation, the slopeof the land and its proximityto the sourceof water. The lengthof time in which tidalwater remainsin a marsh is not only influencedby the tidalcycle,but also by the heightof the water tableand the soil type,both of which in turnaffect seepageand drainage. Climateis anotherfactor,as onshorewinds can cause a higher tideheight,and wind and insolation can promote evaporation which causes a rise’ in salinityand a decreasein the water table.

Varioustypesof tidalmarshplantsare able to surviveunder differentdegrees of salinity. Salinity is controlled by tidal inundation and all of its associated factors,as well as, by freshwaterinputfrom the landward edges of the marsh. Nutri ents are also importantin the distributionof tidalmarshplants. For example,

Spartina alterniflora will only grow if thereis a certainlevel of iron presentin the soil. In conclusion, it will be seen that a numberof factorsinteractto form a very complexgradientwhich determinesthe distributionof salt marsh plantand animal.species.

With respectto elevationas a generalindicatorof a tidalmarsh gradient,as one moves from the water towardsthe marsh borderè,elevationtendsto1increase and salinitytends to decrease. There are exceptionssuch as hummocks,drainageditch spoils,and pannes. Humiocks are natural or man—maderiseswithin the marsh. Drainage ditch spoils are composedof the dredgematerialfrom the drainageditchand are found as slight rises alongside the ditches. Parines are shallowdepressions of highly matted plantmatterout of which water is oftenunableto drain. The two zones closest to thz water are covered at everyhigh tide. It is hers

that the salt marsh cordgrass, Spartin.a alterniflora, dominates. Spartina alterni—

flora has evolved mechanismswhich enable it to withstand the salt water. The

cordgrass uses the salt to provide osmotic pressurewithin the plant, thus stiffen.ing

the plant and giving it strength. Because of this, the zone closest to the water is

dominated solely by a tall form of Spartina ai.terniflora. The second zone is composed

of a dwarf form of Spartina alterniflora. The Spartina species rid themselves of

excess salt by depositing the salt on their leaves. Hiocks, because of their high

elevation contain highland plants, even though they may be located in the midst of

the Spartina alterniflorazone. Likewise, areas around drainage ditches and tidal

creeks through the higher zones, because of their proximity to water,may contain the

tall form of Spartina alterniflora.

In the next zones, higher in elevationand covered with ealtwater for onlya few

hours each tidal cycle, or only by the highest tides, glassworts(Salicornia .?I, sea

lavender (Limonii caroliniant), salt meadow cordgraas (Spartina patens), and spike

grass (Distichlis spicata) are present.

The highest zonesof the marsh are rarely covered by sea water, but salt is

present in the soil. Plants which thrive in these zones are the black grass (really

a rush) (Juncus .) and bulrush (Scirpus maritimus).

In the highland border regions fringing the marsh, bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica),

American Holly (hex opaca), red cedar (Jmiperus jna), seaside goldenrod

(Solidago aempervirens), marsh elder (Iva frutescena), groimdael—bush (Baccharis halimifolia), giant reed (Phragmitea commu’iis), and poison ivy (itz radicans) are

found. These plants are able to tolerate the salt’in the sea spray but cannot with stand salt at their roots.

Animals are distributed throughout the marsh although their zonation is not always as obvious as that of the plants. In the regions of constant tide ebbing and flooding thereare largevariationsin temperature,salinityand exposure. Many organisms adapt

—2— to the8e extremes by burrowing in the tidal muds where conditions are not as variable

These burrowing organisms include clams, ribbed mussels and worms. Some organisms such as email blue crabs, green crabs, and mud crabs burrow during low -ater but swim and/or crawl about in search of food during high water. Barnacles and blue mussels, found on hard, exposed surfaces, and the partiallyburied ribbed mussels protect themselves from environmental extremesby tightly closing their shells at low tide.

Many organisms live outside the marsh but migrate in to feed on the abundant plant and animal life. Fish such as killifish and minnows come in with the tide and feed on mosquito larvae found in marsh tide pools. Mud snails, usually visible at low tide along the edge of the marsh, ingest diatom—richmud and scavange the remains of dead animals. Many insects such as crickets, grasshoppers,flies, gnats, spiders, and mosquitoes invade the marshes to feed and to breed.

Of the larger organisms, many birds are found in marsh areas. Long—billed marsh wrens, sparrows, swallows, ducks, geese, herons, egrets, and clapper rails all thrive in and around the marsh. Turtles and mls such as raccoons, rats, mice, otter and p mink are also found in the marsh.

Very few organisms spend their entire life cycle in the marsh because it is a rigorous environment. The fiddler crab can, however, because it has evolved many body functions which enable it to withstand extremes in temperature,salinity, and exposure.

The male of the species can be recognizedby its one large claw, which it “waves” as a signal to female fiddlers during the spring mating season. The fiddler crab and its burrow holes are found throughout the intertidal zones of the marsh, the distribution of which may be determined in a transect study.

The base of the food web in the saltmarsh is dependent’on the large numbers of producers, algae and grasses, which yield large amounts of organic food material. In sects feed directly on the plants while other organisms feed on the algae and detritus

(small particles of decaying plants). Bacteria decompose the dead plants and incor porate them into their protoplasm.

—3— Many small animals such as protozoa, worms, and insect larvae feed on the detritus—bacteria—algaemixture. Largerorganisms such as fiddler crabs, snails, and some fish, directly conse the algae and detritus, while mussels, oysters, and clams, filter thernfrom the water. Insects are eaten by other insects, as well as, by birds and :ls. The birds and ma=als also conse detritus, algae, worms, crabs, snails and fish. As many as sixty different kinds of fish have been found to live most of their lives in the marsh creeks. The young of many of our most popular fish begin their lives here such as flounder, mullet, and menhaden. Larger edible fish such as striped basa, tuna and swordfish feed in turn on these marsh raised fish.

INFLUCE OF ELEVATION

To most accurately define the zones on the salt marsh with respect to elevation, carry out the following transect study. The transect, or line that cuts through the marsh, from au area of low elevation (near the water at low tide) to an area of high elevation (highlands), delineates the, section under study. If possible, the class may want to compare different sections of the same marsh or compare different marshes. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Upon conclusion of this exercise, you will be able to: 1. set up and carry out a transect (quadrat) study 2. identify marsh vegetation 3. identify animals associated with the marsh 4. understand the role that one physical feature, elevation, plays in determining the distribution of salt marsh plant and animal species MATERIALS (PER GROUP0? 5 STUDENTS)

— line level — 3 meter nylon line (venetian blind cord) — 2 meter sticks — long nylon line marked or knotted at one meter intervals (or a measuring tape)

— - twelve tent stakes — notebook and pencil — collecting bucket — small jars and plastic bags

TEAM 1ERS — rotate jobs during the study

— student tending line level (observes to see if instrument is level) — student tending line — two meter stick attendants — recorder of data

It is best to take measurements on the salt marsh when the tide is at or near

its lowest level so that most of the flora and fauna will be exposed.

To determine the elevation profile and plant and animal distribution in the section

of the marsh you have selected:

1. Place the long, marked line down on the marsh, starting at the low tide

edge of the water, lying it perpendicularly from the water’s edge, towards the higher marsh.

2. Next, place tent stakesat 2 meter intervals alongside the line, starting with “stake f7l”at the water’s edge. For steeply sloped areas, stakes should be placed more closely together, such as at ½or 1 meter intervals. See following diagram.

3. Identify and record the plant and animal species present between stakes

01 and f2. For more advanced studies describing the distribution of plants and animals, you should construct a 2 x 2 meter.quadrat (square) alongside the line, using extra tent stakes, to mark the corners (see diagram). Now count the nimiber(or percent cover) of each species present in the quadrat. Some of the data collected in such a transect! quadrat study Is presented later in this exercise (Fiddler Crab Burrow Density Study). NT

\ \

MARKEDLINE

STAKE #2

4. To determine the difference in elevation on the marsh between the baseline stake, #1, and stake #2:

A. Tie one end of the 3 meter line onto one of the meter sticks,

exactly at the 10 centimeter mark (see following diagram).

B. One meter stick attendant should hold this meter stick next

to stake l, with the 100cm mark just touching the surface

of the ground.

C. The second meter stick should be held next to stake #2 in a

similar manner (100cm mark downward).

D. Level the line with the level (bubble centered?, touching the

line to the second meter stick as it passes by eake #2.

E. Record the ‘numberof centimeters marked by the passing line.

F. Next, subtract 10 centimeters from your measurement to determine

the change in e1evaton frcm stake #1 to stake f2 (could you have

tied the line to the first meter stick at 20cm? 25cm?

—6— CM

CM 100 CM STAKE STAKE #2

CHANGEIN ELEVATION 30cm — 10cm 20cm

5. Record the change in elevation along with the specIes data collected for this section of the transect study.

6. Now move on to the next higher section (or quadrat) of the marked line and determine the species composition.

7. Also measure the change in elevation between stakes #2 and #3. Be sure that the meter stick with the line tied to it is placed at the lower elevation (at stake #2). The change in elevation that you measure is only that between stakes 112 and #3. Back in the classroom, you can determine the change in elevation across the entire transect by simple addition. for example:

Between Stakes Change in Elevation

#1 and #2 20cm

#2 and f&3 7cm

S #3 and #4 5cm

#1 and #4 32cm

Therefore, stake #4 is 32cm higher in elevation than the baseline, stake fl

—7— 8. Continue measuring and determiningspeciescompositionalongthe transect (or quadrat belt) until you are well,into the highlandmarsh.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In the classroom, plot the plant and animal distribution data on graph paper to represent a cross—section profile through the salt marsh. Is a distinct zonacion pattern revealed by your graph? Ba8ed on the data you have collected, what con clusionscan you draw abouteach salt marsh specia? Why is each species found in its specificzone?

—8— S SAMPLEGRAPH

LEGEND: IL.ANTS ANIMALS 0 = S PATENS KILLIFISH z 0 11= SNAIL I-— = S4 ALTERNIFLORA > w -j liJ T. IIIGHTIDERUSH = OSPREY -r a 0 1 -4 T II

DISTANCE SURVEYED

I I

3 METERS leld Gult TheetForEasternShoreMarineEnv ments alt Marsh

Saft Marsh

1. MarshBckush(Scispus) 15. Cat-tail (Typla) 30. Marsh Me (cider A.carr) 2. Rodi Duck(Nyivca) 16. Ribbed Mussels (A1cdo,s) 31. Cordgrass (SparVnaa#emit a) 3. Greenhead Fly(Tab.1us) 17. Marsh Periwinkle(L.saxaflks) 32. Cricket (AchetalGryllus) 4. Boxes put out in marshes le trW 18. Mud Snail (Nassanus) 33. Canada Goose (Branta) Greenhead Flies 19. GreatBkaeHeron (Florida) 34. Panic Grass (Panscum) 5. Larvalloirmo iGr.erthead 20. Sea Lettuce (Ulva) 35. Coffee Bean Snail(Melampus) 6. Gtasswofl (Sakcomia) 21 KiUllish(Funduhas) 36. Assortment of plankton so plentifuland vital 7. Marsh Crab (S.sarma) 22. Glass Shrimp(Palaemoneles) to the salt marsh ecosystems 8. Sea t..avender(Linoniiin) 23. isopods (Idolea) 37. Cordgrass (S.afterniflosa) 9. Pipe Fish(Sygnatftus) 24. Sticklebacks (Gastarosteus) 38. Salt Meadow Grass (S.paens) 10. Spike Grass (Lsbches) 25. American Eel(MguIa) 39. Glasswon (Sabcornia) 11. Rock Bamades (Balanus) 26. Send Lainee (Mimodyt.s) 40. BlackGrassci Rush(J*’icus) 12. MaleFiddlerCrab(Uca) 27. Racajon (Procyon) 13. Female FiddlerCrab(Uca) 28. OiamondbackTerrWin(Malac*nys) 14. Red Winged BlackBid (Ageias) 29. Salt MeadowGrass (Spartsnapatens) All rightsof copy strictly reserved© criptionofa SaftMarsh by BarbaraS. Waters

Water

MARSH EDGE LOW MARSH MID-MARSH HIGH MARSH Black and SpikeGrasses Tall Cordgrass Salt MeadowGrass Pannes - Glassworl Seaside Rye

Salt marshesborderthe saltwater bays.and marsh with red-brownpatches In barepatches can be traced to the water. This MarshCrab is are floodedon high tide at someperiodduring and at the high dry edges. the shortglasswortis shaped like a box and it is biggerthan the fiddler a twenty-tourhour cycle. They are dominatedby easy to see. In fall it turns bright red,whilethe When caught it will play possum,keepingthe grasses of the genus Sparlina. Cordgrass sea lavender is purple legs extendedand rigid. Whenreturnedto the (Spartina alternifIoia) is a Sturdygrass,one of ground. it wilt suddenlycome to life and dart away. a group of salt-tolerantplants. It cannotsurvive After this first survey, you are readyfor a closer underwateras eel grass. but it grows weltwitha look between the grasses Here theprimitive Every salt marsh has coloniesof RIbbed Mussels salt-waterbath twiceeach day. It sendsout algae grow. providingthe basic nutrientsfor which are often coveredwith Barnacles.These undergroundstems and new clumpsof Cordgrass many animals. Theygrow in flat greenmatsor float mussels are good to eat, if the marshis clean. grow from these.The grass bladesslowdown up and down the creeks. Downbetweenthe the wafer movementso that the sedimentin grasses are dozens of the Coffee Sean Marsh The most unwelcomecreatureon the marsh. the water drops and the Cordgrass grows higher. Snail which feed on the algae mats and decaying as tar as man is concerned,is the Greenhead Fly Eventuallyit will form a peat bed manyfeet thick, vegetation. At high lide thesesnailsclimb to The femalefly lays its eggson grassstems in Spike Grass,grows alongsideSalt-Meadow the top of the marshgrassOutof reachof the mid-summer Thesefemalesseekbloodof Grass. It can be recognizedby its shorterleaves. water, and they move backdown as the water warmbloodedanimalsto developtheireggs. Black Grass takes its standnear the landward recedes It is a pulmonatesnail andmustbreath The eggs hatch into inch-longmaggots.which edges of the marsh Wherethe marshsurface air (having lungs rather than gills) Whenup on winter in the mud at the baseof theplants. develops shallowdepressions.knownas pannes. the grass blades the CoffeeBeanSnailis often feedingon insects,worms, snailsandother water sometimescollects at the highesttides. eaten by birds Itis a squat.egg shapedsnail. greenheadlarvae. Usuallythe followingsummer tn these pannes and atongthe salt-rimmed translucent brown and about t/2” tong they emergeas thedreadedfly Theyinturnprovide borders of the marshthe Glassworts grow a bumpermeal in late July for the swallows,and beside theSea Lavender Colonialpeopleand Many holes the size of a fat fingerpuncturethe many other birds as well. wild food lovers pick these stubby,fleshy marsh Beside most of the holes areneatballs of Glassworts. sand and mud. Theseholesare dug by the The green and blue boxesout on the marshare Fiddler Crab. our to to thesepestsbeforethey Lookingout over a marsh for the first timeyou On a hot summers day, the Fiddler way try capture Crabs bite. The female who may not be able to tell each kind of grass from one scurry franticallywhenyou approach fly (onlyone bites) is another. Two clues to identificationincludes trying to find their holes Allow tide,the crabsleave attracted to warm, dark places.Once in the box find knowing where the grass is locatedin relation their holes by the hundredsto drink and teedat she’cannot her way Out. to amount of time it stays in the water andcolor the water’s edge The name fiddlecomesfrom the As kindsof fishhave At the waters edge. the cordgrassformsa dark- enlarged claw of the malecrab,whichit many as sixty different front of like musical been found live of their lives the marsh green border,up to six feettall in lavorable carries in its body a instrument. to most in creeks The of of mostpopular conditions.The salt-meadowgrass and nearby young many our Near off fish their lives here such flounder. spike grass are one to two feet high and form a the water the marshdrops to forman begin as mullet and fish such lighter green carpet.By late summerthe salt- eroded pelt bank providinghomesfor a number menhaden Larger as striped of feed these meadow grasses have bent at their bases to form burrowing clams and crabs. Thebox crab bass, tuna and swordfish in turnon flattened cowhcks. or Marsh Crab, makesa hole hereabouttwo marsh raised fish. inches in width with little pilesof mudaround The black grass rims the Iandwardsideof the (lie hole w’iich leads to a networkof tunnels(hat ACTIVITY 1 - SEINING

What Kind Of Seine Should You Use?

A ten to twenty foot long nylon seir having a mesh size of either ilL4 inch or 1/2 inch is excellent for collecting small fish and other organisms in the intertidalzone. A seireof this type can usually be purchased at any bait and tackleshopor sporting goods store. If a nylon net is not available, one that is made out of cotton will work just as well but will not last as long as a ny lon net. Even window screen with two poles nailed, one on each side, to the screen can work quite well as a small seine.

When measuring the size of a nets mesh, pull the net so that the mesh is elongated and then with a ruler measure the distance between the two furthest knots of the mesh. This is the mesh size. See Illustration3.

KNOTS 1’

4- ____ MESH

-A

LOOSENET PULLEDNET

ILLUSTRATION3 Measuringa NetssMesh

How To Use A Seine

If you do not have someoneto help you pull a seireitwill be almost impossibleto use it properly. Thereforeyou may have to eliminatethe use of a seirand work with a largedip net

If you are working with anotherperson it is very importantto keep the poles that are on eitherend of the seirdown on the bottom, in the sand or mud. By doing this,the lead line,on the bottomof the net, will stay close to the bottom. With the lead lineon or very close to the bottom,small fish, crabs,shrirrç,etc. can not escape.

Work the seineinaboutwaist deep water pullingit parallelto the shore. Afteryou have pulled it for about 40 to 50 yards (halfthe distanceof a foot ball field)bring it around towardthe beach so that both you and your buddy arriveon shoreat the same time. Rememberto keep the polesof the net on the

8 bottomat all times. While you are pullingthe scm in towardshore it is very importantto maintaingood speed becauseit is duringthis time thatmany of the swiming animalsyou have capturedwill try to get out of the net. Pull the sein all theway onto the beachaway from the water’sedge so that any animalthatmay happento escapefrom the net will be unableto swim away.

Lay the sein flaton the beachand open it up. Quicklyput everythingthat has been capturedintoa plasticbucket. A plasticbucket is betterthana metal bucketif you intendto keep any of the specimensalive. A metalbucketwill re leasetoxicelementsand poisonswhen It is in contactwith sea water.

What ShouldYou Do With The Specimens?

If you are a good conservationistand are concernedabout the animalsyou have caught,take them out of the bucketwith a smallaquariumdip-net,identify them,countthem,recordthe information,and then releasethe specimensback intothe water. If you would rathernot bringmanualsand guidesto the beach with you for identifyingthe specimens,count the totalnumberof organismsin each group,keepone representativespecimenfromeach groupand releasethe rest.

IdentifyingWhat You Catch

In order to identifythe variousanimalsthatyou will be collectingin the intertidalzone it Is necessaryto have the appropriateidentificationfield booksand manuals.

On the next page is a suggestedlistof some resourcematerialsfor identi fyingthe variousanimalsthatyou may encounterwhile seiningin the intertidal zone in Florida.

Separatethe listof animalsthatyou collectintovertebratesand invert ebrates. Vertebratesincludeall fishes,amphibians,reptiles,birdsand mamm als. Vertebratesare characterizedby havinga skull (cranium) and a back bone. Invertebratesare such animalsas sponges,jellyfish,worms,clams,octopuses, squid,crabs,shrimp,lobsters,starfish,etc.. Invertebratesdo not have a skulland a back bone.

Sincethe vertebratesthat you will most likelybe collectingin the inter tidalzonewill be fish, the listof resourcebooks,on the next page, for identi fyingvertebratesconsistsonly of thosefor fish.

Data Collecting

Use the IntertidalZone SeiningData Chartsfor recordingall your data thatyou get duringseining. Your name, locationof the seiningactivity,date, timeof day, kind of organismscaughtand the numberof each kind shouldall be includedon the chart. Chartsare at the end of this activity. Six data chartsare provided. If you need more chartssimplydraw some more by usinga sheetof typingpaper,a straight-edgedrulerand pencil.

Afteryou get home from seiningput the data chart in a ring-binder.

10. Data Grph

At the end of this activity draw a data graph for each group of ani mals. See the example of a completed data graph, for invertebrates,see Fig ure’l below.Graph paper can be purchased at most drug stores or department stores that sell office equipment. One graph should be for the invertebrates and one for the vertebrates. Graphs could also be drawn showing the size or length of certain species of animals over the period of tme that you conduc ted the activity. Size changes would go well with the temperature collecting activity described in activity 5 of this project.

At the bottom of the graph indicate the period of time (dates) over which the activity was conducted. This might be once a month for nine months, once a week for 20 weeks, or what ever you have chosen. On the left side of the chart indicate the number of animals caught. The numbers should increase frorr the bottom to the top of the chart along the ‘leftside. If you are doing a graph forsizes, the left side would indicate size (lengthor weight) of the individualanimals. Make sure you indicate, at the top of the graph, whether it is for vertebratesor invertebrates.

Once you have the graph set up you can then begin to place dots over the dates correspondingwith the number of each animal caught. After you have all of the dots, for one animal, placed on the chart, connect the dots with straight lines. This shows how the population of the animal fluctuated in the intertidal zone over the period of time. Do the same graphing procedure - for all the animals you have on your data charts.

INVERTEBRATES

15 IL’

. gl2 5 11 U 10

U 0.

0 I

(Dates Lol’lected)

FIGURE I An example of a completed InvertebrateData Graph 12 InterpretingThe Data

In order to satisfactorlycomplete this 1i-4 activity you will want to respond to the following qUestions havina to do with what you read and the data you collected:

I. Why is the intertidalzone such a harsh place for organisms to live

2. Why would the intertidal zone e considered an ecosystem?

3. According to the data that you collected wtich invertebrate’snct which vertebrate’spopulation fluctuated the most?

14• Among the nvertebrates is there any one whose population was very high while another’s was very low? Which ones?

. Among the vertebrates is there any one whose population was very high while another’s was very low? Which ones?

6. By investigatingvarious resource books, talkingwth scientists, reading magazines, etc. explain, in your own words, the reason for coming up with your answers in numbers 4 and 5 above.

7. Craw a food web showing the interrelationshipsbetween the various animals (invertebratesand vertebrates) you caught for just one of the dates in the activity.

3. Name the animals in your food web that could be considered prrnary consumers. Do the same for secondary consumers and tertiary con sumers.

9. Eliminate just one of the vertebrates in your food web, as though it had become extinct for some reason (pesticides,poisons, construc tion of a dam, etc.). Write a brief explanationon how and why you think the other animals would be effected by its being gone.

10. What are some of the protectivecharacteristicsof the animals you found in the intertida’ zone? For each animal list its protective devicesand why you think they would help the animal survivein th intertidal zone. Intertidal Zôhe Seining Dita Chart

My Uame

LOcation of Seining Activity ______

Date Time ______

VERTEBRATES

Number Caught Name

2. ______

3. ______4. ______5. ______6. ______

7. ______

INVERTEBRATES

2. ______3. ______4. ______5. ______6. ______7. ______

14 How Does TeiweratureAffectMarineOrganisms? (fromScarff,1969)

We know that certain essential materials are necessary for the growth and reproductionof afl living matter. To survive and thrive in any en vironment the organism must have these materials. The particular materials needed vary with the ty of rj.nisrn and with the locationof the environ ment and with the diffeert f :‘rs in each environment. These basic re quirements are called flmiti.1c ractors. If these requirementsare not met or sat.kfied, they limit the chances of survival of the organism. Not only are essential materials needed, but often they must be available in specific amounts.

Too much of a substance may be as limiting as too little of a sub stance. For instance, different species of plants and animals are adapted to withstand a certain range of temperatures necessary for their survival and growth. There are maximum and minimum temperatures beyond which the organism can not live. In the same sense, there may be too many predators in the habitat. This would regulate the survival of the organisms in that a great many of the preyed-upon species would be eliminated. If the food supply in the environment is inadequateor there k not enough oxygen available for a certain species, the organism will die because its “mini mum limits’1 of essential materials have been exceeded. Within the maxi— “!T ard minimum limits an organism may survive. It is in the range of its tolerances. However, we must remember that while the organism may survive, it may not be able to reproduce or its young may not develop under the same conditions. That range in which the organism grows and reproduces successfully is its optimum range.

‘iRang

Minimum Decrease-* TE?ERATURE b—Increase

Minimum’ and maUmum rangeof tolerenceto temperature necessaryfor an organismto surviveis usuallywider than the optimumrangc. The optimumrange is where the organism can reproducesuccessfully. The optimumrange is usually narrowerbecauseeggs from a breedingfemaleare usually “fragile”to a wide range of temperature.

ILI.L’WrRATLON13 r t. ui.i In crim :& ind range Scientists devised have terms to describe the relative degree of tolerancesof an organism to various COnditions in the environment, In these terms the prefix steno means a narrow range of tolerances,while eury denotes a wide range of tolerances. Thus, we have the following terms:

1. Stenothermal — Eurythermal refers to temperature 2. Stenohydric - Euryhydric — refers to water 3. Stenohaflne — Euryhaline = refers to salinity Ls, Stenophagic - Euryphagic = refers to food 5. Stenoecious - Euryecious — refers to habitat

Tolerances to temperaturevary greatly with each species. Generally, the “lowers’animals (sponges,jellyfish, worms, etc.) and plants are able to withstand extremes of temperature better than are the higher’ organisms (fish, turtles, porpoises1 birds). For instance, certain bacteria may live for several months at temperaturesof -270°C. This is approximatelythe temperatureof liquid hydrogen and is estimated to be about that of outer space.

The extremes of temperaturewhich plants and animals are able to tolerate govern the distribution of the species.

Aquatic organisms are exposed to a narrower range of temperatures than are land dwellers, The high specific heat of water and the circula tion of water masses contribute to keeping ocean water at a relativelycon stant temperature for a given location. The more constant temperatureof the ocean make possible a greater degree of year round biological activity. As one might expect, marine organisms tend to have a narrower temperature tolerance range than do land animals and plants.

How To Use A Thermometer

There are some things that are very important to know when taking the temperatureof water.

1. Know how to convert degrees Centigrade (Celsius) to degrees Fahrenheit and vice versa. When converting °C to °F, use this formula: °Cx9/5+32 °F For example: 100°C x 9/5 — 180 180 + 32 2)2 Therefore: 100°C 2l2F

When converting °F to °C, use this formula:

- 32 x 5/9 — °C For example: 50°F - 32 — 18 18 x 5/9 — 10 Therefore: 50°F 10°C 2. Be very careful wicn h3ndling a thermometer. A thermometer is made of glass and will break very easily. Don’t leave it lying loose in a bucket or on the beach. Keep it in a cardboard tube or some other protective covering until you are ready to use it.

3. When takiny th’ terp.’ ‘ure of the intertidalzone’s water, sub

merge the therx.nceL , just below the surface, and hold it there for at least two minu”.. To get accurate data try to read the theremometerwhile th. nercury bulb is still in the water. If you can’t read it while it’s in the water, read it very soon after taking it out of the water.

What Temperatures Dp You Ia1

Since water has a high specific heat and air has a low specific heat, the temperatureof both the intertidal zone water and the air above the water should be taken.

Recording The Data

Imedately after taking the temperature of the air, record it on the Temperature Data Chart. Then take the temperatureof the water and record it. On the Temperature Data Chart there is also a place to record location (town, street, etc.), date and time of day.

Try to take the temperature during the same tme of day each time you go to the beach. By doing this you will not have the influenceof the temperaturechanges of the morning and night air.

Temperature Data Graph

When you have finished with your last temperature recording for this activity, fill in the Temperature Data Graph. Put dots on the graph for both air temperature and water temperature. Take the informationfrom your Temperature Data Chart. Place the dots, for water temperature,one at a time, on the graph, corresponding to temperature and the date taken. When you have all the dots for water temperature, connect them with straight lines. After you have connected all the dots, follow the same procedure for air temperature.

The Temperature Data Graph should show the fluctuation of both the water temperatureand the air temperature,within the intertidalzone, over the period of time in which you conducted the activity.

GIVE YOURSELF A PAT ON THE BACK. YOU HAVE DONE A FINE JOB! Temperature Data Chart

My Name

Locat ion

DATE TIME WATER TEMP. AIR TEMP. (°c) (°C) 42

Name______Section______Date______

Field Study 1 Coastal Wetlands

Introduction Estuaries, sloughs, and coastal lagoons are terms that are often used interchangeably with some confusion. Perhaps the most appropriate single, all-encompassing term is coastal wetlands. This term refers to coastal regions that have protection from strong wave action, usually soft muddy bottoms, often a horizontal salinity gradient because of river water input, and a population of primarily marine organisms (as well as many types of water fowl and shore birds). Figure FS-1.1 illustrates some of the obvious physical features of a coastal wetland.

j :

‘Mouth’•L *s. Wcn in F,q. FS.I.2 OCEAN P1*vs P1—1.1 $s ,h7c1 fsss of * cosetsi stIsnd. Flushing actions of the tides mix and exchange the contained seawater. In temperate regions, permanently flowing rivers alter the salinity and provide detrital food and additional sediment. Further to the south, such rivers may flow seasonally or even less frequently. Evaporation from shallow lagoons often increases the salinity to levels above that of a nearby ocean. The reduced wave and current action characteristic of coastal wetlands creates a “trap” for organic detritus transported in suspension by tides and rivers. Additional organic 43 material is provided by attached marine algae and, more importantly, by plants of the adjacent marshland. Figure FS-1.2 is a generalized cross section of part of a coastal wetland indicated by the solid line from A to B in figure FS-1.1. The names and distribution of a few of the more common types of plants and animals are indicated. 44

Name •Section Date______

-J 1- ____ - ._.?—..__ — ______- ______T - - •r —E_’--- . - ______

— —,,—-———————————.—---.— ..‘&____.__ . -— - ______- —-

. _ ‘•

- —- - -

______I FigursFS—1.3 A Qinstitvi.w of uppr Niwport Bay,a coastalw.tland in California.

The extensive mud flats of the coastal wetlands (fig. FS-1.3) offer unique advantages for the study of mud-bottom organisms because they are exposed and accessible at low tide. The period of exposure at low tide, however, is a time of stress for many of the inhabitants. At low tide they are more prone to suffer problems caused by temperature Iiucuiations, desiccation, anci sometimes inctsed predation. 1i protection, many types of mud-dwelling animals withdraw into tubes or burrows beneath the mud surface. In some areas, the only visible evidence of the abundance of life in the mud are the tops of the numerous burrows, tubes, and siphon holes that dot the mud flats. Careful observation and a lot of digging are necessary for a successful study of the inhabitants of coastal wetlands. To obtain a good overall impression of the plants and animals of this habitat in the time available, it is usually more convenient to study a few selected stations rather than the entire length of the estuary, slough, or lagoon. At each station, the dominant forms of organisms will 45 be collected and identified. Several physical and chemical factors of the water and sediment will be measured at each station and correlated with the observed distribution of organisms. Station locations are important and should be selected to provide a wide variation of wave action, salinity, temperature, and other physical conditions. One station should be established near the mouth, and additional ones inland. The following outline of the general procedure should be followed at each station.

I. Collection of Organisms Carefully examine the surface of the sediment and collect some of the more common typed of plants and animals. Place them in a bucket of seawater and identify them, using local identification keys. Use a O.5m x O.5m quadrat for quantitative studies.

A. Primary Producers As in all ecosystems, the nutritional basis of all life begins with the photosynthetic plants. In the wetlands environment these plants may be divided into three categories. 1. Microscopic Benthic Algae. These plants, usually pennate diatoms, grow on every available substrate in channels and mud flats. They may be so numerous as to form a yellow-brown film over the moist sand and mud. These plants are a source of food for a variety of detritus feeders such as sea cucumbers, snails, clams, and worms. Scrape the surface layers of the substrate, examine the surface of the blades of submerged plants, and scrape the scum off the shells of mussels, oysters, of other hard-shelled animals to obtain samples of these benthic microscopic plants. A microscopic examination is necessary to identify these organisms. If it is not convenient to set up microscopes in the field, preserve the samples in 3% formalin for later observation in the laboratory. Attempt to identify these plants and list in table FS-1.l. 2. Macroscopic Marine Plants. A variety of macroscopic marine algae or sea grasses occurs in the wetlands. Since tidal waters flow into these regions, they occasionally bring with them coastal algae. It is, therefore, important to note if the plants found are attached (growing in place) or if they are detached members of the drift. Denote each type listed with an A if attached of a D if drift. Try to establish the source of the drift plants. At each station identify the plants and list in table FS-1.1. 46

Name____._Section__.__Date_..._

3. Terrestrial Plants. Coastal wetlands provide abundant nutrients for terrestrial plants that can overcome the high salinity waters. Many have been able to do so with varying degrees of success. In those wetlands with a constant freshwater source, plants associated with freshwater environments may be found usually some distance from the opening to the ocean. Other plants have managed to inhabit the more saline regions of the wetlands, even to the extent of their roots being bathed in seawater during periods of very high tides. Some of these plants have adapted to seawater by concentrating salt in parts of the plant that will eventually be sloughed off, while others secrete excessive salt onto their leaves to be washed off by the dew. In sand dunes the terrestrial plants live in a water-limited environment, receiving most of their water supply from dew. These plants have adapted to this xeric (lacking moisture) environment in much the same way that desert plants have. The leaves may be very reduced or thick and fleshy. Identify the terrestrial plants (if any) foud at each station and list them in table FS-1.1.

B. Epifauna (surface dwelling animals) Identify the epifauna that is found and record in table FS-1.2. Gently replace them where they were found and observe their actions for a bit. Can you observe any clue to their methods of securing protection or getting food? Describe.

C. Infauna (burrowing animals) Collect a sample of the sediment near the water line with a shovel or clam gun. Place the sample on a sorting screen (mesh size = 1mm) and gently wash the sediment through. Sort the animals left on the screen and place them in petri dishes or buckets. Identify them and record in 47

Date__..__ table FS-1.2. Repeat with a sediment sample from near the high-tide line. After identifyingthe animals, replace them near the collection site and observe their burrowing behavior. For a better view of an animal’s burrowing action, place one in a sediment-filled test tube slightly larger than the burrower. Describe.

D. Fish An abundance of fish are usually in evidence, but most are nearly impossible to identify without collecting them for close observation. A dip net will suffice, but a small (3-5 m long), fine-meshed seine is much more effective for collecting a representative sample of the fish population. Place any fish collected in a bucket of seawater and attempt to identify them. Record in FS-1.2. Identification is often very difficult because of a large proportion of juvenile fish. What is the proportion of juvenile fish to adult fish? How might the coloration patterns of these fish increase their chances of survival? 48

___Date____

E. Plankton Sample Use a fine-mesh (no. 20 with a mesh size of 0.07 mm) plankton net with a haul rope to collect plankton samples from the water at each station. If the plankton samples are to be studied later in the laboratory, preserve them in 3% formalin. Most of the phytoplankton can be separated from the zooplankton by straining the plankton sample through a medium-mesh net (no. 10, mesh size = 0.15 mm). Refer to Exercises 9 and 11 for identification guides and additional discussion of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Record your identification in Tables FS-1.1 and FS-1.2.

F. Marine Decomposers The importance of decomposers in coastal wetlands cannot be overemphasized. The high primary productivity in this area causes large quantities of detritus to accumulate on the bottom. Rapid bacterial decomposition releases various nutrients, including nitrates and phosphates, which are critical for the continued growth of photosynthetic plants. Many decomposers exist in the water column or on the surface of the substrate. But others live in oxygen-deficient environments deep in the mud. This oxygen deficient (anoxic) region is easily discernible by the black discoloration of the substrate caused by anaerobic decomposition. Often distinct iodine and/or sulphur odors will be detected when anoxic substrates are disturbed. A survey of all the bacterial decomposers is not feasible in a course such as this. Directions are given below for sampling and processing a small volume of mud to isolate a few types of marine bacteria. Mix a small amount (about 100 ml) of sediment with 5 g each of CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) and CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) and 10 g of shredded newsprint. These substances will provide an adequate supply of CO2, sulfur, and organic carbon. Place the enriched sediment in a 500 ml graduated cylinder or aby other suitable glass container that is at least 17 cm tall. Fill the remainder of the cylinder about two-thirds full of sediment. Make sure no air bubbles are trapped in the sample. (Sergius Winogradsky developed this technique to provide a rich medium for the growth of autotrophic bacteria. Hence, it is known as the Winogradsky column.) Add seawater until the cylinder is full and seal the cylinder with a cap of Parafilm, plastic wrap, or aluminum foil. Return it to the lab and place the cylinder in a dark spot for ten days to two weeks to 49 destroy all photosynthetic algae. After the cylinder is removed from the dark, illuminate it with fluorescent and infrared lighting for at least one month. Then refer to Exercise 7, page 68 for further directions.

G. Shore Birds These coastal wetlands provide an excellent habitat for a wide variety of bird life. Numerous shore birds nest or feed here. In addition, many migratory birds such as ducks, geese, terns, and even certain species of owls are seasonally abundant. Pelicans and gulls often use the deeper waters as feeding grounds. A number of excellent bird field books are available. Consult your instructor for the one most suitable for identifying the birds in your area. Record the more abundant ones in table FS-1.2.

II. Sediment Characteristics

A.pH Use pH paper or a portable pH meter to determine the pH of the water within the sediment. B. Grain Size Place about 250 ml of sediment in a 1000 ml graduated cylinder. Fill the cylinder with water and vigorously agitate the sediment-water mixture. Allow the sediment to settle for at least ten minutes. Use the graduated scale of the cylinder to compute the approximate percentage of the following sediment grain types: 1. Sand, material that settles in less than one minute. ____%. 2. Silt, material that settles in one to ten minutes. _____%. 3. Clay, material that does not settle in ten minutes. ____%. C. Percolation Rate Place a folded piece of coarse filter paper in a 10 cm plastic funnel. Fill the funnel approximately one-half full with sediment and pat it down. Fill the remainder of the funnel with water and measure the time required for the water to percolate through the sediment. Record in table FS-1.3.

III. Water Analysis At each station obtain water samples to measure the physical and chemical features listed in the profile of community abiotic factors, page 146 and record those values on a copy of that profile and in table FS 1.3. Name .Secton ______Date — TableFS—1.1. PrimaryProducers

StatIon#1 StatIon#2 Station#3 StatIon#4 Additional Ssl.ct.d Sites

Benthic diatoms

Macroscopic primary . producers —.

Terrestrial plants I

PPtyloptankton j Additionalnotes:

CoastalWetlands!155 Tabl• FS—1.2. AnimalLife

Station#1 StatIon#2 StatIon#3 Station#4 Additional Sil•c tid Sit..

Epilauns .

Infaunaat high tide line

Infaunaat low tide line

Fish .

Zoopl.nkton

Birds

Location: Dats: Time:

156 / Field Study1 Name Sectiont ______Date — Iabl• FS—1.3. Physicaland ChemicalConditionsof the WaterandSediment

Station#1 Station#2 Station#3 Station#4 Additj.i Ssi.ct.d Sitss Sits Description

Watermotio

Temperature

— Salinity

— Dissolved02 ,

% sand

C %silt . E

U) % clay

Color

Percolation

CoastalWetlands/ 157 50

Topic Seven Sand Beaches and Dunes

I. OVERVIEW Sand beaches are among the most dynamic ecosystems of marine environments. Subject to constant change, the plants and animals that survive there are well adapted to cope with such fluctuations. The changing elevation of the beach is determined by the waves and tides, which results in distinct zonation.

II. CONCEPTS Abiotic Fluctuations Zonation Dune Formation Barrier Island Formation Stabilization

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) To compare the abiotic factors of the subtidal, intertidal and supratidal zones. B) To explain the relationship between the abiotic and biotic factors of the three zones. C) To understand barrier beach formation. D) To understand the influence that humans have on the beach and dunes.

[V. KEY WORDS Dynamic Interstitial Barrier Island Static Adhesive Longshore Current Slope Subtidal Succession Supratidal Dune Pioneer Plant Trash Line Primary Dune Runner System Beach Wrack Swale Intertidal Zone Secondary Dune Capillary Action Maritime Forest 51

V. ACTIVITIES Barrier Beach Ecology - Edgar

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES

Film # Father Island - Mother Bay

Field Trip to Sailor’s Haven and Sunken Forest Contact: Sailor’s Haven 597-6186 Sunken Forest Ferry 589-8980 P.O. Box 626 Sayville, NY 11782 Preview Trip with a brief history of Fire Island. Pamphlets for self-guided tour of Sunken Forest are available at National Park Service headquarters, 120 Laurel Street, Patchogue, NY 11772

Beaches & Dunes BOCES# Title 100460 Beach River of Sand 101054 Portrait of a Coast 104858 Long Island Lighthouses 104250 Margins of the Land Fire Island- Long Island

Long Island extends east-northeast from New York City and forms the easternmost part of NewYork State. The surface of Long Island is formed by glacial and glacial-related sediments. Two terminal moraines which were deposited during the Pleistocene Epoch extend almost the whole length of the island. The southern, older and shorter of the two ridges Is the Ronkonkoma Moraine: the northern, younger, and longer ridge is the Harbor Hill Moraine. South of Long Island the continental shelf extends 80 to 100 miles to the edge of the continental slope. Since approximately 18,000 years ago, sea level has risen from -420 feet ( -128 m) to its present elevation. The sand-sized sediments on the surface of the continental shelf were subject to erosion as the shoreline migrated northward up the continental shelf toward its present location during each interglacial stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. The beaches of the South Shore of Long Island may be divided into two geomorphic provinces: and eastern headland section, and a western barrier island chain. The headland section extnds from Montauk Point southwestward for about 37 miles (60 km). The materials of this section consist of glacial and outwash deposits of the Ronkonkoma Moraine. In this area currents and waves have eroded a steep cliff below which there are narrow, cobbled beaches. The western, 92-mile long section( 148 km) consists of sandy barrier islands and spits. Fire Island is nart of this barrier chain. The Fire Island barrier beach forms the south shore of a broad lagoon known as the Great South Bay. The Fire island barrier beach extends 31 miles (50 km) from Moriches Inlet west-southwest to Fire Island Inlet on the east. Barrier islands are offshore ridges of sand or coarser sediment which are separated from the mainland by a lagoon. Barrier islands occur along approximately 9%of the total world coastline. They comprise almost the entire shore of Australia, 15% of the Mrican coast, 48% of the Western European Coast, and 50% of the Asian coast. In the United States the greater part of the Atlantic ocean and the Gulf of Mexicoshoreline consists of barrier Islands. The origin and an formation of barrier islands have been the subjects of much debate. The differing viewpoints basically have concerned the sources of sediment and the modes of growth-whether offshore and onshore sediment movement predominates or whether alongshore drift of sediments Is important. As It turns out, that both alongshore drift and the offshore sand deposits on the continental shelf govern the movement of barrier islands. Under this interpretation (from all of the existingconcepts) the main requirements for the formation of a barrier island along a coastline are, first , the presence of considerable quantities of unconsolidated sediment, and second, a gentle bottom gradient from the beach to deeper waters. The sea floor adjacent to the beaches is the primary source of sediment from which the bulk of a barrier island is derived, but alongshore movement of sediment Is centrally important in the dynamics of sediments that move along the shore of the barrier beach.

sOUNO -p

MO(TiUK POINT

oc,

0 •s.. JACK McCORMICKS AISOCIATtI, INC.

NEWYCR. LOCATI op FI ISLAND AND PRINCIPAL GLACIAL c€POSITS, LaIG ISLN4D, Sci-E1ATIC Pt..ANVIEWOF SPIT FO4ATION ALONGA COASTLINE. LONGSHDREDRIFT IS FROMLEFT TO RIGHT, AND DIRECTIONOF WAVESIS INDICATED BY AOWS. NOTE THAT A CUSP MAYFD4 WERE WAVES Ai€ REFRACTEDAROL.NDAN OFFSH JECT. 1— SMALL — Y VAVE CRESTS —

SURF

•BEACHCREST A

CREST B

Sa-EMATIc PLAN VIEWS OF A BEACHSi-CWING MOVEMENTOF WAVES, SWASH, Al’C BACKWASH. — Beach ‘ ______Neorshorezone

Dunes Zone of Plunge Breaker occas,onol\ bar wavespillover

Zone swosh and zone zone backwash Zoneoi A waves

Beach •1— •Neorshore zone Zoneof Beachcrest Dunes occasional wovespiuover Step

FIGt.RE 3. PRoFILES PERPBOICU..AR TO TE SHOREOF A BARRIER ISLAND WHICH SHOWTIE DYNAMIC ZDPES OF BEAC)€S. tN PROFILE A, 11-c Fw.. SEQI..Et4CEOF ZO(€S OF DEPOSIT I ON IS I NDI CATED ALONGA GENTLESLOPE. IN PROFILE B THERE IS A STEPPED—BEACH SEQIENCE ALONGA STEEP SL.EE. IN THIS CASE WAVESCOI€ ALI’VST TO TI-E WATER’S EDGEBEFORETI-EY BREAK OVERA PROMIENT STEP. --- 50UN0 —,

MO$ITAUK POINT

ANNUAL

6 .I.. J JACK McCORMCK A$SOCIATES,(HC.

0 5 10 15 I....I______i______I JUNE PERCENT JULY I AUGUST DECEMBER JANUARY 5 FEBRUARY

AI14WL, WINTER. AND StJ4bER wIND ROSES FOR T1-€ LONG ISLAND IGICN 7 NoFast Fix for Riptide

Twosandbarsextend ofthewaterfrom fromtheshorelinesea breakingwavestendsto ward.Ifa swimmerfalls I gatherinthetroughand orstepsoffa sandbar, pushthroughthesurf, hefallsdirectlyinto U thenptide.

HowaptIs Bsgna 1. Wsess — on a af Lmdsr b si i OI*t OGITI gmidsortiev, _____ba*igb tgie encase oiL tie cica esy ,n s.wd. blow euwa’d. Frantiai on isie I. coi*a,a low wst.r d tie ot d a rcte. OtCE: nss Bs S*aePa*; aid Beutius

Newstay 31I yardsandTheirTalesofRescue Bob Brendon Michael Ortof McLoughIln Trunkes “When I lookedout “About 30 people “Thereare a lot of in the water, all I saw juat slipped off into people who have no was four bands the deep section,” he respect for the Ortof said, describing recalled, dasaibing a ocean,” said Trunkea, an incident that oc mass rescue Saturday as he described an in curredSunday.“There in which dozen. of ridentin whichhe res was alreadysome oth people were swept cuedthree swtmmers er lifeguards helping into the rfptid.”Ev all of whom were people.”Two men and erybodyjust want *it drunk. “People come a woman were drown and it clearedthe [life out herewhoare com ing. Ortof, a 12-year guardi atanda. I war pletely fearless veteran, grabbed the out with my surf and they think this is neateSt man and board:’ a big swimming pool. brought him to an The 29-year-old “I swam out pnd — other lifeguard who New York City fire grabbed one of them. was on a surfboard.“I just gi-sbbeda hand and I fighterandpart-timelifeguardfor the put 1.2years Mewas h-ging on my neck.Another guy I had to tim right onto the surfboard. We put both swamout amongdozensofpeopleflounderingin the holdup becausehe was too fatigued,and the third Ontothe surfboard.The woman war bye- riptide, many ofthem p’.ni’king. Re began grabbing one was on the buoy.” I o us, a rescue isa rescue.Wehave it pret peopleeaduUing them to his surfboard. “I bad 15 Battlingroughsurf Trunkes,29, a Boelynnative t t. .Ji. Tu the victim, there’s a people hanging onto the surfboard,he said. “I told living in Manhattan,held up all three men until point where they think theyre not going to make than all to face shore and start kicking like a giant her lifeguards reached him. it. She was obviouslybeyond that point.” kick board.” Everyone made it to shore safely. The rescue was complicatedbecause the victims I The woman, an ut inth’, was treated by emer “After they got onto the surfboard, everyone didn’t aak .ngli.h, so Th.inkse couldn’t P1a gency medical th4ni,’i.n. and flown by helicopter thought it was a bigjoke, laughing and giling,” he what he was doing. “Youtry to give inctions to to Nassau CountyMedicalCanter in East Meadow. said. “But they knew if I wasn’tthere they’d have people and they don’t understand. Basically,you been in big trouble.” have to grab them. They’re trying to grab you.” Name

Barrier Beach Ecology

1. Locate: North, Atlantic Ocean, Long Island Sound, Great South Bay, Fire Island, Moriches Bay, Shinnecok Bay, Montauk Point, Peconic Bay, Bayport

2. Describe the general apprearance of the beach. Can you determine which tidal cycle exists at this time?

3. Identify and mark the major zones of the beach.(station 1 is closest to the water. Make sure you include the low, high and intertidal zones, the supratidal zone, the trash marks and the primary dune. Measure and record the distance to each zone starting from the low tide. Sketch the beach as it appears to you.

4. WorkIng along your specific transect line, collect anything that is alive, was once alive or is man made. Make sure you record where you collected it on the data sheet. 5. Examine a hand full of dry sand. Lookwith your hand lens and identify as many different colors as you can. Now, gently pull a magnet through the sand. What happens? What are the major mineral components of beach sand?

6. At each station, collect a sand sample using a 400 ml beaker (CAREFUL!) Place your sample in a plastic baggie. Seal and label the station number and your name on the bag. This information will be analyzed back at school. 7. What is salinity? Take a salinity sample from the Athntic Ocean. This sample will later be compared to the salinity of the Great South Bay. 8. Examine the plants on and adjacent to the dune ( Carefully from the boardwalk only. It is illegal to step on the dunes!!!) Try to Identify the plants. How are they adapted to living in this environment? List the plants on the field sheets at the appropriate station.

9. Temperatures vary greatly on a barrier beach. Using your thermometers, measure and record the following temperatures:

WaterTemperature Aii’I’emperature

SandTemperature surface ______subsurface

SandTemperature primary dune ______swale

AirTemperature MarItimeforest

Explain how temperatures affect plants and animals of the barrier beach NAMEDATLOCATION

Field Data Sheets Air Temperature Winds peed Cloud Cover Wind Direction

STATION

DESCRIPTION OF AREA

TEMPERATURE

FLORA PRESENT

FAUNA PRESENT COMMENTS (

THE SAND DUNE THE SMALL DESERT

FOR MAN, WHOCAN WALKMANYMILES in one day or drive hundreds, there are no deserts onLong Island. To an ant or a toad or a plant a desert can be measured in square yards or feet. On Long Island many beaches, and especially sand dunes behind the beaches, are miniature deserts. While hundreds of thousands of large human animals sun them selves and play along the edge of the cool water they are surrounded on three sides by a world in which life is put to a severe test, a world which few living things have the power to survive.

The most familiar kind of sand dunes are those which rise along the ocean beaches of Fire Island or Jones Beach, beyond the reach of normal high tides. Unlike most features of a landscape, dunes move. In Southern Dela ware where extensive studies were made on the Henlopen Dunes, scien tists found some hills moving at the rate of sixty feet a year, burying buildings and trees as they went.

Plants can slow the movement of a dune and speed its growth. Marram grass, sand plum and beach heather are plants that grow readily on dunes. Once they take root they act as a windbreak, causing the wind to lose speed and drop the cargo of sand it has picked up while moving across the open beach. As the sand begins to mount, the plants must grow in order not to be smothered. Their stems grow unusually tall. As long as the dune grows or remains steady the plant is supported. If the sand blows away, the tall slim stem may not be able to support the leaves which have grown at the top. 3

It is common knowledge that the growth of plants is greatly influenced by the needs for food, water, air and light. In a crowded forest sunlight is precious, and trees develop leaves and branch systems in order to compete. In the dune water is precious and dune plants therefore are often larger beneath the sand than above. Very few grow more than two or three feet into the air, but their roots may reach downward more than ten or fifteen feet in order to find water. These plants could not survive if they competed with each other for moisture, so they do not crowd together. As a result there is very little shade on the dune. In summer the sun bears down from above and is also reflected and radiated upward from the light colored granules of sand. The intense heat could easily dry out and kill many ordinary plants, but beach plants have developed special protection against it. Folded leaves, waxy coverings, and coatings of matted fibers are only a few of the devices which protect these plants from the heat.

ANIMALS AS WELL AS PLANTS must adapt to the desert-like environ ment of the dune. The sand on the surface sometimes reaches a tempera ture of 120 degrees fahrenheit. This makes the dune an impossible place for most animals with moist skins such as earthworms and frogs. The mice, rabbits and toads of the dune generally do not venture out of their burrows while the sun is bright. Insects are by far the most numerous animals on the surface, yet only a few are easily seen during the day. Those that do brave the heat have special means of protecting themselves. The small wasp called the velvet ant is covered with thick hair. Other insects have learned to take advantage of the cooler layer of air that begins only a fraction of an inch from the surface. The grasshopper raises himself on his long sturdy legs or flies above the sand for a second. Some beetles rise above the greatest heat by climbing the stems of plants. Other insects simply spond most of their lives below the surface preying on small animals including microscopic one-celled protozoans. Round- worms can spend long periods almost lifeless, encased in hard eggs or cysts, breaking out in millions when even a light rain falls.

Ofcourse the simplest way to avoid the intense heat on the surface of the dune is not to come out during the day. Human beings swarming the beach es and walking the dunes during the day notice very little life. As in larger deserts the periods of greatest activity on the dune are at twilight and during the night. Mice, rabbits, spiders, snakes and a variety of in sects generally prefer to hunt and forage for food after the sun has dis appeared over the horizon and the sand has cooled somewhat. A careful inspection of a sand dune in early morning before the wind has begun to work will reveal many signs of the intense pace of life during the night. 4 While animals and plants live a desert life neat the top of the dune, deep below near its base there is water. Beneath a dune the water table bulges, and in the wet sand live roundworms, one-celled swimming protozoa and numerous bacteria. Here in the dark cool water among the deeper plant roots is a world of life that could never be guessed at by looking at the dune from the outside. The scientist investigates this world by sending metal tubes down into the dune and bringing back inside them samples of sand from different levels. The number of living things his tubes bring Ic up prove that it is indeed very much easier to live far below the dune than near the surface.

CROSSSECTION OF A DUNE Unfortunately this life in the deep moist sand is of very little value in feeding other residents of the dune. In most wild areas hunting animals prey on plant-eating animals and life is a pyramid with large numbers of plants at the bottom. This is true of our woods, our fields, our ponds and our bodies of salt water. In the sand dune the base of the pyramid is very Short Eoreâ Owl narrow. The structure of life would resemble a spire rather than a pyramid. The small animals and plants in the sand water beneath the dune are too Pigeon Hawk far down for the larger animals to reach, and plant life above the dune is sparse. The result is that life on the dune is mainly a matter of eat and be eaten.

Another motto of the dune world might be adapt or perish. Such a harsh world seems unlikely underneath our feet as we enjoy the sun and salt air of the beach and listen to what some people call the “eternal rhythm of the ocean”. Nevertheless it is there, and in it nature is constantly testing what is perhaps the most important quality of life the ability Boyberry to change.

SOMELONGISLANDBEACHPLANTS

MARRAMGRASS,BEACHGRASSAmmophilohceviliguIota

Usually the most common beach plant found on our sand dunes -- dark green and wiry, 2 to 4 feet high.

SEABEACHGOLDENRODSolidagos•mp.rvir.ns

This plant, with thick, smooth lance-shaped leaves, is nearly always found growing among the tufts of Marram Grass, a little farther back from the water behind where the Marram starts. It has coarse yellow flowers in the 3

SEA.ROCJ(ETCakileedentub

The thick, fleshy leaves of this plant are seen in spring and early summer in little sprigs about 5 inches high. In late summer and fall, inconspicuous pale lavender flowers bloom and fleshy, two-jointed fruits appear. The plant is then about 2 feet high, and commonly loses its lower leaves.

SEASIDESPURGEEuphorhiapolygonifolia

Back on the dunes, often in lower spots, this small, inconspicuous plant spreads close along the ground. It has tiny narrow oblong opposite leaves, a deep taproot and milky juice.

BEACHPEA Lathyrusmaritimus

On well established dunes this relative of the Sweet Pea is often found trailing among the grass by tendrils at the end of each leaf. It has attractive lavencr-blue flowers in late summer, and pods of peas in the fall.

BEACHWORMWOODArtemisiaSteI!.riana I This European plant escaped from old fashioned gardens in this country, and established itself on our beaches. It has a whitish hairy appearance, lobed leaves, and in late summer, small yellowish.white flowers.

SEABEACHSAHDWORTArenariap.ploid.s

If the transition from beach to fairly rich organic soil is rather abrupt, one is apt to find the thick prickly often- crowded leaves of the Sandwort. The older stems often lie along the ground with their old yellow leaves, while the young forking green shoots grow erect.

BAYBERRYMyricap.nsylvanica

The glossy green blunt-toothed leaves and tiny white berries of this woody shrub are familiar to nearly every. one. Our ancestors boiled the aromatic wax from this plant to make bayberry candles. BEACHPINWEEDL.echeamaritime

This 6 to 15 inch plant is usually found on the landward side of older established dunes. It has basal shoots bearing oval white-hairy leaves about 1/3 inch long. The upper leaves of the flower cluster are often narrower and longer. The flowers and fruit are reddish-brown, spherical, and about 1/16 inch diameteiand borne in dense clusters often 6 to 8 inches wide.

FALSEHEATHER Hudsoniatomentosa

This plant bears tiny yellow flowers in May, but for the rest of the year it appears as a dark green carpet of miniature cedar (Juniper) trees. The leaves are scale-shaped and whitish-hairy. The plants are 4 to 8 inches high, woody at the base and much branched.

BEARBERRYArctostaphylosLive.ursi

Grows in large patches low to the ground on old established dunes. It has club-shaped leaves ‘/ inch long, wide as a pencil. In Spring it bears tiny pink bell-shaped flowers, and in Fall fruit like little red cranberries. The leathery leaves are evergreen.

JOINTWEEDPolygon.lIaarticulate

This plant may be recognized by the jointed appearance of the narrow stem. In the late Summer and Fall most of the inch long, needle-shaped leaves fall off, and the branches are covered with hundreds of tiny lavender blossoms.

WINGEDPIGWEEDCyclo!omaatriplicilolium

This plant is light green and very bushily branched. It is fleshy. The leaves are 1 to 2 inches long with large wave-shaped teeth. The flowers U. are green and inconspicuous, with a little collar, or wing, around the fruit. ft

PINE Pinus riqida and Pinus thunbergii

Two pines are found on our dunes. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida), more common, has 3 needles to a bunch. The Japanese Black Pine (Pinus thunbergii), with 2 needles to a bunch, is cultivated by the L.I. State Park Commission. 7

POISONIVYandVIRGINIACREEPERRhusradicansandPs.d.ra quinqu.folia

These two vines are found in well established dunes. Poison Ivy has 3 leaflets per leaf. Virginia creeper has 5. In the fall Poison Ivy has white berries and Virginia Creeper has dark blue ones. The foliage of both plants usually turns brilliant red and yellow in early Fall. Vir9inio Cr..p.r

THE FOLLOWINGPLANTSARE COMMONIN SOMEAREAS

BEACHPLUM Prunusmaritima

The fruit used in the famous Beach Plum jam. Shrub is up to 7 feet high, with oval finely-toothed leaves, clusters of showy white flowers in. spring, and to 1 inch dark purple fruit in fall.

GOLDENASTER Chrysopsis falcata

A crown of golden heads about 1/3 inch wide blooms in Midsummer. Leaves inch wide and 1 to 4 inches long are stiff and linear. The plant sometimes loses its woolly hair as the season passes.

SALTWORTSalso!aKoIi

A dull green fleshy-leaved annual 1 to 2 feet high. Stems are rather con spicuously veined. Leaves are swollen at the base and taper into a stout prickle.1/8 inch in diameter, round, and 1/3 to 1.inch long. Flowers and fruit are green and inconspicuous.

CACTUSOpuntiahumifusa

Rare today, but remembered by Old Timers as common on our beaches. Oval, fleshy flat stems with leaves modified into bundles of tiny prickles. Yellow flowers in June or July are followed by edible fruit in summer.

SEASIDEKNOTWEEDPolyqonum glaucum

It spreads along the sand, and has a jointed appearance like its first cousin the Jointweed. The stems and leaves of this plant are covered with whitish blooms 1/8 inch wide, one to three blooms to a joint. Fruit is about 1/8 inch wide. 4

SEABLITE .Suaedamaritima Sucedaunions

These fleshy plants are cousins to the Saitwort and Pigweed. The first is light green with a whitish bloom, and grows to a foot high. The second is dark green without a whitish bloom, and grows 1 to 3 feet high, with almost round linear leaves.

SEAPURSLANE Sesuviummaritimum

More common on Eastern Long Island beaches. It has fleshy stems, opposite club-shaped leaves 1/3 to 1 inch long, and in the late Summer and Fall mostly solitary flowers in the angles of the leaves.

WORMWOOD Artemisiaspecies

Thi 2 to 6 foot plant bears leaves cut into many narrow segments, giving them a somewhat feathery appearance. The basal leaves are 3 to 6 inches long. The flower heads are in clusters up to 100, mostly nodding, 1/8 inch across, greenish or yellowish white.

SOMEPLANTSTOLERANTOF BEACHES, ORSPREADFROMADJACENTZONES

MARSHPLANTS

Giant Reed (Phragmites communis), Orache (Atriplex patula v. hastata) Fireweed (Erechtites hieracifolia), Beach Clotbur (Xanthium echinatum)

MAINLANDWEEDS

Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), Wild Lettuces (Lactuca sps.), Fleabanes (Erigeron canadensis & E. pusillus), Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), Plantain (Plantago major & P. major v. scopulorum), Catbrier (Smilax glauca) and WoodSorrel (RumexAcetosella)

CULTIVATEDPLANTS

Rose (Rosa rugosa) and Russian Olive (Elaeagnus species) are common at Town and StatePark Beaches. Field ideSheetfor EasternShoreMarine vironments TheSandyShoreAndDunes

‘I

Listingof AnImalsandPlants

Skate (Raa) 18. BeachGrass(Ammophila) 2. Gooseneck Barnacles(Lepas)s 19. DustyMiller(Artemss,astelleriana) 3. CalicoCrab(Ovaispes) 20. tracks01theSanderhng 4 SalverssdesMinnow(Men,dsa) 21 SeaRocket(CaksIe) 5. BlueCrab(Callènectes)s 22. DuneWollspider(Lycosa) 6 SurfClam(Spssula) 23. Salt-sprayRose(Rosa) . Sanddollar(Ectunwachnus)n 24. PoisonIvy(Rhus) 8 GreaterVellowloys(Totanus) 25. BeachClotbur(Xanthsum) 9. Tern(Sterna) 26. TallWormwood(An’emsssacaudata) 10. ArkShell(Mada,a)s 27. SeasideGoldenrod(Solsdago) i. 11. Sandhopper(Tchestsa) 28. MoleCrab(Emerita)g 12. SkateEggCase(Raja) 29 BeachHeath(Hudsoiëa) 13. GemClams(Gamma) 30. EarthStag(Gaasfer) 14. RingneckPlOver(Chatadflus) 31. Bayberry(Myrsca) 15. Sanderkng(Crocet?Wa) 32. BeachPlum(Prunus) 16. HerringGull(Lays) 33. tracksoftheWhile-IgotedMouse(Peror.iyscus) 17. BeachPea(Lalhyrus) All rIghtsofcopystr.ctlyreserved© scriptiOnoftheSandyShoreandDi’ EnvironmentbyBarbaraS.Waters A sandybeachatfirstglancemayseemtobe Alongthetidelinemanyshellsandotherdried hardtoseeagainstsand.TheyoungSandedN barrenofanimallife.TheHsrrlngGullsstand formersealifegiveyouduestoanimalsand arepicturesofprotectivecoloration.Whenpotential quietlyatthewatersedgeuntilsomeonewalks plantslivingin thesandybottom,belowthelow dangerapproachestheyfreezeinplaceand nearby.Termsswoopbackandforthandsuddenly tideline.Mostoftheseanimalsarebunowersto seemtovanishfromsight. plungedowntocatcha gleamingSliverside keepfrombeingcarriedawaybywavesand Mlflnøw.Sandpipers.largeandsmall,runacross currents.YoumightfindSanddolt.rs,Ark Shells, Thecreatorandguardianofoursandybeaches thewetsand,stoppingtoprobewiththeirlong SurfClams,CalIcoandBlusCrabs,SkateEgg anddunesistheBeachGrass.Thisisaperennial. bills.atwaysstayingjustaheadof thewaves. CasesandthehundredsofGsmClamswhich tough,nativegrassthatcanwithstandsome serveasfoodforshorebirds.99°J,oftheempty flooding,saltspray,drought,strongwindsand Theremaininganimalsadaptedtotheseopen crabshellsarecasts,notdeadcrabs.Thesecan building(accrefing)sand.Itisthefirstplantto beachconditionsarehardertofind.Someare bedetectedastheyareverylightandhaveno beseengrowingona formingsanddune.Bits sand-colored,blendingbeautifullywiththeir offensiveodor. ofbrokenrhizomefromthebeachgrassroot background;manydigintothesand;stillothers systemwillstartgrowingwithlittlemoisture. aresosmallthattheycanliveinbetweensand Highabovethetideline.inthedunearea,livean Thisiswhybeachgrassgrowsbacksoquickly grains.Theseanimalsandplantsliveinzones amazingnumberofplantsandanimals,adapted aftera stormhastornittop orburiedit betweenthewater’sedgeandthehighdunes. tosurvivingwhatamountstoadesertenvironment. completely.Whena healthystandofgrass Thesandysoildoesnotholdrainwaterforlong develops,thestemsbreaktheforceofwinds Tofindanimallifeintheintertidalzone(between andtheairisoftenfullofsaltspray,drawingOut andblowingsand.Grainsofsandcometorestat lowandhightide)requirescarefulobservation. thefreshwateralreadyinplants.Adaptingto thebaseofthestemandagoodstandofgrass TheelusiveMoteCrabisanexampleofananimal thislackofwatermeansfindingwaystoprevent canaccumulateupto fourfeetofsandin a years difficulttofind.Standingwithbarefeelwhere waterloss.Micecanconserveliquidbyurinating time.Thisnaturalsystemisbetterthanartificial waveslapbackandforth, mayfeelthesand onlya fewdropseachday.PlantssuchasSea methodsfordunebuildingandrebuilding.Ifyou you find withthe of beneathyourfeetmove.Lookdownandyouwill RocketandSandwoilhavethick,waxyleaves. anerodedbank rootsystem seea crowdofsmall,ovalcreatureswhich muchlikedesertcacti.Fleshyleavescanstore thegrassexposed,youwillseeclearlythatthe Scurrydowntheslopeofthebeachwiththe water.DustyMillerhasturry.leatheryleaves; clumpsofgrassareconnectedtoeachotherby recedingwater,aridthendisappear.Watchcarefully BeachHeathleavesarecloselypackedtoits undergroundhorizontalstems,therhizomes. toseethetwofeatheryantennaewaving stemwhichpreventswaterloss;theBeachPlum Thesehorizontalrhizomeshaveenlargements abovethesand.Witha quick ofa Strainer. hasa longtaproot(up1030feet)which fromWhich growtoughwiryrootsthatspreadout scoop the isburied youmaycatchthesmallMoteCrabwithitsshiny. descendsintothewatertable;andthemost intothesand.As grass andgrows smooth,gray-pink,body.Itwilltrytosnuggle importantplantonthedunes.BeachGrass,has up,decayingpartsofthegrasscreatehumusso other takeholdand intoyourhand(ifis “digging”).Placethecrabin shallowrootsthatspreadoutovera great beachplantscan grow.You asmallcishandwatchitdigbackwardintothesand. surfacearea.Theleafbladeofthebeachgrass andothersinyourgroupcanhelpdunesand TheMol. Crabcatchesplanktoninitssievetike rollsshutinsunlightandopensflatduringfogor beachesbynotwalkingonthegrasswithshoesand antennaeasthewavesmovebackandforth. rain.Plantsadaptedtolivingindryconditionsare bynotslidingdownorclimbingupa duneface. calledXerophytes. Whereverbeachgrassisdestroyed,thedune beginstodisintegrateandblowaway. Furtherupthebeach,lustabovethehightide Anothernecessaryadaptationwhichlivingthings tinelookforpencilsize,ovalholes.Usuallytheholes makeistothetremendousheat,whichcanreach areempty,butacarefulsearch,severalinches 120°F(48°C).Duringthehotdaylighthoursmany down,aroundthemmayturnupseveral animalsdig intothesand.Ifyoudo thesameyou The Field Guidea were dev’eioped i 197* from rearth qtoemorcdby Sand-coloredSandhopp.rs(sometimescalled canfeetthatitismanydegreescoolerlustunder the University of M.u.chu.cn. Cooperative Eatcomoa Syiacm. beachfleas). from/2 to 1W thesurface.Noanimal than few &rtUenbIC County Lotenatra, Office sad thaded by theCip Cod Sea Theyare long.They canstaymore a Camps in Brswutcr. Mn jointly with Us. Musscbuaeita Marine mightplaypossumor’beginhoppingintothe secondsonthehotsand.Leavesofmanyplants Educators. Teachers ate authorized to copy these malennis in air.Withina fewminutestheSandhopperwill drooporcurlwhichreducesevaporation.Sand clasatoom qusna.tieatoeeducational puspeana. Fsu,digr mçpcna was begindigging,headfirst,intothesandtoescape duneinsects,suchasRobberFlies,TigerBeetles provided by the U.S. Dept. o(Coenmeece. Nstionai Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Wood Hole Oeeano1ripbic Ioningicm. heatandlight.Acarefulinspectionwillshowyou andWasps,haveadense’fur”coveringtheir Sca Grant No. NA9OAAD.SO4*O. Project No. LIE-I-PD thatthiscreatureis relatedtoshrimp.Hisa bodieswhichprovidesinsulationbycreating transitionalanimal,likethemarshsnailand airspaces. pertwinkle.andspendsallofitslifeinmoisture, butoutofthewater.Liftupthedampseaweedand Becausethereislittlenaturalcoverforanimals grasswasheduponthebeachtofindSsawssd tohidefrompredators,coloradaptationis Hoppers,brown,shrimplikeanimalsandmany necessary.Examplesarethecommonlarge assortedinsectsfeedingonthedecayingmatter DuneGrasshopperandWolfSpIder.Both while stayingcoolandhidden. oftheseanimalshavedollgrayspeckledbodes. 52

Topic Eight The Rocky Intertidal Zone

I. OVERVIEW Another dynamic ecosystem is the Rocky Intertidal Zone. Here, organisms must compete for space on their substratum and survive constant changes in temperature, salinity and moisture. Zonation of this community is dependent on the tides.

II. CONCEPTS Zonation Community Stability Symbiosis Biological Succession Trophic Levels

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the reasings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand the interrelationship between the biotic and abiotic factors of the rocky intertidal zone. B) Relate the adaptations of representative organisms to their survival strategies. C) Examine representative organisms and plants for similarities and differences and symbiotic relationships.

IV. KEYWORDS Substratum Byssal Threads Scavengers Macroorganisms Veliger Producers Horizontal Grazers Bands Filter Feeders Community Stability Competition Dessication Borers Larvae Tide Pool Nauplius Biological Succession 53

V. ACTIVITIES Typical Rocky Shore Zonation Pattern Lab Periwinkle Lab Intertidal Pool Labs Upper Pool Lower Pool Biological Succession Lab

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES -

Boces # Title 101054 Portrait of a Coast 104858 Long Island Lighthouses

Field Trip to North Shore of Long Island ZONATIONOF A ROCKYCOAST

by Diliner

A Learning Experience for Coastaland Oceanic Awareness Studies

Produced by

MARINEENVIRoN1lE’r CUPRICULUMSTUDY MARINEADVISOR’!SERVICE UNIVERSITYOF DELAWARE

and

POPULATION—DIRO!NT CURRICULUMSTUDY LLECE OF UCATION UNIVERSITYOP DELAWARE

as part of a

PLAN FOR E IRONTAL EDUCATION INTRODUCTION

Zonation refers to the “organizationof a habitat into sore or less parallel bands of distinctiveplant and ani.al associationsas a result of variations in enviro=enta2. conditions” (Amos, p. 226). Most people who have visited a rocky coast at low tide have probably noticed that the exposedrocks seem to display different bands of color. A closer observation viii. reveal that each color band consists of a single species or several species which predominate and give the ban its distinctivecoloration. For example, a black band gets its color from blue—grc algae, a white band is due to barnacles, and green or brown bands take on the color of green or brown algae. Below the water line, one would find still a different species composition.

The enviroental factor chiefly responsible for defining the upper edge of a zone is the tidal cycle. As the tide ebbs, organisms are left exposed on the rocks. The organisms found highest on the rocks are those which can withstand the greatest length of exposure to drying conditions. Waves that splash on the rocks enable organisms to occupy a higher zone titan otherwise would be possible. The lo. edge of a zone is usually definedby the intensecompetitionbetweenorganisms for apace.

In this activity, zon.ation will be studied from an ecological standpoint, primarily during the field research activity. You should be aware of which epecif I organisms are found in each zone, as well as, why they are occupying those particu.l zones. It is necessary that you i..ve some background in the classification of marl organisms. OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this learning activity you should be able to: 1 Define zonaUon

2. List the major zones on a rocky coast 3. Name and identify conspicuous species which occupy each major zone on a

rocky coast.

4. Discuss the evolutionary adaptationsof key species for survival in their

particular zones.

5. Discuss the dcological relationshipsthat exist among key species on a

rocky coast.

6. Prepare a research paper on field studies conducted on a rocky coast on the

topic of zonation.

EQUIPT NECESSA FOR EACR GROUP OF 4—5 STUDE4TS

One Each:

— 2 meter nylon line (venetianblind cord) — 4 meter line and weight (optional) — line level — meter stick — 10 x 10 cm quadrat (4 popsicle sticks glued tip to tip to form a square) — notebook — forceps — scraper — tide table for selected site

Several:

— identification guide books — small plastic bags that seal closed — baby food jars — paper labels to drop into jars and bags — pencils

APPROPRIATEAtRE

Sneakers are essential because the rocks can be very slippery. Long pants are advised to avoid cuts and scrapes. REARCH ACiLViT!

Once a particular man—madegroin or jetty is selected, your collection station needs to be identified. At your station, imagine a vertical coltn on the rocks, or

you may use a heavy cord anchored to a rock above the uppermost zone of life and which

extends several feet into the water. A rock or other heavy object attached to the

lover end of the cord will hold it taut and will prevent it from being affected by —2— wave action. The cord is used merely to define your study site. An area approx

imately 3 feet on either Bide of the cord ehould be carefully examined for organi.. i to determine that your site is indeed a representativesample.

A base line for the measurient of the various species’ locations in the vertical colzn may be established at the top of the blaek zone which is found high on the rocks. Working down from the black zone, at 20cm intervals (vertical distanc you will determine where a particular species first appears and then disappears.

COLLECTING AND EVALUATINGDATA

1. Place the 10 x 10 cm quadrat flat on the rock at the top of the black zone.

Approximate and record in your notebook the percent of this “square #1” covered with the blue—green alga. Scrape some of the alga off the rocks to examine and identify under the compound microscope when you return to the laboratory. Place a pencil— written label, “square 01”, into the jar with the alga and some seawater.

2. To measure a 20cm vertical drop to the center of the next lower square (s diagram):

—hold one end of the 2 meter nylon line, touching the rock in the center

of the square;

—use the line level to level this line;

—move the “20cm” mark of the meter stick along the line until the “0cm”

mark touches the rock;

—This point is the center of the next lower square, 20cm lower than the

square above.

CEER OF NEXTLOWER 3. Identifythe organismsfoundin thissquare. Now reco.dthe perccentof coveror the actualnumberof differentalgaeor animalspresentin thissquare, to determineif this is the top,center,or bottomof a particularzone.

4. Repeatprocedures2 and 3 untilyou reachthe bottomof the rocks,or as far as practical(basedon the tides).

It is best to takemeasurementswhen the tide is at or near its lowestlevel so that most of the organisms will be exposed. When the water leve]. drops to its mscimt for the tidal cycle, record its vertical distance from the center of square

#1, the black zone.baseline. In organizing field data into chart form for inter— pretation, it is necessary to re—establish the base line with respect to the median low tide or “0” tide. If the tide at the time of the measurenents is a plus tide, add the appropriate distance to the initial measurents.

If it is a minus tide,subtractthe appropriatedistance SQUARE#1 from the initialmeasurements.For example,if low tide is measuredat 195cmbelow the black zonebase lineand a tide chartshowslow tideon thatday as —0.2meters, then a 20cm should be subtracted from the measured 195cm U a’ to obtain an “0” tide level of 175cm. This “0” tide level then becomes the new base line. Thus, the middle of squarei?1 in the black zone is plotted as being 175 cm — — — — — — —MEDIANLOW above “0” tide.

Since there is a great diversity of both macroscopic and microscopic flora and fauna living attached to the rocks, it is reeocended that be;inr.ing students confine their observations oniy to conspicuous macroscopic organisms. In many cases it will be necessary for students to take samples of organisms back to a laboratory for identification. Collecting jars and lockingbaggiesthat can be labeled, and in— etrients such as scrapers and forceps should be taken into the field. Identification guides and compound and dissectingicroscopea viii.be needed in the laboratory.

It is recoended that you sake meaeuremts on both the protected and un protected sides of a groin or jetty. Data frog the different sides should vary.

Can you hypothesize explanationsfor the variation? What are the possible variables? Suggest experiments to investigateeach variable.

Your written report should include the following:

1. Purpose of the investigation 2. Procedures 3. Graphs and charts representingthe data (see following pages) 4. Interpretationof data and conclusions 5. Suggestions for additional,research projects 6. Bibliography ieldGui SheetForSoUtheasternNewEngi’ MarineEnvironments N.-.. C... C. I.. I c_.__ Ufl.y 1 ocky andManMade Shores (I C._.p Sa .

Ustings of AnimalsandPlants n - northside S - southside I Tautog(Tautogo) 13. EasternSlarlish(Astenas) 25. BrownKelp(Laminana) 2 Cunner(Gadus) 14. SeaSquirts(Molgula) 26. DaisyBrittle-Star(Ophkpholis)n 3 PinkCoralSeaweed(Coraliina)n 15. NorthernSeaAnemone(Metridium) 27 Chiton(Chaetopleura) 4. AtlanticDogwinkle(Nucefla)n 16. Barnacles(Balanus) 28. RedSeaweed(Polysiphonia) S eggcapsulesoftheDogwinkle 17. Periwinkle(Littorina) 29. Crumbof BreadSponge(Halichondna) 6 IrishMoss(Chondrus) 18. KnottedWrack(Ascophyllum) 30. WhiteSeaAnemone(Sagarlia) 7. GlassShrimp(Palaemonetes) 19. Nudibranch(Coryphella) 31. SeaLettuce(Ulva) 8. RockWeek(Fucus) withCoiledWorms 20. EyedTunicale(Botryllus) 32. ScaleWorm(Lepidonotus) (Spn-oibis) 21. BlueMussels(Mytilus) 33. --HeartedHydroid(Tubulana)n 3 Spideror Dec. ,r Crab(Libinsa) 22. StripedSeaAnemone(HaIipaneIIa or 34. BeardSponge(Micmciona) .) Pui’pleSeaUrchin(Arbacsa)s Dsadumine) 35. 1ultedErectBryozoan(Bugula) i Rork Crab(Cancer) 23 SeaLace(Mombranipora) 36. AtlanticPlateLimpet(Acmaea)n De iptionofRockyandMan-MadeSh 5 by BarbaraS Waters Rockyshoreenvironmentsarefoundallalong arecommonlyfoundunderclumpsofrockweed snail without a shell. theSoutheasternNewEnglandcoast.They in SpringandEarlySummer. aremadeupofbouldersandcobblesleftbythe Encrustingrocksand shellsare lacy coverings. glacialretreat,typicallyfoundonCapeCod. Anothersnail,withouta coilin itsshell,isthe Whenviewedwith a handlens,you can see or exposedbedrockandheadlandsseenin Atlantic PlateLimpetorChinaman’sHat.It openingsin geometricpattern.Eachopening Brantrock,Mass..Newport,RhodeIslandand is foundfirmlyattachedtorocksin themiddleof containsan animalform Theseare bryozoanor parisofConnecticut.Theseshoresareusually thetidalzone.Thissnailcanbepriedottby “moss animal” colonies.Anothertorm of bryozoan opentowaveandcurrentaction,andorganisms gentlyinsertinga knifeundertheedgeof theshell colony is the erectformmost commonbeing aresubjecttogreatphysical-tress.Each,formof andliftingslowlyuntilit letsgoitspowerful the Tufted Bryozoan. It wouldappeartobe a lifemustbeabletowithstanddrying,rainwater, foot.Pinktuftsof theCoralSeaweedarecommon seaweed,exceptit is pink tolanincolor. coldandbuffetingbywaves.Observehow in thismiddletidalzonehereandthereinrock eachorganismadaptsin thewaysit canhold crevicesor onbacksof largeperiwinkles.It Manmadedocks,seawalls,groins,andrip-rap. ontoandmoveoverthesteeprocks. lookslikea pinkcoral,butis,infact,a redalga usually locatedin quieterbaysand harbors. witha hard.calciumcoating. providea convenientsubstratefor manysessi’e Lookfirstatthetotalpictureofa rockyshore, sealifeto fasten.Theseanimalsfeedby drawing andsoona patternemergesAt thehightidetine, ThelivelyamphipodOammarus.flattenedfrom in currentsof waterconlainingplanktonand youseea thindarklineofblursgreenseaweed .‘ sideto side,is thefirstinhabitantof thelidepool other bits of food.Theouterpilingsof a dock. (algae)livingatthesprayzone.JustbelowIs Inthespring.Theyareseenfastenedtoge’herat those exposedtodirectsunlight,areoftencover’d a widerbandof whitemadeupof theCommon thistime,thelargerfemale(up to r long) carrying with brown and greenseaweeds:the furtherin Rock Barnacle.Puta lacemaskin thewaterand a smallermale(‘h long). anddarker(samerule aØptiestojeffles)areas, watchtheforestof flickingbarnaclefeetwaving havefewerplantsandmoreanimalstakeholl backandforthfromthetopsofthetinywhitecones. Thetidalareasexposedatverylowtides,during Theorganismsfoundherearemuchthesam as newandfullmoons,revealanamazingdiversity themoreexposedrockyareas,withagreater Belowthebarnaclezone,thetworockweeds of life.Turnoverrockslyingin shallowwater. number of the delicatecolonialhydroids,tunicales AscophyllumandFucusgrow.Ascophyilum liftuprockweedsandfeelinthedarkandhidden andmoreerectformsof sponges. isgreentoyellow,long,ropeyandbranchedwith crevicesof rocks.Heremultitudesof sealife airbladdersthatfloattheseaweedcloserto waitforthetidetoriseagain,bringingina new A well-coveredpilingisthickwithbluemussels. sunlightwhenthetiderises.Fucusisalsobranched, supplyof food.TheEasternStarfishisalways individualandcolonialsponges,seaanemones. butflattenedwitha midribandwingsoneither present.TheGreenSeaUrchiniscommon hydroids,barnacles,smallshrimpandfish. side.ThetinywhitespiralsdottingtheFucusare on theNorthsideof CapeCoduptoMaine.while TheSeaSquirts,SeaVases,andcolonial calcareouscasesoftheCoIledAnnelldWorm. thePurpleSeaUrchIncanbefoundonthe urochordatessuchastheSeaPeachandthe Theirdelicatelycoloredplumelikefeeding Southsideof CapeCoddowntotheMid-Atlantic EyedTunicatesarealsoveryabundant.When tentaclesextendoutof thetubesinquietwater, Coast.Bothurchinsteedonseaweedsand tunicate animals begin life they are highlyevolvr’ii anddisappearinstantlywhendisturbed. deadsealife. tadpole-likeformswiththebeginningofanotochord However,onbecomingadults,theydegenerate Clusteredbetweenandunderrockweedsare TheCrumb-Of-BreadSpongeisfoundgrowing intothesoftlumpsyoulnd attachedtopilings Blu Musselsof allSizes.TheBlueMusselhas flatinopenrockyareasatthebaseofrocks.It Theyareoftenvase’shapedwithtwosiphons, a modifiedfootthatsecretesst’ongthreads appearsgreenishtograyandiscomposedof oneincurrentandoneexcurrent.todrawin usedto fastenit torocksando!hermussels.In manyconeshapedmoundswithopeningsatthe fogdandexpelwastes. quiettidepoolsorwitha tacemLskyoucansee lop.TheRed-BeardSpongeisbrightredand eachmusselgapingslightlyopen,revealinga growsflalin roughwater,butwill becomefingerlike Closeobservationof a pilingscrapingorovides ruffledmantle.Crawlingovereverythingare in quietwater. many hours of fascinatingStudy.Keepin PeriwinklesatuppertidelevelsandIheAtlantic refrigerator,ordelicateformswutiquicklydeteriorate Dogwlnkleatlowertidelevels.ThePeriwinkle CommonNorthernSeaAnemonesarefound remainsoutofwaterformanyhoursbetween in great numbersand in a varietyof colors.Out lides.Theycanshutthedoorway(operculum)of of watertheyresemblebrownslimeyblobs theshelltrappingabitof seawaterinside. but underwaterandfeeding,theyextendtentacles Periwinklesfeedonseaweeds.TheDogwlnkle whichcapturesmallprey.Arelativeofthesea is slightlylargerandmulticoloredrangingfrom anemonesarethecolonialhydroids.Theylook whitetoorange,banded,tobrown.Theyare likemanyverysmallseaanemonesliving activecarnivoresfeedingonbarnaclesandyoung togetheronendsofbranches.Onecototlulform musselsbydrillinga hole9joughtheshells is thePink-HeartedHydrold.Thenudibranch witha raspingtongue(radula). the 1/2inch Coryphella is foundgrazingon thehydroids vase-shapedeggcapsulesof theDogwinkle Nudibranchsare similarto the gardenslug,a SU*1ARY OF DATA FOR ).ASURDTS ON ThE PROTECT SIDE OF A JETTY

STATION STATION 2 STATION4 STATION6 AVERAGE SPECIES

begins ends begins end begins ends begins ends

Balanus balanoides 125 7 115 7 138 7 126 7 (barnacle) Fucus vesiculosus 100 20 118 —10 108 3 109 4 (brc-. algae) Enteromorpha marginata 125 50 113 78 120 95 120 74 (green algae) Urosalpinx cinerea 60 7 73 7 15 7 49 7 (oyster drill) Metridium senile 10 7 30 3 7 14 7 : (aneon e)

NOTES:

1. All data are recorded in centimetersabove or below a “0” tide.

2. A “7” indicates that the species extends to an unmeasured depth below a “0” tide.

—7— A GRAPHICCOARISO! OF ZONATIONON EAC1 SIDE OF A Jm

200

175 150 fl 125 Median high tide

100 75 I 50 z ‘ I 25 U

0 Median low tide

—25

—50

Cl I, —I o —J mI#•. I C1J Ill — U C C. .0 g • I. IId CC — 0_ OIJ C — — I C 41 C C

Protectedside

Unprotectedside F I

Distancesbelow—25 centiieters are unknown DIAGR.A1*(ATICR’RESENTATION OF CONSPICUOUSZONATION ONTRE PROTECT SIDE OF A JETrY

300

275

bate rock 250

225

200

lichens 175

- 150 (blue — Cyanophyceae green algae)

125 Median hig

Balanus balanoides (barnacle) 100

Enteromorpha !ta (green algae)

50 AND — Pucua veaiculosus (brown algae)

— 25 — Mytili. eduli. (blue IDuseel)

O Median low

—25 Polysiphonia !2• (red algae) —50 54

Topic Nine Coral Reefs

I. OVERVIEW Like an oasis in the desert, the coral reef is found in the midst of an area which can be considered one of the least populated parts of the ocean- the tropical oceans. The coral reef is an area of great diversity. It is a thriving shallow water community built by the accumulation of calcium carbonate from the dead organisms of the reef.

H. CONCEPTS Reef Development Symbiosis Primary Productivity Competition Diversity

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand the formation of the three basic types of coral reefs. B) Compare the productivity of the coral reef to the surrounding ocean environment. C) Explain the symbiotic relationships of the reef. D) Understand the impact of humans on the coral reefs of the world.

IV. KEYWORDS Calcium Carbonate Trophic Energy Levels Water Transparency Bioerosion Stony Corals Buttress Zone Corallite Algal Ridge Soft Corals Lagoon Fringing Reef Knoll Barrier Reef Leeward Atoll Windward Zooxanthellae Mutualism

V. ACTIVITIES

Starfish Dissection Lab Carolina -- BioKit Starfish Dissection Lab -- NASCO Echinoderm Lab (All Classes) -- Sumich 55

VI. Evaluation

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essay, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES

Boces # Title 008064 Coral Reefs 101 303 Animals of the Living Reef 108632 Coral Reef Community 104 18 1 Coral Reef 56

Topic Ten The Benthos

I. OVERVIEW In the past, scientists felt that the bottom of the ocean was lifeless. Recent technological advances have allowed extensive investigations to take place on the seafloor. The benthos contains representatives from every phylum and is in no way a biological desert as once suspected. Much of benthic exploration is accomplished by submersibles and scuba. There is still much to be explored.

H. CONCEPTS Stability Diversity Sediment Composition Feeding Habits Adaptive Strategies Sampling Techniques

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand basic sampling techniques for investigating the benthos. B) Explain different feeding habits of benthic organisms. C) Know adaptive strategies for survival in the benthic environment. D) Understand the community which exists near the hydrothermal vents on the seafloor.

IV. KEYWORDS Benthos Croppers Infauna Hydrothermal Vents Epifauna Scuba Stability Submersibles Diversity Peterson Grab Oozes Anchor Dredge Nodules Suspension

V. ACTIVITIES -- SEE TOPIC 10-V 57

VI. EVALUATION

VII. RESOURCES -- SEE TOPIC lO-Vil 58

Topic Eleven - The World of Marine Plants

I. OVERVIEW

The diversity of marine plant -- ranging from microscopic unicellular organisms to the enormous kelps -- and their importance to the marine environment will be investigated.

II. CONCEPTS

Pigmentation Structure Economics

III. OBJECTIVES

Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) identify three different groups of macroalgae; B) differentiate the three major groups by their pigmentation; C) be able to preserve algae by preparing herbarium mounts; D) identify the importance of carrageenan and other algae byproducts in dairy, cosmetic, and other products used by humans; E) differentiate between prokaryotic-blue-green algae and eukaryotic algae; F) Identify diatoms, dinaflagellates and other microalgae associated with water quality; G) identify major zonation of seaweeds on an Atlantic Rocky intertidal zone.

I V KEYTERMS

Microscopic Stoma Detritus Macroscopic Cuticle Prokaryotic Pigmentation Algin Eukaryotic Thallus Carrageenan Diatoms Holdfast Microorganisms Dinoflagellates Stipe Autotroph Zooxanthellae Epiphytes Chemoautotroph Angiosperm Herbarium Mount Zonation 59

V. ACTIVITIES

Plant Collection - Sumich Phytoplankton Lab - Sumich Taxonomy Marine Biology Phytoplankton Lab - NT # Attached Marine Plants Taxonomy Division Cyanophyta Division Chlorophyta Division Phaeophyta Division Rhodophyta Division Anthophyta

Photosynthesis Lab NTA #59 60

VI. EVALUATION

VII. AV RESOURCES

BOCES Films # Title 109115 Algae 107859 Protozoa and Algae 000950 Carnivorous Plants 61

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 10 Phytoplankton

Introd uction Photosynthetic marine plants, as the primary producers of the marine ecosystem, are the first link in the marine food web. They convert solar energy to an energy form usable by themselves and, in turn, by other marine organisms. Their importance to the biological economy of the sea cannot be overstressed. The most significant contribution to the primary productivity of the world oceans does not come from the obvious, macroscopic attached plants that occupy the fringes of the continental masses. The dominant role instead goes to the microscopic, free-floating forms that are collectively called the phytoplankton. The phytoplankton together with the animal members, the zooplankton, comprise the plankton. Obviously no study of marine biology would be complete without inspecting these exceptionally important microorganisms.

I. Taxonomy

The phytoplankton consist of representatives of six plant divisions, all algae. They are the Cyanophyta (blue-green algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), Rhodophyta (red algae), Chrysophyta (golden-brown algae), and Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates). However, only the last two contribute significant numbers to the phytoplankton. The relative abundance of these groups varies seasonally and geographically so that representatives of all groups are seldom found in the same plankton sample. The algae are placed in their particular divisions according to several criteria: type of pigments (chlorophylls a, b, c, d, phycobilins, etc.), composition of the cell wall, storage material composition (starch, fats, etc.), and structure of their flagella (whiplike structures used for motility in some forms).

A. Division Chrysophyta The species of one class of this division, the class Bacillariophyceae, or diatoms, are the most important planktonic primary producers in the ocean. They contain the chlorophyll pigments a and c. Diatoms are usually single celled but often occur in chains of cells. The cell shape of different species varies greatly, but some generalizations can be made. 62

Diatom cell shape follows two basic forms, centric and pennate. Centric diatoms exhibit some form of radial symmetry and are most commonly found as members of the phytoplankton. Pennate types are bilaterally symmetrical and have a structure called a raphe, which is used for locomotion. Pennate diatoms are often found on a solid substrate, such as rocks, animals, or larger algae. Figure 10.1 presents a top view of several centric and pennate diatoms. Both types of diatoms have an external cell wall, or test, composed of Si02 (silicon dioxide, similar to the rock crystal opal). The test is usually in two parts, with a slightly larger epitheca fitting snugly over the hypotheca. The cell contents are contained completely within the Si02 test. Most diatoms exhibit fine lines, or striae, on the test surface. These striae are actually rows of very small pores. Each pore is the outer opening of a hexagonal structural unit called the aerolus (fig. 10.2). Each aerolus usually has one large pore on its outer surface and many finer pores on its inner surface. Exchange across the cell wall occurs through these pores. Spend some time at the demonstration setups. Observe these prepared, stained diatom slides, noting the structural features of the centric and pennate types. Figure 10.3 illustrates some common types of diatoms that you are likely to see in a phytoplankton haul. Two other groups of varying importance, the silicoflagellates and the coccolithophores, are also members of the Chrysophta. The silicoflagellates have an internal skeleton of Si02, while the 63

Figure 10.1 Top view of a variety of diatoms (53 in all) arranged in a striking geometric pattern. Figure 10.2 A highly magnified view of the central diatoms shown in fig. 10.1. Note the hexagonal aeroli arranged in linear rows. Figure 10.3 Some common marine diatoms.

viewofthe view of a vari•ty of diatoms FIgure 10.2 A highlymagnified Fgurs 10.1 Top in fig. 10.1.Notethe all) arrangedin a strikinggsometflc centraldiatomsshown (53 in hexagonalseroliarangedin linearrows. pattern.

• S..— !

- — 2 i ire 10.3 SomeCOMMOII msr$n.datom$. 64

coccolithophores have their cell surface covered with numerous CaCO3 . (calcium carbonate) discs called coccoliths. Figures 10.4 and 10.5 will give the reader some idea of their shape. Because silicoflagellates usually do not survive the trauma of being caught in a plankton net, the internal skeleton is all the one usually sees.

Figure 10.4 Silicate skeletons of two silicoflagellates: (A) Mesocena and (B) Dictyocha.

Figure 10.5 A coccolithophore, Coccolithus, and some detached coccoliths at lower left. (Courtesy of Elizabeth Venrick, University of California, San Diego.)

A Flqur• 10.4 Sllicat. skI•tons of two sdicoiq•Hatis: (A) M.aoc*na and(B) Oictyocha.

—

..._j 10.5 A cocco1itho ‘ and I Name Date______

Exercise9 PhotosyntheticPigments of MarinePlants

Introduction Marineplantsare restrictedto the surfaceregionsof the water columnbecauseof theirrequirementfor sunlightas an energysource.Wherethe lightintensityis low the rate of plantgrowthand reproduction is limitedby the amountof availablelight.The effectivedepth of the photiczoneis also a functionof lightpenetration.Thislaboratoryexerciseshouldprovidean understandingof the effectof some physicalfactors of the sea on the availabilityof sunlight.Someadaptationsof marineplantsto the conditionsof varyinglightavailabilitywill also be studied.

I. Light The abilityof sunlightto penetrateseawateris dependenton severalfactors:waterturbidity,sea surface condition,angleof the sun and the sea surface,and lightintensity.Evenveryclearseawaterhas an exceptionalabilityto absorb sunlight.But in neritic(coastal)waterwhereturbiditydue to planktonand sedimentsin suspensionmay be very high,two-thirdsof the availablesurfacelightis absorbedin the first meterof waterand 95%is absorbedwithinthe upper 10 m. Visiblelightis onlya smallpart of a muchmoreextensiveenergyspectrum.Visible“white light,” or sunlight,is composedof a spectrumof separatecolors (fig. 9.1), rangingfrom deepvioletthrough blue,green,yellow,orangeto red. Thiscolor spectrumcan easilybedemonstratedby passingsunlight througha prism.Eachcolor is characterizedby a rangeof wavelengths(usuallymeasuredin nanometers,or nm).Ultraviolet(UV)andinfrared(IR)energyexistsbeyondthe visiblerangeof the visiblecolor spectrumand appearscolorlessbecauseour eyesare not sensitiveto thoseextreme wavelengths.

Color UV Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red IR I I I I I. 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 Wavelength(nm) Figur• 9.1 The spectrumof visible light.

Not all parts of the visiblelight spectrumare absorbedby water at the samerate. Colorsat the ends of the spectrum,especiallythe red, orange,andvioletcolors, are absorbedfirst, leavingthe blues and greensfor deeperpenetration(fig. 9.2). The differentialabsorptionof lightby seawaterposesa specialproblemfor marineplantsthat live belowthe upperfew metersof the sea. To survivetheymustbe selectivein whichlighttheyabsorbfor photosynthesis.Thisabilityto absorb lightis a characteristicof the variouspigmentsfoundin all plants, but differencesin absorptioncharacteristicsare particularlynoticeablein the marinealgae.Eachpigment absorbsonlycertainwavelengthsof the lightenergyavailableto it. It is the combinationof the pigments foundin algaeadaptedto livingin seawaterthat will be examinedin this investigation. 0 20

60 E i 80

120

140 160

400 450 500 550 600 650 700 Wavelength. nm Figure9.2 Depthsat whichthe surfaceradiation ol light is reducedto 10°/c(uppercurve)and 1°/c (lower curve)for variouscolors in clear ocean water. (Adaptedfrom Jerlov 1951.)

ii. Pigmentation in Marine Plants It shouldbe apparentthat thereis a correlationbetweenthe pigmentationof marinealgaeand their grossmorphology.You havealreadyrecognizedthis in previousexercisesby groupingthe attached macroscopicmarinealgaeinto the divisionsChlorophyta(greens),Phaeophyta(browns),and Rhodophyta(reds).Thissystemof classifyingalgaeis relatedto pigmentdifferencesbetweenthem. Thepigmentsof algaeare dividedintothreemajorgroups:thechlorophylls, the carotenoids, and the phycobilins.Not all of thesepigmentsare directlyrelatedto photosynthesis;someare for shadingpurposes.Othersabsorbenergyfrom certainwavelengthsof lightandtransferit to those pigmentsthat are capableof photosynthesis.Also, the role of somepigmentsin thesegroupsis not yet known.It is known,however,that photosynthesisin algae,as wellas in higherplants,is associatedwith the complexmoleculechlorophyll. Chlorophylloccursin severalslightlydifferentmolecularforms:chlorophyllsa, b, c, d, and possibly e. Onlychlorophylla is a commonfactorin all photosyntheticplants.It is thephotosyntheticpigment. Theotherchlorophylls,as well as somecarotenoidsand phycobilins,functionin photosynthesisas accessorypigments,eitherinvolvedas part of the lightreactionpigmentsystemsor as donorsof light energyto chlorophylla. Thecarotenoidsmaybe separatedinto two majorgroups,carotenesandxanthophylls.The e carotenesare usuallydividedinto severaltypes.Onetype,48-carotene,is foundin all threegroupsof largeattachedalgae.Xanthophyllsincludesometwentydifferentpigments.Two xarithophylls, e fucoxanthinand lutein,are importantin attachedalgae.Fucoxanthinis foundonlyin the Phaeophyta, whereasluteinis a commonpigmentof all largealgae. e Thephycobilinsoccur as a bluephycocyaninand a pink-redphycoerythrin.Bothare major pigmentsof the Rhodophyta.Slightlydifferentmolecularformsof phycocyaninand phycoerythrinare also foundin the Cyanophyta(blue-greenalgae).

Iii. Pigment Extraction and Separation by Paper Chromatography All photosyntheticmarinealgaecontainchlorophylls,but onlythe Chiorophytahavethe grass-green appearancecharacteristicof thesepigments.

A. PigmentExtraction Onlyone pair of studentsshouldperformthis step as it providesenoughpigmentextractfor the paper chromatographyexperimentsas wellas the determinationof the chlorophyllabsorptionspectrum.Green

e Name ______Section______Date ______algaesuchas Ulva,Enteromorpha,or Cod/urnprovidea suitablechlorophyllsolutionwithoutthe complicatingeffectsof abundantaccessorypigments. 1. Placean algalsamplein a specialblenderwhoseswitchand motorare enclosedso that no sparkscan ignitethe organicsolvents.Thisis veryimportantas solventleakingintoan ordinary blendermaycausethe extremelyflammablesolventsto catchfire. A mortarand pestlemaybe usedas an alternative. 2. Add threeto four volumesof 20°/aethanol/80%acetonesolutionand blendfor one to two minutes untilthe plantsappearcompletelyhomogenized.(Chlorophylland carotenoidsare solublein organic solvents,not water.) 3. Centrifugethismixtureto removethe cellulardebris.(Be surethe centrifugeis properlybalanced.) 4. If necessary,pour the greensupernatant(floatingon the surface)througha generalpurposefilter paperto removeany suspendedmaterial.

B. PaperChromatography Thevariouspigmentsfoundin Chlorophylacan easilybe separatedand identifiedby usinga technique knownas paperchromatography. 1. Applya smallpigmentspot about 2 cm from the endof a 15cm long stripof filterpaper(fig.9.3). Thepigmentspot shouldbe as smallas possible(lessthan4 mm iS best).Usea capillarytubeto transferthe pigmentsolutionto the filterpaper.To makethe pigmentspot as denseas possible,it will be necessaryfor you to reapplythe pigmentsolutionabout60—100times.Patiencemustbe exercisedbetweenapplicationsto allowthe pigmentspot to completelydry. If the pigmentis reappliedbeforethe spot dries,a verywidespot is formed. 2. Suspendthe paperin a test tubecontaininga 10% acetone/90%petroleumethersolution.The chlorophyllspot mustbe about 1 cm abovethe solution(fig. 9.4). Be carefularoundsparksor flamesas thesesolventsare veryflammable. 3. Allowto standfor approximatelyfiveminutes,thenobserve.$-carotenewill appearas a rather narrow,chromeyellowband.The xanthophyllswillappeargreenish-yellow.Chlorophylla is blue- greenand chlorophyllb will separateout as a yellow-greencolor.

Capillarytube I I ______Pigmentspot

Figure9.3 Techniqueforapplyinga pigment FIgure9.4 Yourpaperwithits pigmentspot spotto a paperstrip, shouldresemblethisfigurewhenplacedin the testtube.

i III I I Ii’ 4. Usea pencilto outlinethe areasof pigmentationon the paperstripand labelthe pigmentsfound (Somewill fadeas theydry). Also, markthe edgeof the solventfront (farthestpointof travelof the acetone/ethersolution).Attachwith tapein the spacebelow

Althoughthe Chlorophytacontainaccessorypigmentsn additionto chiorophylls,theirpigment systemsare dominatedby the presenceof chlorophyll.In all subsequentreferences,the green supernatantwill serveas a sourceof unrefinedchlorophylland will be referredto as the chlorophyll extract.

IV. The Absorption Spectrum of Chlorophyll

A. Determinationof the AbsorptionSpectrumof Chlorophyll Do not operatethespectrophotometeruntilyou havebeenproperlyinstructedon its use. 1. Filla cuvetteor specialphotometertubeapproximatelytwo-thirdsfull of the previously extractedchlorophyllpigment, 2. Setthe scaleof the spectrophotometerto 0°/oabsorbance(1000/0transmittance)usinga reference(or blank)solutionconsistingof 20°/oethanoland 80°/oacetone. 3. Dilutethe extractwiththe 20°/oethanol/80%acetonesolutionand test on the spectrophotometer untila 90°/otransmittancevalueat a wavelengthof 525 nm is obtained. 4. Determinetheabsorptionspectrumof yourchlorophyllsolutionby obtaininga transmittance readingat 25 nm intervalsstartingwith400 nm and continuingto 700 nm.Recordyourresultsin table9.1. 5. Subtracteachtransmittancereadingfrom 100%to determinethe absorbance(table9.1). 6. Plotthe absorptionspectrumof your chlorophyllsolutionin figure9.6.

Table9.1. ChlorophyllAb8orptionData Wavelength 4.00 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 (nm) 4 % Transmittance % Absorbance (100%-%Trans.)

I I S Name ______Section______Date ______B. Questionsfor ThoughtandDiscussion 1. Howdoes the absorptionspectrumof the chlorophyllextractcompareto the absorptionspectrum of seawaterplottedon figure9.6?

2. Do you thinkchlorophyllis an effectivelight-absorbingpigmentfor marineplantsthat livebelow lOm?Explainyouranswer

3. If a handspectroscopeis available,comparethe spectrumof lightpassingthrougha chlorophyll solutionto the spectrumof unalteredlight.Whatsection(s)of the lightspectrumis (are)being completelyabsorbedby the chlorophyllsolution?

4. Doesthis supportyourfindingsfrom table9.1?

5. Whenan intenselightsource,suchas a high-intensityilluminator,is directedinto a solutionof the chlOrophyllextract(aftercentrifuging),what color does it appear?Why?(Referto your understandingof photosyntheticpigmentsystems.)

II V. Accessory Pigments The importantquestionnowis; Howdo marineplants,utilizingchlorophyllas the photosyntheticpigment, effectivelyabsorblightat depthsgreaterthan 10—20m? Plantsthat livedeeperin the watercolumn characteristicallyhavean abundanceof accessorypigmentsin additionto chlorophyll.Phycobilin,an accessorypigmentcharacteristicof red algae(Rhodophyta),willbe isolatedand its light-absorbing qualitiesstudied.

A. PigmentExtraction 1. Placein a blenderabout 100g of red algae.Onebatchis sufficientfor severalspectral determinations. 2. Blendwithtwo to.threevolumesof distilledwateruntilthe plantsappearcompletelyhomogenized (phycobilinsare watersoluble). 3. Centrifugethis mixtureto removethe cellulardebris.

B. ChromatographyColumn The phycobilinpigmentscan be separatedfrom chlorophylland otherpigmentsby passingthe pigment 4 mixturethrougha chromatographycolumn. Eachcolumnprovidesenoughpigmentfor threeto four spectraldeterminations.1 cm diameterglasstube,20 cm longand drawnto taperat one end,serves nicelyfor the column.Theabsorptioncolumnand relatedapparatusshouldresemblefigure9.5. Prepare the columnby followingthesesteps. 1. Lightlypack the taperedendof the tubewitha smallamountof glasswool or cottonto prevent the absorbentfrom flowingthrough. 2. The absorbentis a mixtureof fiveparts of cleandiatomaceousearthand one part tricalcium phosphate, Ca3 (P03)2, in sufficientdistilledwaterto form a thick, soupymixture. 3. Fill the glasstubewiththe absorbentmixtureuntilit is two-thirdsfull. 4. Pack the absorbentby suction,thenwash it threetimeswitha 1% NaCIsolution.Usesuctionto draw the solutionthrough.

Half-inchglasstubing drawnto taper

Absorbent t Glasswool

Vacuumhose

t Suctionflask . e Figure9.5 Chromatographycolumnandrelated S apparatus. Name .Section ______Date ______C. PigmentSeparation 1. Introduce10—15ml of the pinkalgalpigmentinto the top of the columnanddrawit throughwith suctionuntilthe pigmentis absorbedinto the column. 2. Wash 10—15ml of 10/0NaCIsolutionthroughthe columnby suction. 3. Washthe pigmentsdownthe columnwithrepeatedadditionsof 0.05 M phosphatebutterSolution (pH6.0—6.5). 4. If morethanone pigmentbandappears,washeachpigmentoft the columnseparately.

D. Determinationof AbsorptionSpectrum 1. If necessary, dilute the pigmentwith the phosphatebutteruntila 10°/atransmittancevalueat 525 nm is obtained. 2. Usephosphatebufferfor the referencesolution.and proceedwith the absorptionspectrum determinationfollowingthe directionsfor the chlorophyllabsorptionspectrum. 3. Recordthe resultsin table9.2. thenplot the phycobilinabsorptionspectrumin figure9.6.

Table9.2. PhycobilinAbsorptionData Wavelength 400 425 450 F 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 nm % Transmittance % Absorbance (100%-°/oTrans.)

Absorptionspectrum Curveof seawater

0 ‘I, .0

400 425 450 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650 675 700 Wavelengthmm) Figure9.6 Absorptionspectraof chlorophyll,phycobilin.andseawater. E. MoreQuestions 1. Examinethe top of the chromatographycolumn.Whatcolor ts the remainingdebris?Whatdo you thnk it is? Whydidn’t it washdownthe tube?

2. Howdoes the absorptionspectrumof phycobilincomparewiththat of chlorophyll?

3. Whenan intenselightsourceis directedinto a solutionof the phycobilinextract,whatcolor does it appear?Why?(Recallthe functionof accessorypigments.)

4. Whatadvantagedo accessorypigments,suchas phycobilin,providefor plantslivingbelowa depth of 10m?

5. Whatmechanismsotherthanaccessorypigmentsmightmarineplantsemployto compensateIor low lightconditionsat greaterdepths?

‘I Name______Section______Date ______VI. FurtherInvestigations The data that you havegatheredto this pointstronglysuggestthat marinealgaewithabundant accessorypigmentsabsorblightfrom the centerof the visiblespectrumand thushavea competitive advantageoverthosetypesof algaelackingsuchpigments.But you are stillleft withan important,but as yet unanswered,question;Do red or brownalgae,withtheirabundanceof photosyntheticaccessory pigments,actuallyphotosynthesizemorerapidlythangreenalgaeat a depthof about 15m belowthe sea surface?To approachthisproblem,firstdevelopthe question,thendeviseyourown experimental procedureto test the hypothesis.

Hypothesis:

You are to developyourown detailedexperimentalapproach,but a few hintsshouldaid in gettingyou started. I Yourhypothesiscan be testedeitherby usingnaturalconditionsof depthand sunlightin the field or by simulatingthoseconditionsin the lab withcoloredacetatesheetscoveringlow-intensitylight sources. 2. Photosyntheticratescan beestimatedbymeasuringratesof oxygenproductionfromthe plantsyou are studyingwitheitherthe Winklermethod(describedon p. 11)or witha dissolvedoxygenmeter 3. Wholealgalplantsvarygreatlyin sizeand are difficultto insertinto smallcontainers.Youmight considerpunchingout 1 cm circulardiscsof fresh,healthy,sheetlikebladesusinga cork borer. Eachdisc couldthenbe usedas a basiccommonunitof plantmaterialfor comparisonof photosyntheticactivity.Outlineyour experimentalprocedurehere.Performthe experiment,record yourresults,andwriteup yourconclusions. Procedure: PermanentPlantCollections

I. CollectingMarinePlants - Stateand local regulationsgoverningthe collectionof intertidalplantsmay vary somewhatfrom placeto place.The followinginformationis includedfor thosewho wishto start theirown collectionof preserved marineplants.In areaswherecollectingis allowed,beachesand rocky intertidalareas offer an extensivevarietyof conditionsfor collectingmarinealgae.It is best to plan a collectingtrip in accordancewith tidalconditions.Planto arriveat the collectingsite at leasttwo hoursbeforelow water and work out with the ebbingtide. Good collectingin beachdrift can be done followingstormsor very hightides. Fieldnotes shouldbe kept containingdata relatedto the substrate.tidalzone,associationof major algal groups,exposureto desiccation,direct or indirectwaveaction,and any otherfactors that are importantin studyingthe algae’secology.It is best to keep the algaeseparatedin individualplastic bags, if possible.Keepany algaeof the genusDesmerestiaisolated,as theycontainHCIand will discolorother algaethat comein contactwith it. Notewhetherthe algaeis green,brown,or red as someforms lose theirnaturalcolor whenpreservedor exposedto directsunlight. Algaeshouldbe preservedin 2—3%formaldehydesolution(1 part 1O%formaldehyde:3—4parts water)untilyou are ableto key out the specimens.To assurecompletepreservation,allow the specimensto soak for two to threedays.Althoughit is not necessaryto preservespecimensbefore pressing,the preservativewill normallykeep the specimensfrom molding. II. MountIngand PressingAttachedAlgae In order to make satisfactoryherbariummountsof filamentousformsit is necessaryto spreadout the specimenso that it exhibitsits naturalfeatures.(It is importantthat all specimensbe identifiedbefore mounting.)The most satisfactoryway to get the specimento spreadout requiresa sink area witha flexiblehose and spraynozzle.Usethe sprayto gentlyarrangethe plant.If you do not have a spray nozzleavailable,placethe herbariumsheetin a large shallowpan and coverwithtap water. Placethe specimencentrallyon the submergedsheetof herbariumpaper.Usea camel’s-hairbrushto spreadout finestructuresso theydo not overlap.Beforepressingthe specimen,writethe scientificnamelightly with pencilon the lowerright-handcorner.If you plan on maintaininga permanentcollection,you should place a referencenumberon the herbariumsheetthat correspondsto a referencenumberkept in your fieldnotebook.The sequencefor pressingis as follows(Seefig. C.1): Placea c..orrugatedcardboardor aluminumventilatorwith the corrugatedsideup. 2. The ventilatoris followedby a drier (newspaperor a largefelt blotter). 3. Nextthe specimen(positionedon herbariumpaper)is placedon the drier. 4. Coverthe specimenwith wax paperto preventit from stickingto the next drier. 5. Add anotherdrieron top of the waxpaper. 6. That is followedby anotherventilatorfor the secondspecimen. 7. Repeatthis sequencefor eachspecimento be pressed. Herbariumpressesmaybe purchasedfrom commercialsuppliersor may be easilymadefrom two piecesof half-inchplywood,each slightlylargerthanthe mountingpaper.Bricksor otherweightscan be usedto applypressure.If a strap type press is to be used,pulldown strapswith moderate pressure.Whenusingthe screwtype press,turn downthe pressurehandlesevenlyto applymoderate pressure.Placethe pressin a dry area. FigureC.I Plantpress(explodedview)showingthe sequenceof materials necessaryforpressingmarineplants.Thesequencecanbe repeatedfor additionalspecimens.

Felt driersshouldbe changedeveryday, as shouldthe ventilatorsif theyare wet. Finespecimens shouldbe dry after threeto four days. Largerspecimenswill requiremoretime.Calcareousand crustosespeciesof algaeare best kept in smafi.cotton-filledboxes to avoiddamageafter theyhave been air dried. FigureC.2 Themembranefilter apparatus,completelyassembled.

III. PermanentPhytoplanktonSlides If desired,permanentphytoplanktonsldes can be preparedusinga membranefilterapparatus(fig.C.2). Thismethodis particularlyapplicableto phytoplankton enumerationstudies.Themembranefilteris madeof an acetatecompoundand has unsformpore sizes(3jm pore sizeis sufficientlysmallto retain the verysmallphytoplankton).The filtersare delicate,so handlethemcarefullywithforceps. 1. Placethe filterpad in the glassfitterfunnelapparatus.Do not startthe vacuumyet. 2. Place50 ml of seawaterin the funnel,thenadd a smallknownvolumeof the weft-mixedplankton sample. 3. Startthe vacuumto drawthe waterthroughthe filter.Thefiltershouldappearslightlydirty,but not obscuredby the phytoplankton.Adjustmentsof subsamplesizemightbe necessary. 4. Afterthe sampleis filtered,allowair to be pulledthroughthe filterpad for aboutone minute. 5. Disassemblethe filterapparatusandcarefullyremovethe filterpad. Cut the filterinto quartersand arrangeeachon the centerof a cleanglassmicroscopeslide. 6. Add two to threedropsof microscopeimmersionoil to eachfiltersectionand storein a dark dessicatorovernight.Theoil wiltreplacethe watercontainedin the filterandcausethe filterto becometransparent.Thisrequiresabouttwenty-fourhoursat roomtemperature. 7. Placea coverslipon the slide,and it is readyfor observationand counting.

C e e e

‘I 65

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 8 Attached Marine Plants

Introduction Most students of marine biology enter the field with a fair degree of awareness of marine invertebrates. It is not at all unusual for even the casual beach goer to know the common names of a whole host of animals from diverse phyla. Spiny lobsters, abalone, eastern lobsters, sand or mole crabs, sand dollars, rock crabs, clams, sea anemones, snails, mussels; the list is endless. Those things that creep and crawl evidently hold greater fascination for us than inanimate objects. Perhaps this is the reason why macroscopic attached marine plants are lumped together and given the rather ignominious title of “seaweed.” However, a closer examination of the rocks of the middle or lower intertidal zone introduces the viewer to the myriad shapes, colors, and sizes of these “seaweeds.”

I. Taxonomy The majority of the attached marine plants can be placed in five divisions. The three most important according to their numbers and diversity are the Chiorophyta, the Phaeophyta, and the Rhodophyta. These three divisions are all algae, albeit some are exceptionally complex. Members of the division Cyanophyta are also algae, but they are more successful in freshwater environments. A few seed plants, members of the division Anthophyta, make up the fifth division. The five division of common benthic algae are distinguished from one another, as are the various members of the phytoplankton, by their different pigment systems, as well as other physical and chemical differences. In these macroscopic forms, it is the pigment differences that are initially the most evident.

A. Division Cyanophyta (Blue-green Algae) The Cyanophyta are the oldest and most primitive of the marine algae. The blue-green algae are distinguished by the absence of a nuclear membrane and chlorophyll that is not contained within chioroplasts. Besides the photosynthetically active chlorophyll a pigment, they contain a red pigment (c-phycoerythrin) and a blue pigment (c phycocyanin). Ordinarily the blue and green pigments mask out the red 66 pigments, but in one notable case the concentration of red pigment is high enough to discolor the water if the algae occur in sufficient numbers. The Red Sea derives its name from the red pigment of the blue-green algae of the genus Trichodesmium. The majority of the marine members of the Cyanophyta are benthic forms.

B. Division Chiorophyta (Green Algae) Botanists are particularly interested in this primarily freshwater group because it contains the same photosynthetically active pigments (chiorophylls a and b) as terrestrial plants. It is this division that is considered to be the rootstock from which terrestrial plants originally evolved. The green algae along the coast are of minor significance when compared with their overwhelming abundance in fresh water. However, certain coastal species of green algae may occur in such incredible abundance as to overshadow their lack of diversity. The Chiorophyta occur primarily in the upper 10 m of the water column, but their numbers are concentrated in the upper 3 m. The familiar sea lettuce, thin sheets of green Ulva lactuca, often totally obscure the muddy substrate in sheltered bay and estuary habitats. This green algae is only two cell layers thick (fig. 8.1), one of the thinnest of all the multicellular membranous algae. Beside this membranous form, the marine Chiorophyta also exhibit filamentous and branched forms.

Igur• 8.1 Cess sctIoi (A) ssidto visw (B) of Ulva.Not. ths lack of cup4iz cduiar ofganEution. 67

Figure 8.1 Cross section (A) and top view (B) of Ulva. Note the lack of complex cellular organization.

C. Division Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) The brown algae are almost entirely marine and are quite diverse in form and structure. The characteristic brownish or olive drab coloration of this group results from carotene and fucoxanthin accessory pigments. Some types of brown algae are massive and form extensive kelp beds. The giant kelp plant, Macrocystis pyrifera, often grows to lengths of over 30 m and will live for several years. The upper portion of this plant, when harvested and processed, is used as an additive in foods, primarily as an emulsifier under the name algin. Macrocystis pyrifera ia a common sight on southern California beaches where it washes up from its normal offshore location. In central and northern California the composition of the kelp beds changes. An annual, Nereocystis leutkeana, flourishes in the spring and summer months, then wanes and dies in the winter. Animals living in these kelp beds must adapt to these cyclic changes, whereas those living in southern California experience a relatively uniform plant cover. Most brown algae live in the lowest intertidal region, or the sublittoral, but a few forms such as members of the genus Fucus (fig. 8.2) live in the middle or high intertidal zones in cool waters on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Fucus, Alaria, Desmerestia, Laminaria, and several other genera have representatives on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. They often form extensive mats of algae on wave swept rock shores, and many occupy quiet estuarine shores as well. Ascophyllum is a common Atlantic coast form that also occupies many habitats. Member of the genus Sargassum are also found on both coasts in many diverse habitats wherever solid substrates are available. A unique member of the genus Sargassum is a macroscopic planktonic form found in the North Atlantic Ocean. This algae gives its name to the Sargasso Sea. Large members of the Phaeophyta exhibit remarkable adaptations to their environments (fig. 8.3). They attach to the substrate by means of rootlike holdfasts. Their leaflike blades are supported by stemlike stipes. Although these plants appear to have the same morphological features (shape and form) as the roots, stems, and leaves of terrestrial plants, their cells are not organized into the complex vascular tissue needed to transfer water and nutrients from the soil to the leaf. For this reason, botanists assign the terms blade, stipe, and holdfast to these analogous structures. 68

The Phaeophyta are far more complex than the simple green algae but their diversity in type and species number pales in comparison to the Rhodophyta. 69

Name eCti On.

p-Is

Figure 8.2 Fucus, a brown alga found in Figure 8.3 Eisenia, a higher regions of the intertidal zone. brown alga with well developed blades, stipe, and holdfast.

D. Division: Rhodophyta (Red Algae) Like the brown algae, the red algae are almost entirely marine. Their size and complexity varies from thin films growing on rocks to complex filamentous and membranous forms growing to heights approaching 1 m. Most red algae are small and none rival the giants kelps in size, but they occupy a greater range of depths than do the brown algae. Many species commonly live at depths of 35 m or more. Due to their specialized pigment systems (chlorophylls a and d, r-phycoerythrin, and r-phycocyanin), they are able to photosynthesize in deeper water than either the Chlorophyta or the Phaeophyta. They are common inhabitants of the intertidal zone as well. Some forms of red algae secrete a CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) skeleton (fig. 8.4). Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this. Some of the possible functions of the CaCO3 skeleton are protection from herbivores and wave action and shading of tissues from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Perhaps the covering also helps them avoid desiccation when exposed at low tide. 70

Plants of the genus Gelidium are processed commercially to yield a colorless gelatin, called agar, which liquifies at moderately high temperatures and solidifies at room temperature. It is used as a growth medium for the culturing of bacteria. Many genera of red algae are also common inhabitants of rocky shores on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America. These include Chondrus, Rhodymenia, Gigartina, Ceramium, Polysiphonia, and Porphyra. Several (Chondrus, Porphyra, and Rhodymenia) are used directly as food or food additives.

Figure 8.4 Corallina, a segmented, calcareous red alga.

E. Division: Anthophyta (Flowering Plants) The fifth division, the Anthophyta, is represented by a rather undiversified collection of totally marine flowering seed plants, the marine grasses. The seed plants, which are well adapted for a terrestrial existence, have invaded the sea only in relatively recent geologic times. The Anthophyta may form extensive beds of surf, turtle, or eel grass (Phyllospadix and Zostera species) in the sublittoral zone, occasionally being exposed for short periods during exceptionally low tides. Although their diversity is limited, they play an important role in the primary production of bays and estuaries. A few other flowering plants such as the pickleweeds, Salicornia, and the cord grasses, cuiinirirint1bitants of saW mashes and estuaries. Mangroves are also found in warmer ‘latitudes in North America. These species are limited to only occasional inundation by seawater or brackish water.

II. Plant Identification The importance of attached marine algae in the littoral (intertidal) and sublittoral zones cannot be overstressed. They are the major producers of food for animals living in these areas. Recognition and identification of intertidal plants is necessary in order to develop an awareness of the 71 interrelationships that exists between plants and animals of the intertidal zones. You will be provided with a variety of fresh or preserved intertidal algal specimens. Working in teams of two, place several diverse specimens in a tray and determine the marine plant division of your first specimen. Proceed to key it out, using the recommended intertidal plant identification key and the techniques you developed while keying invertebrates. Your instructor will provide assistance in using these keys. In keying a particular specimen, a microscopic examination of the alga’s cellular structure may be required to accurately identify the specimen at the species level. To make a thin section, you will need a single-edged razor blade, a glass microscope slide to use as a straightedge, and a 3” x 5” index card to place your specimen on. Follow your instructor’s directions for sectioning the flat blades of both green and brown algae. Try to make this section as thin as possible without disrupting the cellular arrangement. (You may wish to slice several sections and select the best one.) Place the section on a microscope slide, add a drop or two of seawater, and observe with the compound microscope. On the following pages, list the division, genus, and species of the specimens. Then sketch them, illustrating or listing the important identification characteristics. 72

Name______Section______Date______

Specimen No. Drawing:

Division:

Genus:

Species (if known): identifying characteristics:

Specimen No. Drawing:

Division:

Genus:

Species (if known):

Identifying characteristics: 73

Topic Twelve- The Invertebrates

I. OVERVIEW

Invertebrates are animals without backbones. About 90% of all animal species are invertebrates. To gain an appreciation for marine invertebrates, a variety of organisms will be examined with respect to major characteristics, evolution, structure and form.

II. CONCEPTS

Taxonomy Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry Organic Evolution

III.OBJECTIVES

Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Compare the major groups of marine invertebrates with respect to their evolution, structure and form; B) Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry; Q Compare organisms with an exoskeleton to those with an endoskeleton or hydrostatic skeleton; D) Observe behavioral differences between representatives of major groups of marine invertebrates including gastropods, pelecypods, arthropods, and echinoderms.

IV. KEY WORDS Invertebrates Nerve Net Dorsal Protozoa Nematocyts Ventral Symmetry Medusa NS Bilateral Symmetry Polyp Mesoderm Radial Symmetry Colonial Univ alve Spicules Anterior Bivalve Mesenchyme Posterior Operculum Hydrostatic Skeleton Segmentation Cephalopods Chitin Molting Metamorphosis Neurosecretary Cells Pentamerous Endoskeleton Water Vascular System Pedicellaria Chordates Protochordates 74

Protochordates

V. ACTIVITIES

Invertebrate Labs

Protozoa Lab NTA #202 Ultra-Structure of Animal Cells Lab NTA #66 Animal Tissues Lab NTA #50 Ingestion Amoeba NTA #93 Protists Lab Explanomount #95W5004 General Animal All Lab Explanamount #95W5010 Euglena Lab - Explanomount #95W5017 Hydra Cross Section - Explanomount #95W5023 Amoeba - Explanamount #95W5014 Paramecium - Explanamount 95W5020 Liner Fluke - Explanamount 95W5034 Abelia Colony Explanamount - 95W5026 Nereis (Landworm) Lab Planaria - Explanamount Lab Crayfish Anatomy External and Internal Lab

Biosect, Nasco, and Sumich 75

VI. EVALUATION

VII. AV RESOURCES

BOCES Films # Title 109028 Life of Earth #1 and #2 109116 Coelenterates 109116 Flatworms 109120 Echinoderms 100247 Biology of Annelids 100238 Biology of Anthropods 109030 Life on Earth #5 and #6 109117 Flatworms 104596 Galaxy in the Sea 76

Name Section Date______

Identification guides generally employ a series of paired statements or questions referring to the organism to be identified. Does it have a particular characteristic, or does it not? If the organism has that characteristic, you proceed in one direction in the key; if it does not, you are directed to another part of the key. This format is known as a dichotomous key; it consists of a series of choices to progressively narrow the taxonomic possibilities for the organism being identified until the appropriate identification is found. To make the correct choices, you must know something about the animal you are attempting to identify. Most identification keys emphasize external features that are quite obvious, even if the organism if preserved. Other features, such as the type of digestive or nervous system present, may be taxonomically more important, but are often difficult to observe without dissection. A dichotomous identification key to the common phyla of marine benthic invertebrates has been provided. To make phylum determinations of animals using this key, common features such as size and body shape are indicated. But to make more precise phylum determinations of benthic animals with this key, additional characteristics are also emphasized.

A. Skeleton Several types of skeletal systems can be observed in benthic invertebrates. The skeleton may consist of a series of internal rigid parts covered by soft tissue. Or the skeleton may be external, such as the skeleton of a. crab, with the soft tissues inside. Other invertebrates lack rigid skeletal units entirely, and instead utilize their body’s enclosed fluids as a hydrostatic skeleton against which the muscles of the body wall can work.

B. Segmentation Several animal phyla feature body plans that are subdivided along the animal’s length to form a linear series of body segments, each one similar to those adjacent to it. Internal segmentation is usually evidenced at the body surface as a repetitive pattern of body divisions, each one frequently equipped with a pair of appendages. 77

C. Body Symmetry

Figure 3.1 Radial (A) and bilateral (B) body symmetry of two generalized sea animals. Several planes of symmetry exist in (A) but only one exists in (B).

Multicellular animals exist in two basic patterns of body symmetry: radial or bilateral (fig. 3.1). Radially symmetrical animals are circular in shape. Several different planes of symmetry can be drawn to divide the animal into mirror-image halves (fig. 3.1A). If a mouth is present, it is located at the center of the circular body. Without a head or tail, there is neither a right nor left side. The side with the mouth is defined as the oral side; the opposite side is the aboral side. Tentacles or spines often radiate outward from the axis of the body. Sensory cells or organs, such as light receptors, balance organs, and touch receptors, are also distributed radially around the body. Radially symmetrical animals are characterized by a simply organized nerve net without a “brain.” As a result, their responses to external stimuli are usually slow and limited. Most radially symmetrical animals are sessile. Radial symmetry appears in some sponges, all cnidarians and ctenophores, and most adult echinoderms. The radial symmetry of adult echinoderms is a secondary condition because they develop from larval forms that are not radially symmetrical. The remaining multicellular animals are characterized by bilateral symmetry. Only one plane of symmetry can be drawn to divide the animal into mirror-image halves (fig. 3.1B). Thus, all bilaterally symmetrical animals possess left and right sides, distinct head (anterior) and rear (posterior) ends, and a top (dorsal) and bottom (ventral) side. Associated with the head region are numerous specialized sensory receptors (ears, eyes, etc.) and an enlarged complex portion of the nervous system, the brain. 78

Key to Common Phyla of Marine Benthic Invertebrates

1 a. Animal microscopic or nearly so, not wormlike 2 b. Animal easily visible to the naked eye 4 2 a. Animal consists of a single cell Protozoa b. Body consists of numerous cells 3 3 a. Body surface lacking cilia Kinorhyncha b. Body surface covered with cilia Gastrotricha 4 a. Body with radial or pentamerous symmetry 5 b. Body not radially or pentamerousally symmetrical 6 5 a. Body soft or jellylike, with tentacles armed with stinging cells Cnidaria b. Body with five-sided symmetry, usually rigid; some covered with spines Echinodermata 6 a. Animal forming an irregular growth 7 b. Animal body bilaterally symmetrical 9 7 a. Animal forming rough, spongy growth, with numerous pores penetrating its surface Porifera b. Growth form consists of a colony of numerous small individuals 8 8 a. Colony forming flat, smooth, encrusting gelatinous sheets a few mm thick Chordata b. Colony in branching twiglike forms or in rough, flattened irregularly folded sheets Entoprocta and Ectoprocta 9 a. Body wormlike, lacking a rigid skeleton; not attached to substrate 10 b. Body not wormlike 16 1 0 a. Body flattened, leaflike Platyhelminthes b. Body not flattened 11 11 a. Body a few mm in length, elongate and cylindrical in cross section; moves by coiling and uncoiling body Nematoda b. Aminal larger than a few mm 12 1 2 a. Body segmented, often with surface scales’ or bristles Annelida b. Body not segmented 13 1 3 a. Body plump and inflated 14 b. Body very elongate 15 1 4 a. Animal with terminal anus, anterior end with spoon-shaped projection Echiuroidea 79 b. Animal with anus positioned in anterior one third of body Sipunculida 1 5 a. One or more pairs of gill slits present Hemichordata b. Gill slits absent Nemertina 1 6 a. Animal attached to substrate, body soft and inflated with two openings at terminal end Chordata b. Animal not attached to substrate; or if attached, covered with plates or shells 17 1 7 a. Body segmented, covered by thin exoskeleton, with numerous pairs of jointed appendages Arthropoda b. Body soft and unsegmented or covered by plates or shells 18 1 8 a. Animal enclosed in a thin, two-piece hinged shell with a stalk penetrating a hole in the shell Brachiopoda b. Animal covered with a shell of one, two, or eight pieces; or without an external shell, but with a muscular foot or eight tentacles; body unsegmented Mollusca 80

Name______Section______Date______

In contrast to the few phyla that are included in this key, local areas that you study on field trips may be occupied by several hundred species of benthic invertebrates. Keys for identifying these species have oñiy regional applicability and require more space than is justified here. Your instructor will recommend one appropriate for your area and explain its use. After you have become familiar with the way your key works, you may wish to key out one or two labeled specimens. Finally, six unkown specimens (labeled with identifying numerals only) will be provided. Sketch each organism in the space provided on the following pages. (The purpose of this exercise is not to determine your artistic talents but to sharpen your powers of observation. No six-legged crabs, please!) Key out the specimens and record the complete classification of each beside your drawing. Specimen No. Drawing:

Phylum:

Class:

Order:

Family:

Genus:

Species: Drawing: Specimen No.

Phylum:

Class:

Order:

Fa mii y:

Genus:

Species 81

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 11 Marine Zooplankton

Introduction Zooplankton are the animal members of the marine planktonic community. They range in size from microscopic protozoans to cnidarians over 10 m long. Most zooplankton occupy the second or third trophic level of the marine food web. As such, these herbivores and small carnivores play an exceptionally important role in the marine food web. The minute size of pytoplankton dictates that marine grazes also be very small. Therefore, many steps or links in marine food webs are necessary to support large marine carnivores. Laboratory studies of live or preserved zooplankton samples offer an opportunity to study the tremendous animal diversity found in the plankton community. Two major groups are usually evident: the holoplankton, those animals that remain planktonic throughout their life cycle; and the meroplankton, or temporary plankton, the larval forms of benthic or nektonic adults. Live samples provide an additional bonus in observing swimming and feeding behavior in these animals. Zooplankton samples for observation and identification are easily collected from near-shore -wafrs using a small coarse mesh plankton net (no. 10, mesh size=1 0?? m). This method for collecting c,yyu zooplankton is somewhat se ective, however, as many of the larger and/or gelatinous forms may either avoid the net or be shredded and 0 destroyed by the force of the water straining through the mesh. Within .çofr the last few years, the use of scuba-diving gear and deep-sea submersibles to observe these more delicate forms is giving marine biologists a more complete picture of the zooplankton community, particularly in the open ocean. The collection you will be observing will undoubtedly include some larger phytoplankton species as well.

I. Zooplankton Behavior Open-ocean sampling studies indicate that many species of organisms in the zooplankton exhibit diurnal (daily) vertical migration patterns, some of the larger forms covering hundreds of meters per day. We might expect small fish, squid, and large euphausiids (shrimplike crustaceans) that make up part of the open-ocean zooplankton to be able to cover great vertical distances under their own power; but what 82 of the very tiny forms? And what stimuli cause these animals to move up and down in the water column? This portion of the exercise will help you begin to answer these questions. From a fresh, well-mixed plankton sample fill a 100 ml graduated cylinder. With the classroom lights out or with the cylinder placed inside a large carboard box with cutouts for manipulation and observation, shine a narrow-beam light source on the surface of the sample and observe the reaction of the zooplankton. After a few moments, lift up the graudated cylinder and shine the light source from underneath and observe the reaction of the zooplankton. Are there zooplankton in your water sample that seem to be responding to the light source? If so, are the majority of them exhibiting a positive or negative phototaxis ( a movement toward or away from the light stimulus)? 83

Key to the Major Groups of Temperate Water Coastal Zooplankton

1 a. Animal single celled. Protozoans •-T•’r.l.

•••4.•.. . t

(Canr.ct.dJ • •.. •“ (Extirided) — .‘ , — ... \

...._ -— - - Tntinnid b. Animal consists of many cells 2 2 a. Animal radially symmetrical 3 b. Animal bilaterally symmetrical 4 3 a. Body, bell or cone shaped Cnidarians

1. seen from side 2. seen from above

- b. Body, spherical or nearly so ______Tenophores 84

Name______Section______Date______

4 a. Body non-segmented .5 b. Body segmented 9 5 a. Body elongate, wormlike Chaetognaths

b. Body not elongate 6 6 a. Body with definite ciliated regions 7 b. Body not ciliated 8 7 a. Body with mollusklike external shell and ciliated structures extending from it Mollusk larvae

b. Body complex in shape, with bands of cilia surrounding it Echinoderm larvae

8 a. Body robust, gelatinous Saips 85

b. Body s1ug1ike.Hetrops

9 a. Body with exoskeleton, segmented antannae, and usually with one pair of appendages on each body segment Crustaceans

Cyctooid cosDod Calanoid copsood Harpactacoid Copepod cop.pod nauplivs larva V 1L •\

cladocera

Cyprisstag.of barnaclelarva (9a1aus Dorsalview of tsil fan

Ns%lkasstsgsof bnads Eupl’ausiid 86

Nam e Section. Date______

b. Body elongate, without exoskeleton 10 10 a. Body wormlike, commonly with spines projecting from each body segment Annelid larvae

b. Body with one or two pairs of fins, gills, two eyes, and vertebral column Fish larvae

Halibut

Croaker

Anchovy

Rockfi sh 87

Specimen No. Drawing:

Phylum:

Subgroup:

Genus (if known):

Common name: 88

Name Section Date______

Exercise 4 Marine Mollusks

Introduction The phylim Molluska is largely marine, but also includes many freshwater and terrestrial forms. This is a very diverse nima1 group, with several members exhibiting complex and evolutionary advanced structures. Most members of this phylum have a hard calcareous external shell that surrounds an unsegmented soft body. Usually a large muscular foot is also present. The phylum is composed of six classes. Phylum: Molluska Class: Monoplacophora Class: Amphineura (Polyplacophora) --chitons Class: Gastropoda --limpets, snails, slugs, and abalone Class: Pelecypoda --clams, mussels, and other bivalves Class: Scaphopoda --tusk or tooth shells Class: Cephalopoda --squids, octopuses, and cuttlefish

Five of these classes are quite common, and representatives of each are included in figure 4.1. The class Monoplacophora was thought to have been extinct for at least 400 million years. But in 1952, ten living specimens were collected from a deep area in the Pacific Ocean off Costa Rica. Since then, additional specimens have been collected, but monoplacophorans remain generally unavailable for study.

Flgurs4.1 R.prsssnhstlvssof ffis *vs commonclass.. ofthuphyhm Mo$Ius.: (A) C.phslopods. ‘P Amihir,ii ca., rc PIucyoda. (0) Gastropoda.and(E) ScapIopoda. 89

No attempt will be made to study representatives of each class in exhaustive detail. Instead, representatives of two classes, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda, will be examined. This should provide some appreciation of the range of structural complexity exhibited by mollusks in general.

I. A Representative Pelecypod

A. Mytilus Anatomy Live specimens of the intertidal mussel, Mytilus, are provided as representative pelecypod mollusks for dissection and observation. Study. the external anatomy of the specimen. The animal is entirely enclosed in a bivalve shell. The hinge area where the valves are joined is the dorsal or top part; the opposite region is ventral. The shells of Mytilus are often encrusted by a variety of small attached animals. What ones can you identify?

To study the soft internal parts of the specimen, it will be necessary to remove one valve of the shell. This should be done carefully in the following manner. 1. Pry the shell open slightly with forceps or the screwdriver provided. While prying the shell open, you might speculate on the strength and tenacity of their common predators, sea stars. 2. Be careful not to damage more soft tissue inside than necessary. Insert a knife or scalpel between one shell and its mantle lining, and sever the large posterior and smaller anterior adductor muscles (see fig. 4.2 to locate their positions). The valves should now open easily. Remove one valve, leaving all the soft tissue of the animal “on the half shell.” To maintain the animal in good condition, place it on its side in a stacking dish and submerge in seawater at 15 degrees celsius. Examine the internal surface of the removed valve. It is concave, smooth, “pearly,” and marked by various scars caused by the attachment of soft parts. Locate the points of attachment of the two large adductor muscles (now severed) that hold the shell closed. Observe the concentric growth lines on the outside of the shell. In which sirections has most of the shell growth occurred? 90

Examine the soft parts of the animal (refer to fig. 4.2). Remember, the animals are still alive. Note the two large soft lobes of tissue that you removed from the edge of the valve. These comprise the mantle, which encloses the remaining soft parts. The large chamber between these lobes is the mantle cavity. The mantle secretes the shell material by continuously adding material to the entire surface of the pearly layer, causing it to thicken with age. Shell enlargement takes place only at its free margin. At the posterior end of the animal, the mantle lobes form the siphons. These are two openings through which water is carried to and from the mantle cavity. The dorsal siphon is the excurrent siphon that carries water and waste from the mantle cavity. The ventral (incurrent) siphon channels water and food from the outside into the mantle cavity. Carefully cut away the mantle lobe that covers the mantle cavity. This will expose the remainder of the soft parts and provide a good view of the general body organization. The dark, fingerlike foot is greatly reduced in comparison to most other pelecypods. In Mytilus, the foot is not used to dig but rather serves as an accessory organ to the byssal gland. Mytilus securesitseif to rocks, floats, or even each other with numerous byssus threads. Byssus threads are formed from a fluid secretion of the byssal gland. The fluid flows down a groove in the foot, which is held against the substrate. The Name Section Date______

Anterioradductor muscte

Flgur. 4.2 nt•rnaI •a$ur•sof hi marinsmusasiMyfllus dulia. L

A THREE-PLYREPRESENTATIONOF THE MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMSOF A QUAHAUG

‘Iiii ...ries of scnii-cliaira,umatu drawings ‘hos the rclatis pisitions lit major organ stems in the Nnrtiicrn Quahaug, •II,,.na,iis Paet’.naru: 1. it has been printed i.ack—ti,.hackso .bat three esliunc ran he tilt out, then folded, slippedsogcthcr, anti stapled iii the hinge area of the shell to lorni a scqucnccof iisihi,ats’ii’, Fisini the ixterior to the interior (if this mollusk. The muir ph reprreslIs she shill and is printed on white paper. For Ii.,tIsrJl •uiisira’t,Ii,. iti.pIt (h)utKisI of the .Ii parts — mantle and hod) siiacs — arc on cream colored paper. The siphons arc shmnn in the waIer—pisnpins,’ (ceding position. Dueto the man— 11crof 4ontruuItion small alcas of the Jicll appear on the diagrams of the iuft parts in the lsam(nl ;ln(I 111111w)arcas. Labels has’cbeen uhhd to I he ril,t half iii uhe i.;iwr q.sahatsg.Two additional slrawusigs pri.suie i,rwIstatuliII in u srtu,nal v.sw.

flieestions of larze qusaliau.gs. alutit I .f rI,tinclcrs is. length. OUTERSURFACES ansi ctsnns of Frozens1wcimcns niaik with a diasisond—blade,nit. OF VALVES silTsaw were ibe hasi fur the paper son%riu%iun.iliiss, ahbni!gii the sc.tirnial view is rr(bnv(l fr.isii the ;irttsal sizeof tb. specimens. a pronhinent scrnn(larv th,ickc,ii,it of the ‘hell — d,arattcrisiir of large, older qtialiu.gs —.- js sh.,tn.

The three—plyripresentalismn wa. developedin l(il h Dr. :i N. Shi.sster,Jr. a Ir;ti,ii,s aid in sonsurlilin with the Natisni;ul Shellfish S;tsiisatinusi’o .iraIn. (1. S. Ikpaitsmnt iii I bali h. Lihuscuitinn. and ‘rhfare.

ilic Northern anti in, bern Ossahas,g. .11,r(enann ?H.’rt,flnnn I.. and hi. .am/w1.ieui Gini-lin res1wssi,h . an anii’nt! cs-i-sal hi:ird dull hisak is ron,,iisrci.ulk hars.usI usithe Usuitid Stat.’. 1 his sisti lap in their rasnc I auijila ii. Fhuirislaansi ‘irqinis iii Ies.is amids *11Is h hi ishizisI.11w Ni,rth.,n Us.ah.tisg hr I l.-d :l; is know.. his-iIlv In v.ial smasiwsgrncr;uIk related to iie. In the Boston ss-liuhrsahtin;urkct tin sites are graded as: l.ittlenc.ks, itN)-(-lOper bushel; (:herr stones,32.i-:i(0 per bushel, minI Sharps, l(il)-2() per bushel. M New York’s Fsshnn Fish Market ihe arc dassiln.l as: little Necks, 450-hit) p bushel; Chcrnsinnrs, 300-323 per bushel; dc(hitsms, 181)p.r busheland Chowders (large), 125 per bushel.

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OUTERSURFACEOF BODYMASS INNERSURFACEOF MANTLE 92

Name____Section_Date___

You may remember from the Winkler determination for dissolved oxygen that iodine in the presence of starch produces an intense blue color. The red-brown color is produced by the action of iodine on dextrin, which is the result of the first step in the chemical breakdown of starch. Eventually the dextrin is converted to even simpler sugars, and no color appears when iodine is added. In this way, the progress of the enzymatic digestion of. starch can be closely followed. How much toime was required for the enzymes contained in the style to convert the starch to dextrin?

To sugar?

Did the starch-seawater mixture show any evidence of starch breakdown?

If not, why do you think the starch-seawater series was tested?

III. A Representative Cephalopod Examine a live or preserved specimen of the squid Loligo. Refer to figure 4.4 as a guide to the following description. Much of the body of the squid is covered by the mantle. The internal organs of squids and most other cephalopods are not covered by a hard external shell. Instead, a thick, muscular mantle provides mechanical protection in place of the shell. It may not be too apparent in preserved specimens, but the mantles of living squids are extremely streamlined in shape. The pair of posterior fins act as swimming stabilizers. The skin of the mantle presents a mottled color pattern, usually darker on the dorsal side. The dark coloration is derived from irregularly shaped pigment cells, the chromatophores. Squids and other cephalopods can control the size of the chromatophores by contraction or relaxation of the muscles that surround them. This allows the animal to rapidly alter its coloration as the appearance of its background changes. Loligo can quickly change from deep shades of 93 purple to almost white. Remove a small piece of mantle skin, and examine it under a dissecting microscope. Look for both contracted and expanded chromatophores. All cephalopods are capable of rapid swimming by forcefully expelling a jet of water through the excurrent siphon (sometimes called the funnel). Water enters the mantle cavity around the head. Contraction of muscles in the mantle seals then edge of the mantle around the head. The water within the mantle cavity is expelled as a jet through the funnel. The funnel is quite versatile and can be directed either forward or backward. This type of locomotion provides all cephalopods, but squids in particular, with a high degree of mobility and maneuverability. Squids are extremely rapid swimmers. They are faster than any other marine invertebrate, and some experts feel that they can easily outswim fish of a similar size. The eyes of Loligo are highly developed. Structurally, they are quite similar to vertebrate eyes such as ours (although the structures may be somewhat distorted in preserved specimens). External eye muscles provide a limited amount of movement within the eye socket. This type of eye gives cephalopods an ability to detect visual images accurately. Remove and open one eye of youx--quid and locate the structures shown in figure 4.5.

44 m*i 0 — L 94

Name___Section______Date____

Speculate on the need for good image vision in active predators, such as Loligo.

Squids, like other cephalopods, are called the “head-footed” mollusks because the head bears a crown of appendages that is homologous to the foot in other mollusks. Two types of appendages are found in squids. Eight short, stout arms, lined with suckers, surround the mouth. In addition, there are two longer tentacles equipped with sucker pads at their tips. What function can you attribute to the longer tentacles?

Find the mouth at the center of the ring of arms and tentacles. It is surrounded by a buccal membrane with several small sucker-lined projections on it. Located on the buccal membrane of mature females is small pouch, the sperm receptacle. Male squids produce sperm packaged in small saclike structures called spermatophores. During copulation (which often involves complex courtship behavior), spermatophores are transferred from the male squid to the sperm receptacle by a modified arm known as the hectocotylus. Alternatively, the male may place the spermatophores inside the mantle cavity of the female. In some octopods, the tip of the hectocotylus arm breaks off and remains in the mantle cavity of the female. This detached arm tip was initially misidentified as a parasitic worm of the genus Hectocotylus, and the name stuck. The female uses the sperm from the spermatophores to fertilize her eggs as they are produced. The eggs are formed into several masses, 95 each containing nearly a hundred eggs. The egg masses are attached to the shallow sea bottom and are left to develop without parental care. Make a cut between the two ventral arms and expose a round muscular structure, the buccal bulb. Carefully removed the attached membranes to expose the hard structure resembling a parrot’s beak. the beak is employed to bite and shred large pieces of food. Within the buccal bulb are two pairs of salivary glands. One pair secretes salivary enzymes and mucus for digestion. The second pair produces a venom which enters the prey through bite wounds inflicted by the beak. The buccal bulb also contains a tonguelike radula. Remove the radula, and examine it under a dissecting microscope. Sketch it in the space below.

Posterior to the buccal bulb is the esophagus, the tube which carries food to the stomach. To follow the course of the digestive tract, you will have to make a longitudinal cut through the ventral side of the mantle to expose the internal organs. Cut the muscles attached to the funnel and remove it. The esophagus passes through the head between the eyes, through the liver and pancreas to the stomach. Digestion of food begins in the stomach and is completed in the large saclike cecum, which projects posteriorly from the stomach. UASHELLS ] 4—-- 0 1• --—-——

S..

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NicluzaMoonSnil

4.. Sin SciI PictUfes of Seashells 96

2. Now we will apply your knowledge of how to use a dichotomous chart for finding the names of the following seashells. Using the terminology chart, Figure 12-2, for univalves, one-shell organisms, and bivalves, two-shell organisms, follow the dichotomous chart for the seashells, Figures 12-3. Starting with seashell #1, begin on the left side of the chart and follow the correct dichotomies until you end with the name of the shell on the right side of the chart. In the answer spaces, place the correct name of the seashell next to the number.

TI!MINOLOGY cHART

‘0

,w_ i

Place your answers (each shell has a number) for the seashells in the space below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 97

USINGA DICHOTOMOUSCHARTFORCLASSIFICATIONWORKSHEET — —I.

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3. For further practice see if you can make a dichotomous chart for the seashells. Cut the seashell pictures and place them into two major groups and then further subdivide them until all the organisms are separated from each other. Do not use words such as, just large or small since that would change depending on what stage of development you found the organism. Use the terms on the chart i.e., spire present, concentric rings, beak off center or on the end, or general terms of shape such as, volcano shaped, etc., to help you sepaiaie them. Tape the pictures down or use the names at the end of the chart. 98

Name___Section_____Date

Exercise 6 Echinod erms

Introduction The phylum Echinodermata is completely restricted to the marine environment, and its members are common inhabitants of the sea bottom from the intertidal zone to very deep water. Most adult echinoderms display an obvious five-sided, or pentamerous, body symmetry. Many also have a rigid or semirigid test that may carry movable spines. Internally, a unique water-vascular system circulates water, 02, and nutrients. This phylum consists of the following five classes (representatives of each class are shown in fig. 6.1): Phylum: Echinodermata -- the echinoderms Class: Echinoidea -- sea urchins and sand dollars Class: Asteroidea -- sea stars Class: Ophiuroidea -- brittle stars and serpent stars Class: Crinoidea -- sea lilies and feather stars Class: Holothuroidea -- sea cucumbers

I. Fertilization and Early Larval Development Many species of intertidal and shallow-water marine invertebrates produce large numbers of gametes that develop into planktonic larval forms. The larvae remain in the plankton community for a time, drifting with the currents and feeding on other plankton. Eventually the larvae settle to the bottom and metamorphose to a small benthic version of the adult animal. Such planktonic forms are very sensitive to variations in environmental conditions and are often difficult to maintain in the laboratory for long periods of time. However, demonstrating the fertilization process and early larval development of sea urchins in a laboratory situation is a relatively simple procedure. Sea urchins are readliy available in most coastal areas and can easily be induced to shed large numbers of gametes (eggs and sperm) without injuring the animal. Sea urchin eggs are quite large and normally become fertilized and develop externally in seawater. This facilitates microscopic observation of the fertilization processes. The sexes of sea urchins are separate but are very difficult to determine from external appearances. The adults can be induced to 99 shed their gametes by injecting them with 1 ml of 4% KC1. The gametes are released through five genital pores surrounding the anus on the aboral (top) side. The sperm appears as a white fluid and the eggs are yellow-gold. Several adults may have to be treated before a male and a female are induced to spawn. Collect the gametes separately by inverting the animals over a beaker of cool seawater. Typical sperm cells consist of a head and an elongated flagellum for locomotion (fig. 6.2). The head contains the nucleus with its ciromosomal complement. Most sperm are microscopic, but some toad. sperm exceed 2 mm in legth. Obtain a clean double depression slide and place a drop of sea urchin sperm suspension on the slide. Observe this under the microscope (high power). The eggs, or ova, are much larger than the sperm cells. Sea urchin eggs appear as small spots to the unaided eye. Some ova, such as the yolk of bird eggs, are enormous in size. The sea urchin egg is a spherical cell containing a nucleus, cytoplasm with yolk (stored food), and a surrounding vitelline, or plasma membrane. The quantity of yolk for the nourishment of the young varies greatly with different types of animals. The amount of yolk present determines the extent of development the embryo must achieve before it must feed.

F1,, 6.1 of ths *vs ctasss th• AsIsqo,s of ptyfum Echrnod.vm.ts:(A)Echiao.L (, Ciitodss. (O Hoiethre... md (E) Qplwvroeøsa. cm

FI 6.2 3.. urcfW s•q clii. 100

Name______— Section_ Date______

Fertilization, cont’d Birds and reptiles produce large yolks because the embryo must develop to a high degree prior to hatching. Human eggs, which are less than 1 mm in diameter, contain little yolk and must receive nourishment from the mother at a very early stage of development. Sea urchin eggs also are small and contain little yolk. The sea urchin larva begins to obtain food for itself a few days after fertilization. Place a drop of the egg suspension on a clean depression slide and observe under the microscope. With these live gametes, it is possible to demonstrate the process of fertilization (the fusion of sperm and egg cells) and eventual development to a swimming, planktonic sea urchin larva. This procedure is successful only if the gametes are kept cool and away from toxic substances (including the chlorine in tap water). Be sure to rinse glassware in clean seawater before using. It is also important to reduce problems of heating and evaporation from the microscope illuminator. Keep the illuminator intensity as low as possible for good observations. Gametes will not survive under observation conditions on a microscope slide. Therefore, it will be necessary to periodically replace the gametes under observation with others that have not been exposed to the heat and light of the microscope. When you are familiar with the appearance of the egg and sperm cells, gently mix a drop of the sperm suspension with two to three drops of eggs. Record the time and immediately observe with the microscope, as things begin to happen quickly. At the same time, the instructor will fertilize a large number of urchin eggs. After the excess sperm is rinsed off, these eggs should be maintained in a 15 degree celsius water bath. Use the eggs to periodically replace those under microscopic observation. This should be done every ten to twenty minutes. As soon as the sperm are added to the eggs, the following begins to occur. 1. Immediately after mixing, large numbers of the tiny sperm cells will cluster around the much larger egg cells (fig. 6.3). 2. Within two to five minutes a single sperm cell will gain entrance to the egg. Immediately, a visible fertilization membrane will begin to form around the surface of the egg. Draw a fertilized egg in figure 6.4A. 3. After the sperm enters the egg, the sperm nucleus that carries the male gene complement migrates toward the female nucleus containing the female gene complement and fusion of the two nuclei occur. Name. .Section Date______

-j Figur.e.3 Scanakigslctron microscogsof a a.. urchinsqqsivroundsd byspinucsII. (Court•syof MIs r.gn.r, ScsippsInstitutionof Ocisnography.) This may be observable about thirty minutes after fertilization. The nucleus enlarges and divides. This is followed by cell division. At this time, a clear hyaline membrane is formed around the egg just inside the fertilization membrane. 4. The first cell division, or cleavage, will occur about sixty minutes after fertilization. This if followed by additional cleavages at approximately twenty-minute intervals, forming four cells, eight cells, sixteen cells, etc. Draw an egg üiustrating the first cleavage (fig. 6.4B). 5. Continued cell division occurs, increasing the number of cells but decreasing their size. After six hours, a ciliated ball of cells, the blastula, is formed (fig. 6.4C). Observe the blastula stage from the preparation fertilized six hours previously. 6. Continued development will give rise to the gastrula stage one to two days later (fig, 6.4D). The pluteus larval stage (the planktonic larval form, fig. 6.4E) will develop 24-28 hours after fertilization, but may not be seen because of the difficultyin keeping them alive in laboratory conditions. p

C. Blanula

0. Gastrula

B. First cell division 1

E.Earlypluteus

A. Fertilized egg

C. Mult Rudiment Metamorphosis andgrowth

F. Latepluteus Fqur. 6.4 Th. d•v&opmsnt& cycli of th. s.. urchmStrongylec•ntrotua. 102

Name ___.Section — Date____

The pluteus larva of sea urchins exists as a small, free-swimming planktonic animal for one to several months. During that time, the pluteus feeds on small plankton and may drift long distances in the surface ocean currents. It is only during this drifting plankton stage that sedentary benthic animals, such as sea urchins, are capable of dispersing over large areas. During the latter part of its larval existence, the rudiment of what is to become the bottom-dwelling adult urchin forms within the pluteus (fig. 6.4F). At metamorphosis, the pluteus body begins to disintegrate, leaving a very small, “typical” sea urchin, less than 1 mm in size. By the end of the first year, the young urchin grows to several millimeters in diameter and will achieve sexual maturity in two to three years (fig. 6.4G). Sea urchins are abundant members of the shallow-water fauna found along most coastlines of the world. They often form extensive beds on rocky bottoms or graze slowly over the bottom feeding on the holdfasts of larger algae. Sea urchins are therefore locally abundant and can usually be obtained alive in sufficient numbers for the following study of echinoderm anatomy. Throughout the remainder of today’s laboratory period, you should keep your microscope handy to periodically check on the progress of your developing sea urchin eggs. Check on them every fifteen to twenty minutes.

II. External Anatomy of a Sea Urchin Examine a live adult sea urchin. Note the globose shape of its test, or skeletal shell. The oral (mouth) side is much more flattened than the aboral side. The pentamerous symmetry may not be immediately obvious in complete animals, but should be apparent in a cleaned test (fig 6.5). The test is composed of ten double rows of calcareous skeletal plates. Examine a clean test to observe this. Covering the test are numerous movable spines. Remove a spine and study its point of attachment under the dissecting microscope. How does the base of the spine correspond to the rounded tubercule to which it was attached?

Two rings of muscles attach the spine to the tubercule. One ring of muscles attaches the spine, the other moves the spine for locomotion and defense. Describe the spine reaction of a live sea urchin to the touch of a probe at the base of a spine. 103

Student Guide Name Starfish Dissection BioKit Date

Obtain a dissecting tray and a set of dissecting instruments. Place a starfish in the tray.

EXTERNALANATOMY Position the starfish with its aboral surface uppermost as shown in Figure 1. Notice the animal’s radial symmetry. The body is nor mally composed of five arms which radiate from a central disc. Sometimes an arm will be missing or greatly reduced in size. This indicates that an arm has been broken off. The starfish usually regenerates the arm, but sometimes it does not and sometimes two arms grow back instead of one. Near the edge of the central disc is a sieve plate (madreporite). Notice the many spines which Sev. project through the skin. Csnv Turn the starfish over and examine the oral surface (Fig. 2). Notice that a groove, the ambulacral groove, runs the length ofeach arm. Rows of tube feet are found in each groove. The tube feet are the primary means of movement. The mouth is located where the grooves come Figure1 together. Use scissors to cut about 2-3 cm off the tip of one arm of the starfish. Place this tip in a dish and cover it with water. Observe it un der a stereomicroscope or hand lens. Notice the large spines. Between the spines are soft “bumps” on the skin. These are the skin gills (dermal branôhiae). You will also see some small white claw-like appendages around and between the These the spines. are AflIb,4C?*I pedicellariae. grO

INTERNAL ANATOMY Use scissors to cut away the aboreal body wall from three of the arms as indicates by the dot ted lines of Figure 3. Begin at the arm from which you removed the tip. The sieve plate is

FIgure2 104

t ‘••A______: Sievep’ate Ca,øic

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Fgu,. 3 left to the outside of the cut. Lift the body wall as you dissect and free it from the soft internal tissues. Work slowly to remove the body wall from the central disc. It will be necessary to re move small portions at a time. The thin-walled intestine will adhere to the body wall and nust i&cans be carefully removed. When the body wall is re moved, identify the digestive glands which fill each arm. Remove the digestive glands from two of the arms. Beneath the digestive glands are the gonads (testes in the male, ovaries in the female). The size of the gonads depends on the stage of the breeding cycle when the starfish were caught. Identify all the structures shown on Figure 4. Remove the intestine and stomach to expose the parts of. the water vascular sys tem. Do not break te ;tone canal. Remove the gonads from one arm. Identify the parts shown in Figure 5. Water enters the water Figu S vascular system through the sieve plate and passes through the stone ring and radial canals to the ampullae. When the ampul lae expand, they create a suction force through the tube feet. This suction is used to grip objects. 105

Name___SectionDate__

Exercise 5 Marine Arthropods

Introduction Of all the members of the animal kingdom, the Artropoda must be considered one of the most successful phyla from the standpoint of diversity of species and number of individuals. Members of the Phylum Arthropoda account for over three-fourths (about 800,000) of all animal species identified. The arthropods are the only group of invertebrates to have invaded the terrestrial and aerial environments on a highly successful scale. One of the most distictive characteristics of the arthropods is a jointed external skeleton composed of a complex polysaccharide called chitin. This exoskeleton is not only useful as a defensive structure but also serves as a site of attachment for muscles. However, the exoskeleton does have some drawbacks. Movement of the body and appendages is limited to thin, flexible joints between segments or sections of the exoskeleton. To allow for growth, arthropods must shed their exoskeletons in a process known as molting. During the molting period, the animal rids itself of its exoskeleton and proceeds to form a new, larger exoskeleton. Molting is a vulnerable time for arthropods. The old exoskeleton is partially digested from the inside by specialized cells in the underlying tissue. The chitin is partially absorbed into the blood stream and redeposited as a new exoskeleton begins its formation within the old one. The new exoskeleton is not fully developed at this time. This soft, pliable exoskeleton allows the animal to extricate even its finest appendages as it casts off the old exoskeleton. However, in this state, the newly molted animal has neither a solid surface for muscle attachment nor a suitable defense against predation. The length of time necessary for the new exoskeleton to completely harden depends upon the species, but generally takes from a few hours to a few days. Based on the structure of their mouthparts, antennae, and other appendages, some taxonomists separate the living members of this phylum into two subphyla, the Chelicerata and the Mandibulata.

I. Chelicerata The subphylum Chelicerata is best described as arthropods without antennae. They have very few mouthparts and their head is never separated from their thorax (trunk region). Their first pair of appendages always bear pincerlike chelicerae. The Chelicerata are 106 divided into three classes, the Arachnida, the Merostomata, and the Pycnogonida. The arachnids are the true spiders, ticks, mites and scorpions. With the exception of some marine mites, all living members of this class are terrestrial. The marine mites are occasionally taken in plankton hauls over rocky reefs.

A. Merostomata The class Merostomata has an extensive fossil history, including extinct water scorpions (eurypterids) nearly ten feet long. This class is represented by only five living species. One species, Xiphosura (Limulus) polyphemus, is the horseshoe crab that inhabits shallow waters along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America. As a result of the scarcity of these animals, laboratory study will be limited to observations of the external anatomy. Use figure 5.1 as a guide to the external anatomy of the horseshoe crab. This group of marine organisms is characterized by six pairs of abdominal appendages. Special respiratory structures, called book gills, are located posterior to five pairs of appendages. These are flattened, buISA L VENTRAL Simpleeye

Ooundeye

Bookgills

Abdominal appendages

FIgur. 5.1 Dorsal andventral vi.w. of thi Piorieshoscrab Xlpfloaura 107 platelike appendages that are used to circulate water over the gills and to force blood in and out of the “pages” of the book gills. Two pairs of eyes are located on the carapace: a medial pair of simple eyes and a widely spaced pair of compound eyes. The telson is used for locomotion and steering.

B. Pycnogonida Pycnogonids, or sea spiders, are long-legged arthropods restricted to the marine environment. Although not generally well known, members of this group are actually very common. They can be collected from almost any clump of hydroids or bryozoans on wharf pilings or rocks. The intertidal forms are rather small, but some forms of deep-sea pycnogonids have a leg span of over two feet. Most pycnogonids are exclusively bottom dwellers. Others are capable of swimming and have been collected in plankton samples. 108

Name, Section Date______

Use figue 5.2 as a guide while studying small live specimens from a local intertidal area. Then compare these to a preserved deep-sea pycnogonid on display in the laboratory. A large proboscis is located at the anterior end and is used for sucking body juices from its prey. The number of appendages varies with the species, but seven pairs are typical. Usually in the male, one pair of appendages, the ovigerous 1cg3, are modified and used to carry egg clumps. In many species, the female lacks this pair of appendages. The last’ four pairs of legs are walking legs. A small unsegmented abdomen is at the posterior end of the animal.

Ieg

FIgur. 5.2 Sam.sxtrnalfiathresat a pycnogonid.

II. Marine Mandibulata The subphylum Mandibulata is by far the most successful of all the arthropods, for this group includes the classes insecta, Crustacea, Chilopoda (centipedes), and Diplopoda (millipedes). Usually, members of these classes possess segmented antennae and several pairs of feeding appendages near the mouth. The centipedes and millipedes are of minor significance on land, and none are marine. As numerous and abundant as insects are on land, very few of them have adapted to a completely marine environment (fig. 5.3). In complete contrast are the 109 crustaceans, which are abundant in both marine and freshwater habitats. In fact, very few species of crustaceans live on land. The most common one in North America is the sow, or pill, bug, Oniscus. Like other arthropods, the bodies of crustaceans are segmented with each body segment commonly bearing a pair of appendages. All crustaceans are equipped with two pairs of antennae, and most sport a broad shieldlike carapace covering the head and thorax. Many of the smaller forms of the planktonic crustaceans, including copepods, euphausiids, and cladocerans (fig. 5.4A, B, C) have thin exoskeletons with hairy or feathery appendages for feeding and for flotation. The larger and heavier crabs (fig. 5.4D), shrimps, and lobsters find suitable niches on the sea floor. Barnacles (fig. 5.4E) also make their home on the sea floor, attached to rocks and other solid objects. The class Crustacea is composed of about 26,000 species. Obvious and well-known crustaceans include shrimps, crabs, and lobsters. Other smaller, less obvious forms are a major component of the zooplankton (see Exercise 11). Selected representatives of this class will be used for anatomical and behavioral studies. —

I etfldII. ,I. $3 Om.o •. i,,vm. rn..cN. I sNI ,..dlmq o s smM c,v.rnC.11. (Co.sy Luns CM. 0 Caldov,is& 0490.)

‘I

c..ut ( —-- . IUL4 ‘!4’’ — ....MLn-r: (Q cci (m — cis Name. Section Date______DORSAL

rapaCI

VENTRAL

apsndaqs

G.nitsi plate (male)

Turtez Figure55 Extrnsl eatwesof the bluecrib CaIIin.ct.a. (Redrawnmd modiled froma ctisrt. Gm.rsl SiofogySppiy )4ou. Inc.,Chicago.Ill.) A. External Anatomy of a Crustacean The Atlantic blue crab, Callinectes, will be used for dissection and study of crustacean anatomy. This decapod crustacean exhibits many features common to all other crustaceans. Examine the external features of the crab, using figure 5.5 as a guide. 111

1. This crab has ten walking legs, hence the order name Decapoda (deca = ten, podus = foot). All the legs are basically alike, but each is modified for a special function. Remove the five legs from one side of the body and examine them. Draw the legs in the space provided, name them, and from their shape attempt to deduce their function. gibef 1 2.3.4 5

Drawing

—. Futinn: .

Are there any appendages missing? Crustaceans have the ability to regenerate missing parts with subsequent molts. Do any of the appendages show signs of regeneration? 2. At the joint, remove the chela from the rest of the leg. With a pair of scissors, start at the severed joint and cut along the dorsal and ventral surface of the chela to about 10mm behind the hinge of the pincer (fig. 5.6A). Next make a cut across the inside of the chela, connecting the dorsal and ventral incisions, and remove the loosened piece of exoskeleton (fig. 5.6B). Tease away the underlying muscles and expose the two central ligamentlike chitinous plates. The dorsal plate is very narrow and relatively fragile; whereas the ventral 112

Name__ Section___Date____

plate is large and broad. With your finger, manipulate the pincer, then alternatively pull the dorsal and ventral plates. What are the functions of the plates?

3. Why is the ventral plate larger than the dorsal plate?

4. Now examine the head region. The most anterior appendages are two pairs of antennae, that are sensitive to underwater sounds and hemicals. Behind the antennae are a pair of stalked compound eyes. Remove one eye and examine it under a dissecting microscope. Peel off the outer layer of the lenses from the eye. Place the lenses in a drop of water on a microscope slide, cover them with a coverslip, and observe them using a compound microscope. Sketch the lenses in the space below.

5. This eye structure is similar to that of insects, made up of many small lenses with fixed focal lengths. What advantages might this type of eye have over a human eye? What disadvantages? 113

6. Posterior and ventral to the eyes are five pairs of small appendages that function to collect and break up food and pass it to the mouth. The first two pairs are maxillipeds, the next two are maxillae, and the pair surrounding the mouth are the mandibles. Remove these appendages from one side and examine under the dissecting microscope. Attempt to determine the functions of each.

7. The dorsal surface of the crab is covered by a single, broad exoskeleton structure called the carapace. The border is fringed by spines and serrations. The posterior end of the ventral side of the crab is covered by the reduced abdominal segments. These segments form the genital plate that covers and protects the genital openings. The genital plate of the female is wider than that of the male. Draw the genital plates of both a male and female crab. 114

Name______Section_____Date___

B. Internal Anatomy Using strong scissors, cut around the edge of the carapace and remove it. Be careful to tease away the underlying tissue from the exoskeleton. This soft tissue, when strengthened by newly deposited chitin, will give you some idea how soft a newly molted crustacean is. Often internal details are hard to distinguish because of poor preservation. In spite of this, attempt to follow the path of food through the crab, listing the structures, in order, from the mouth to the anus (see fig. 5.7 to aid you). 1. Open the stomach, and examine the gastric mill (hard teethlike structures) located inside. The gastric mill and the lining of the esophagus, as well as the lining of the final portion of the digestive tract, are all connected to the chitinous exoskeleton and are discarded during molting. Move the mandibles with your fingers, and look for movement inside the body cavity. To what structure do the mandibles attach internally?

2. Notice that the gills are contained in a chamber separate from the other internal organs. Why do you think this is?

3. To aid you in discovering the exact circulation pattern, place a living crab in a clean stacking dish half-filled with seawater. With an eyedropper, add several drops of carmine solution or dilute India ink near the mouth of the crab and observe the current flow. How does the water leave the gill chamber?

4. Note the brushlike structure, known as the dorsal flabellum, that lies along the outside edge of the dorsal portion of the gills. Remove the gill filaments from one-half of the animal and find the other brushlike structure. What function do these structures perform?

5. What causes the flabella to move? To what are they attached? 115

Name_Section Date

6. Is there a difference in shape, structure, texture, or appearance of the gonads (ovaries or testes) between the female and male crabs? Describe any differences noted.

In both sexes, the gonads release their products through openings in the abdominal groove. The sperm of the male is embedded in a sticky ribbon. The small appendage located in the abdominal groove of the male is used to transfer these sperm ribbons to the underside of female’s abdomen. As the eggs from the female are extruded through her oviduct openings, they become fertilized and then are attached to the featherlike structures called pleopods located on the underside of her abdomen. The eggs normally stay attached to these pleopods until the early larval stages are completed. Eventually the eggs hatch, and the free-swimming larval forms called zoea are released as plankton. These zoea go through several molts in the plankton until thet are ready to assume a benthic role. The final larval molt produces a stage called the megalops. The megalops form looks much like the adult except its abdomen protrudes, and it has swimming appendages located on the underside of the abdomen. These are lost as soon as the next molt occurs.

III. Behavior of Exposed Hermit Crabs Hermit crabs of the genus Pagurus are small marine decapods common in intertidal areas. They have soft coiled abdomens that are protected with an empty snail shell or other similar material. When a hermit crab outgrows its shell, it must exchange it for a larger one. Normally, the unprotected abdomen is exposed only during the move from one shell to another. Gently handle the crabs. Notice how they back into their shell and block the entrance with their chelae. This and other protection-oriented behavior patterns are the basis of this study.

A. Work in groups of three or four. Remove three crabs from their shells by gently cracking the shells with a vise or by tapping the shells gently with a hammer until the shells break. 116

B. Set up the situations below. For each situation carefully observe and record the reactions and behavior patterns of the crabs. 1. Release three exposed crabs in a 10cm stacking dish containing a layer of sand. The sides of the dish should be painted or covered with black paper to make them opaque. Add only one broken shell to the dish. Which crab finally secures the shell?

2. Gently poke the soft abdomen of the crab with a toothpick to make it abandon its home. Repeat procedure no. 1 three times. Does the same crab win each time? Mandibularplate

Externalmandibular muscle Gonads

Posterior Dorsal gastric flabellum muscle C C

artery (overlyingmembranous heartremoved)

Figure 5.7 Internal anatomy of the blue crab Callinectessp. Membranes surrounding the gills, the baglike heart, and most of the gonadal tissues have been removed. (Drawing by Eva Oemick.)

44/Exercise 5 117

Topic Thirteen The Marine Vertebrates: The Fishes

I. OVERVIEW Fishes are the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates. They are highly adapted to survive in water -- gills for breathing and fins for locomotion. There are over 100 species of saltwater fishes that are found in waters off of Long Island.

II. CONCEPTS Jawless Fish Cartilaginous Fish Bony Fish Ectothermic Animals Countercurrent Systems Osmoregulation Countershading

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Identify the three major classes of fishes; B) Understand how fishes are adapted to survive in an aqueous environment; Identify the structure and function of body parts of cartilaginous and bony fish; D) Observe the behavior of selected species of fish in an aquarium environment; E) Identify down to genus and species a variety of local fish specimens.

IV. KEYWORDS Agnaths caudal gilirakers Cartilaginous pectoral gill filaments bony pelvic operculum fusiform dorsal spiracle compressed anal countercurrent depressed gill swim bladder attenuated gill arches osmoregulation ectothermic otoliths placoid ganoid cycloid denticles ctenoid chromatophores countershading 118

anadromous catadromous milt

V. ACTIVITIES

Adaptations in Fish Lab I - Compare Agnatha Chordrichtyes Asteichtyes - Sumich Can A Key be used to identify organisms? Shark Anatomy Lab - External - Sumich and Underhill Shark Anatomy Lab - Internal - Underhill and Underhill Adaptations of Fish Lab II Peich - Anatomy - External Peich - Anatomy - Internal Sumich, Biosect, Nasco and Chiasson Fish Scales Comparison Lab. 119

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data Q Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment.

VII. RESOURCES

BOCES# TITLE

109032 Life on Earth: Sharks #10 109033 Life on Earth: Bony Fish #11 108838 Fish 000263 Fish Embryo 120

Name Section Date______

Exercise 12 Adaptations in Fishes, I

Introd uction The phylum Chordata shows a remarkable diversity in form, from small invertebrate sea squirts to mammals. Most members of this phylum belong to tne subphylum Vertebrata, which includes fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (fig. 12.1). A few are members of the invertebrate subphyla Urochordata (tunicates and sea squirts) and Cephalochordata (Amphioxus). These diverse forms are included in the same phylum because they have some general characteristics in common. All members of the phylum Chordata, at some time in their development, have a notochord (a stiff but flexible rod of cartilage for support), pharyngeal gill slits or arches, and a dorsal hollow nerve cord. In tetrapod (four-limbed) vertebrates the pharyngeal gill slits are found only in the embryonic stages. Other chordates include the “fishes.” However, a fish is sometimes difficult to define. Usually this aquatic vertebrate is covered with scales, has fins, is poikilothermic, and obtains 02 from the water with gills. But some exceptions can be found to all these general characteristics. Obviously, a great deal of diversity in structure and life style does exist in the group of animals known as fishes. This and the following exercise have been designed to guide you in an exploration of some of the differences and similarties exhibited by marine fish.

0•

Figure 12.1 A phylogenetic tree of the chordate classes, illustrating the probably evolutionary relationships of these groups.

Existing fishes (Superclass: Pisces) are usually divided into three classes. 121

Class: Agnatha (lacking jaws) - lampreys and hagfish. These are the most primitive of existing fish, but they exhibit a mixture of primitive and specialized characteristics. Agnathans lack paired fins and biting jaws. The only living Agnathans are hagfish and lampreys. As adults, both are parasites or scaverngers on the other fish.

Class: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) -- sharks, skates, rays, and chimaeras. Sharks commonly store large quantities of oil in their livers. This oil is used as a food reserve and for buoyancy. Even so, they generally sink if they don’t actively maintain their position by swimming. They have biting jaws and paired pectoral and pelvic fins. Most Chrodrichthyes are restricted to marine waters.

Class: Osteichthyes (bony fish) -- essentially all other living fish. Osteichthyes vary in structure but have a bony skelton and usually a swim bladder (a hollow, air-filled structure used for buoyancy). Osteichthyes are widespread in the oceans and in freshwater lakes and rivers.

The first two classes will be considered in this exercise, the bony fish in Exercise 13.

I. Class Agnath The most primitive of all living fishes is the Agnatha. The most abundant member of this class is the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus. It grows to be 1 meter long and lives in both fresh and salt water. Under normal conditions the adult fish leave the ocean and enter freshwater tributaries to spawn. (Fish that leave salt water and enter fresh water to spawn are anadromous. Those that do the opposite are catadromous.) The young larvae, known as ammocoetes, live in burrows in the sandy bottoms of streams as filter feeders for three to five years. They then develop into juveniles, migrate out to sea, and becomes parasites on other fish. The adults normally live in the ocean for a year or two, then return to rivers to spawn. Shortly thereafter they die.

A. External Anatomy Using the prepared demonstration material and/or preserved speciments of Petromyzon, study their general external features. Note their lack of paired fins, scales, and lower jaws. Note also the single, median nostril, round mouth, horny teethlike structures, and the 122 rasping tongue. How does the shape and structure of the lamprey mouth reflect its parasitic way of life?

B. Internal Anatomy Use the prepared demonstration material available and/or whole preserved organisms. The internal structure of whole preserved specimens can easily be exposed by splitting the animal lengthwise into two equal halves. Use figure 12.2 to identify the internal structures of the lamprey. Locate the notochord, the straight rod of cartilage used for support, and other parts of the cartilaginous skeleton. Locate the brain, spinal cord, olfactory sac, and the large muscles of the tongue. What is the function of the straight supporting cartilage in the tongue?

Trace the path of water through the mouth to the pharynx and then into the round gill pouches. Note the arrangement of the gill filaments in the pouches. How many pairs of gill pouches are there?

How can water flow past the gills of this animal while it is attached to a host animal? 123

Name_ Section______Date______Mediannostri’

Liver Tongue Heart

Gill osning CsrtuIe Figure 12.2 Sagittal section of the head region of the sea lamprey Petromyzon.

How do you think water is moved over the gills if the lamprey cannot close its mouth and force the water back?

Do you think the single nostril atop the head is used for the intake of water? How can you tell?

Note the two-chambered heart located just posterior to the gills. The circulatory pattern of the lamprey is similar to that of other fishes. Therefore, you can postpone stddying th ircuiaoiy system until you get to the shark. Trace the path of food through the digestive tract. Describe any unusual features of the gut tract. (You may have to examine the shark for comparison before you answer this.) How does the general structure of the gut tract relate to the lampreys’ parasitic view of life? 124

Occupying much of the remainder of the coelomic cavity (body cavity) is a single large gonad. Eggs or sperm from the gonads are released into the coelomic cavity then exict via the urogenital sinus just posterior to the anus. Tubes from the kidneys (the ureters) also empty into the urogenital sinus.

C. Hagfish If hagfish are available for examination, observe the structural differences between the lamprey and hagfish. Especially note the differences in mouth parts, position of the nostril, and number of gill openings.

II. Class Chondrichthyes This is a very old group of fishes; in fact, some members haven’t changed much since the Paleozoic era (400 million years ago). Chondrichthyes includes the sharks and rays and the less well known sawfish and chimaera, or ratfish. (See preserved displays of these less common forms.) They range from near-shore plankton feeders and benthic scavengers to voracious predators in the open ocean. The dogfish shark (Squalus) will be used as an example of this class. It grows to 1 meter in length and is common along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the United States.

A. External Morphology Use prepared demonstration materials and preserved specimens to study the shark in much the same manner as you did with the lamprey. Refer to figure 12.3 as needed. Study the teeth and jaws. The size and shape of teeth vary widely among sharks, depending on their food preferences. What type of food would you guess the dogfish shark is best adapated to eating? Why?

How does the shape of the teeth compare to the placoid skin scales? (Remove a small piece of skin and examine under a dissecting microscope.)

Compare the number of externai gill openings with those of the lamprey or hagfish. Note the position of the spiracle. To what does it lead? 125

From what structure do you think the spiracle might have evolved?

Note the two dorsal fins, the upturned ‘(heterocercal) caudal fin, and the two sets of paired fins. The anterior pair are called pectoral fins and the posterior pair, pelvic fins. Can you suggest some relationship between the presence of well-developed fins and the existence of paired biting jaws? Name Date ______Can a Key Be Used to 2-2

Classification is a way of separating a large group of closely related organisms Into smaller subgroups. Identification of an organism Is easy with a classification system. The scientific names of organisms are based on the classification systems of living organisms. To identify an organism, scientists often use a key. A key Is a listing of characteristics, such as structure and behavior, organized In such a way that an organism can be Identified. OBJECTIVES • Use a key to identify fourteen shark families. • Construct your own key that will identify another • Examine the method used in making statements group of organisms. for a key. • Hypothesize how organisms can be identified with a key. •MATERIALS none PROCEDURE 1. Make a hypothesis to describe how sharks can six gill slits, follow the directions of lB and go be identified using a key. Write your hypothesis directly to statement 2. Follow statement 2B to In the space provided. statement 3. At statement 3A, identify the shark 2. Use Figure 1 as a guide to the shark parts used as belonging to Family Hexanchidae. in the key on page 15. 4. Continue keying each shark until all have been 3. Read statements lÀ and lB of the key. They identified. Write the family name on the line describe a shark characteristic that can be used below each animal in Figure 2. to separate the sharks into two major groups. 5. Have your teacher check your answers. Then study Shark 1 in Figure 2 for the characteristic referred to in lÀ and lB. Follow HYPOTHESIS the directions in these statements and continue until a family name for Shark I Is determined. For example, to key a shark that has a body that is not kite shaped, and has a pelvic fin, and

Dorsal(top)side FIgure 1. Firstdorsalfin Seconddorsalfin

fIn

Mouthback Analfin alongundsrs)d. Gill Pelvicfin silts Vantral(bottom)side

- rir • •11 j DATAANDOBSERVATIONS

14 Ii:L ij Date ______

1. A. Body kiteilke in shape (if viewed from above) Go to statement 12 B Body not kitelike in shape (if viewed from above) Go to statement 2

2. A. Pelvic fin absent and nose sawlike FamilyPrlstophoridac B. Pelvic fin present Go to statement 3

3. A. Sixgill slits present FamilyHexanchidae B. Five gill slits present Go to statement 4

4. A. Only one dorsal fin present FamilyScyliorhlnidae B. Two dorsal fins present Go to statement 5 5. A. Mouth at front of head rather than back along underside of head FamilyRhlnocodontidae B. Mouth back along underside of head Go to statement 6

6. A. Head expanded on side with eyes at end of expansion FamilySphyrnidae B. Head not expanded Go to statement 7

7. A. Top half of caudal fin exactly same size and shape as bottom half FamilyIsurtdae B. Top half of caudal fin different in size and shape from bottom half Go to statement 8

8. A. First dorsal fin very long, almost half total length of body FamilyPseudotriakidae B. First dorsal fin length much less than half the total length of body Go to statement 9

9. A. Caudal fin very long, almost as long as entire body FamilyAlopiidae B. Caudal fin length much less than length of entire body Go to statement 10

10. A. Nose with long needlelike point on end FamilyScapanorhynchidae B. Nose without needlelike point Go to statement 11 11. A. Anal fin absent FamilySqualidae B. Anal fin present FamilyCarcharhinidae

12. A. Smalldorsal fin present near tip of tail FamilyRajidae B. Smalldorsal fin absent near tip of tail Go to statement 13 13. A. Hornllkeappendages at front of shark FamilyMobulidae B. Hornllkeappendages not present at front of shark FamilyDasyatidae ANALYSIS

1. What is a biologicalkey and how is it used? ______

2. LIst four dIfferent characteristics that were used in the shark key.

3. a. Which main characteristic could be used to separate Shark 4 from Shark 8? ______

b. Which main characteristic could be used to separate Shark 4 from Shark 7? ______

• ____ 126

Name______Section______Date______

dotsa I., Sco.id dorsii

NoutvW

Pctoal Figure 12.3 External features of the shark

Sharks and rays have internal fertilization. Males have claspers located near their pelvic fins to aid in copulation. What advantages does internal fertilization have over external fertilization (as in sea urchins)? Locate the lateral line system that extends along each side of the body and divides into several branches over the head. Sensory cells located in lateral line canals beneath the skin are sensitive to water movements and underwater sounds. Notice the abundant pores, called the ampullae of Lorenzini distributed over the head. When the area around the pores on the snout is squeezed, a jellylike material is exuded. Make a deep V-shaped cut through the skin in one of the snout pore patches. Pull the point of skin and underlying tissue forward and examine its underside. Each pore leads to a jelly-filled tubule, which in turn leads to the expanded ampuIla Nerve endings located in these ampullae are extremely sensitive to water vibrations and, in some sharks, low intensity electrical fields. The relationship between these ampullae and the shark’s central nervous system will be explored later when the brain is exposed.

Why might the lateral line system be iiioe effecive than ears for sound detection in water? 127

Compare the basic body plan of the shark to that of the skate or ray. Describe or draw each of the general features in Table 12.1 for the lamprey, shark, and skate or ray.

Table 12.1 Comparative Body Plan of Lampreys, Sharks, and Rays

Feature Lamprey Shark Skate or Ray General body shape

Lower jaw

Teeth

Pectoral Fins

Pelvic fins

Sp irac1es

Dorsal fins

Caudal fin s

B. Internal Anatomy Open the coelomic cavity and note the location of the major internal organs. Refer to figure 12.4 as needed. Make comparisons of the internal anatomy of the shark with that of the lamprey. Remove the large liver lobes. Cut off a small piece of liver and place it in water. Does it float? What provides the buoyancy? Why is the shark’s liver so large? 128

The digestive tract ends at the anus. Work forward from the anus to open the intestine and stomach; then examine any contents. Note the unique spiral arrangement of the intestine. Sketch the opened stomach and intestine and label each section with its hypothesized function and how it is adapted for that function. 129

Name Section Date______

Figure 12.4 Internal features of the shark.

What is the design advantage of the spiral valve?

• How do the ovaries of the female dogfish shark differ from the testes of the male? 130

Examine the uterus for embryos. Are the embryos surr oun ded by an egg case?

Not all sharks provide internal development of their young. Some are egg layers. Examine the shark egg cases on demonstration. How might internal development of the young be of survival benefit to this species?

Extend the incision forward between the gills to the lower jaw. Notice the cartilaginous rods that support each gill arch. Do these give any indication of the probable origin of the lower jaw?

Notice the major blood vessels leading to and away from the heart. Open the heart and locate two prominent cavities, the atrium and the more muscular ventricle. The atrium receives blood returning from the body. The blood is delivered to the ventricle, which pumps it through the large aorta to the gills. From the gills the blood is distributed to the rest of the body. Diagram below the circulatory system of the shark from the point where blood enters the heart until it leaves the gills. Include the direction of the blood flow.

Sharks have skeletons of cartilage and lack hard calcified tissues in the body and head. Therefore, the shark’s brain is relatively easy to expose. Use a razor blade or sharp scalpel to carefully remove in thin layers the top and sides of the skull. Refer to figure 12.5 to identify these structures as you go. Expose the brain and semicircular canals. These canals function as organs of equilibrium for the shark. 131

Figure 12.5 Dorsal exposure of the shark brain and cross section of the eye. Central nervous system and major nerves are shown in white. (Adapted from S.G. Gilbert, Atlas of general zoology, Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1975.) 132

Name______Section______Date______

Locate one of the olfactory bulbs just inside the nostril. Open it. Suggest a function for the numerous gill-like flaps in the cavity of the olfactory bulb.

Trace the prominent olfactory nerve to the olfactory lobe of the brain. Judging from the relative size of the olfactory lobes, how important do you think the sense of smell is to this shark?

Other major nerves leading the brain are the pair of optic nerves to the eyes. Open the eye by cutting it in half horizontally. How does the structure of this shark eye compare to that of the squid (p. 32)?

Still other major nerve tracts connect the brain to the complex extensions of the lateral line system that lies just under the skin of the head. How might a shark benefit from the ability to detect weak electrical fields as well as sound vibrations in water? 133

Name______Section______Date______

Exercise 13 Adapations in Fishes, II

Introduction Like sharks, the Osteichthyes also have a long evolutionary history. Perhaps as a consequence of repeated isolation in varied freshwater niches, modern bony fishes exhibit a diversity of species unmatched by any other group of vertebrates. This diversity of body form is reflected in the identification key beginning on page 128. Note that this key includes only those families of bony fishes that are frequently encountered in the coastal waters off our eastern and western coasts. Meaningful studies of bony fishes can be accomplished using a variety of preserved specimens. However, these studies can be greatly enhanced with fresh animals collected locally with hook and line or with seines. Certain behavioral and functional attributes can frequently be best studied in the animal’s natural habitat by diving or, if that is not feasible, in display tanks of local aquaria. You are encouraged to emply any or all of these approaches to supplement the laboratory examination of a preserved marine bony fish that is detailed here.

I. Morphology of a Marine Bony Fish Your instructor will provide you with a specimen of a common marine bony fish for examination. Use the identification key and the labeled illustrations in figure 13.1 to determine the family and common name of the fish you are studying. What are its chief identifying characteristics?

A. Skin Scales Note the skin scales, which can easily be removed. Remove one and look at it under the compound microscope. Note whether it has small spines on it (ctenoid scale, fig. 13.2A), or if it is smooth (cycloid scale, fig. 13.28). The age of a fish can often be determined in much 134 the same manner as the age of a tree, by its growth rings. Draw a picture of a scale from your specimen.

What type of scale is it?

Figure 13.1 External features of two common forms of bony fish. Dorsai fin

fin

Pectoralfin

(i.corid) dorsalfin

fin Figure 13.2 Two types of fish scales: (A) ctenoid scale and (B) cycloid scale. (Photographs courtesy Carl Hubbs, San Diego.) 135

Name______Date______

B. Fins The dorsal fins of fish exhibit a large amount of variation. It may be a single continuous fin or divided either partially or completely into two separate structures. The composition of fins may also vary greatly. Normally the dorsal fin is composed of either spines (soft or hard) or rays or both. Spines are clear, usually hard, single and usually sharp. They may be connected with adjacent spines by tissue or they may stand free. Rays are soft. They appear segmented under the microscope, and they are branched or tufted on the end. Observe the demonstration specimens for different dorsal fin types. What is the nature of the dorsal fin of your fish (is it separate, all spines, all rays, etc.)?

Make a sketch of one or two rays (from your observations under the microscope).

What advantage might there be for a fish to have soft rays?

What advantage might there be to having spines? 136

Observe the caudal fin of the tuna or bonito on demonstration. Draw it, then compare it to the caudal fin of your fish. How are they different?

Note the finlets on the tail and the ridge, or lateral keel, found on the sides of the tail of the tuna or bonito. What function can you hypothesize for the lateral keel?

How are the enlarged pectoral fins of the “flying fish” (on demonstration) of adaptive value to the fish?

The remora on demonstration is a scavenger of shark prey. Locate its highly modified dorsal fin and postulate its function.

Examine the pelvic fins of a tidepool clingfish (Gobiesox). How do you think these fins are employed?

C. Gills Remove the operculum (gill cover) of your fish and inspect the gills. Note the red (in fresh specimens) gills that are filled with blood capillaries. Sketch the gill arch. 137

Remove a gill filament from your fish and make a cross section with a razor blade. Inspect it under a compound microscope. Can you locate the major vessels carrying blood to and away from the gill? 138

Name______Section______Date______

Study the gill rakers of the anchovy (or herring). What type of food do you think it eats, and how do you think the food is obtained?

D. Swim Bladder Open the coelomic cavity and identify the major internal organs. Does your fish have a swim bladder? If it does, it will be located just ventral to the vertebral column. This is a flotation device unique to bony fishes. Inspect the swim bladder to see if it connects with the esophagus. Draw the swim bladder and associated structures.

E. Muscles Cut into musculature midway along the body. Are all the muscles white or are some red? What is the approximate ratio of red to white muscle tissue in this region of the body? What is the significance of red muscle cells for a swimming animal?

F. A Comparative Summary If available, compare a sole (or other flatfish) with a bass (or other rockfish) and a mackerel, bonito, or other scombrid in regard to the features listed in table 13.1. 139

Table 13.1 Comparative Features of Three Varieties of Common Bony Fish

Feature Flatfish Rockfish Scombrid Scales: size and type

Dorsal fin: size, shape, and number

Caudal fin: shape and flexibility

Swim bladder: presence and size

Body muscles: ratio of red to white

How do each of these general features relate to the normal habitat and lifestyles of the fish listed in table 13.1? 140

II. Identification of Bony Fishes

Key to the More Common Families of Coastal Bony Fishes of North America’

1 a. Eyes on same side of head 2 b. Eye on each side of head 3

2 a. Caudal fin absent Cynoglossidae (tonguefishes)

b. Caudal fin present Bothidae (halibuts and soles); Pleuronectidae (turbots, soles and flounders)

3 a. Pelvicfins absent 4 b. Pelvicfins present 15 4 a. Bodynot eellike 5 b. Bodyeellike 10 5 a. Caudal fin absent, body rounded Molidae (sunfishes)

b. Caudalfin present 6

6 a. Caudal fin very tall and rigid, upper jaw flattened and swordlike Xiphidae (swordfishes)

b. Caudal fin soft, about as tall as broad 7

7 a. Dorsal fin with soft rays and spines 8 b. Dorsal fin with soft rays only 9

1Adapted from D.J. Miller and R.N. Lea, “Guide to the CQastal Fishes of California,” California Department of Fish and Game, Bulletin #157. (1972): 13- 31. 141

Name Section______Date______

8 a. Dorsal fin spines separated from soft rays Balistidae (triggerfishes)

b. Dorsal fin spines connected to fin with soft rays (butterfishes)

9 a. Upper teeth fused into one, skin spiny Diodontidae (porcupine fishes)

• •

b. Upper teeth fused into tw , skin smooth Tetraodontidae (puffers)

10 a. Pectoral fins absent

b. Pectoral fins present 11

11 a. Dorsal fin without spines Ophichthidae (snake eels)

b. Dorsal fin with spines 12

12 a. Body encased in bony p1ates.. syngnathidae (sea horses and pipefishes)

b. Body not encased in .b.ony plates 13

13 a. Caudal fin forked (sand lances)

b. Caudal fin not forked 14

14 a. Anterior portion of dorsal fin spiny Cebidichthyidae (monkey-faced eels) 142

b. Dorsal fin entirely spiny....”....Pholididae (gunnels)

15 a. Pelvic fins abdominal 16 b. Pelvic tins thoracic 31

16 a. Onedorsal fin 17 b. Two dorsal fins 23

17 a. Caudal and dorsal fins rounded Cyprinodontidae (killifishes)

b. Caudal and dorsal fins not rounded 18

18 a. Lateral lines absent 19 b. Lateral lines present 21 present.:2 19 a. Photophores ...... uonostomatidae (brisciemouths)

b. Photophoresabsent 20

2 0 a. Tips of jaw and snout even Clupeidae (herrings and sardines)

b. Tip of snout projects over lower jaw Engraulidae (anchovies)

2 1 a. Five to seven finlets following dorsal and anal fins Scomberesocidae (sauries)

b. Finlets absent 22

2 2 a. Pectoral fin longer than one-third of body Exocoelidae(flying fishes)

b. Pectoral fin shorter than one-third of body Belonidae (needléfishes) ______23 a. Both dorsal fins with rays 24 b. Second dorsal fin soft, without rays 27

24 a. Snout tubular Centriscidae (snipefishes)

b. Snout not tubular 25

25 a. Lower jaw projecting, teeth large Sphyraenidae (barracudas) 143

b. Jaws even, teeth small or absent..- 26

2 6 a. Three spine in anal fin ..Mugilidae (mullets)

b. One spine in anal fin —‘kAtherinidae (silversides)

27 a. Origin of dorsal fin opposite or posterior to pelvic fin origin....28 b. Origin of dorsal fin anterior to origin of pelvic fin 29

2 8 a. Lower teeth large, caninelike Synodontidae (lizard fishes)

b. Lower teeth small, few ...Osmeridae (smelts)

40 a. Dorsal fins separated Anaplopomatidae (sablefishes)

b. Dorsal fins not separated 41

4 1 a. Five spines on preopercie Scorpaenidae (rockfishes)

b. Preopercie without five spines 42

42 a. Suborbital stay (bone below eye) present Hexigrammidae (greenlings) b. Suborbital stay absent 43 4 3 a. Anal fin with one or two spines 44 b. Anal fin with three or four spines 46

fiu ‘1 ... Lara line extending onto cauda Scianidae (croakers)

b. Lateral line not extending onto caudal fin 45

4 5 a. Dorsal fin same t (ocean whitefishes)

b. Second dorsal than the first Pomacentridae (blacksmiths) 144

4 6 a. Two anal fin spines isolated from remainder of fin Carangidae(jacks)

b. Anal fin spines connected to remainder of fin 47

47 a. Snout pointed, teeth very small Laetodontidae(butterfly fishes) b.

4 8 a. More than ten anal fin soft rays Embiotocidae (surfperches)

b. Ten or fewer anal fin soft rays 49 145

Name Section______Date______

4 9 a. Anterior teeth caninelike ,Labridae (wrasses)

b. Anterior teeth not caninelike . 50

50 a. Soft-rayed portion of anal fin shorter than soft-rayed portion of dorsal fin (sea basses and groupers)

b. Soft-rayed portions of anal and dorsal fins about equal Kyphosidae (sea chubs)

5 1 a. Pelvic fin with less than five soft rays 52 b. Pelvic fin with more than five soft rays 64

52 a. Upper jaw projected into a spear Istiophoridae (sailfishes and marlins)

b. Upperjaw not as a spear 53

53 a. Photophores present Batrachoidadae (midshipmen)

b. Photophores absent 54

54 a. Body encased in bony plates •...•....•. Agonidae (poachers) ...

b. Body not encased in bony plates 55

55 a. Isolated spines anterior to dorsal fin Gasterosteidae (sticklebacks)

b. No isolated spines anterior to dorsal fin 56

5 6 a. Body not elongate, eellike 57 146 b. Body elongate,eellike .59 i 7 a Cottidae (sculpins)

b. Anal fin spines present 58

:58 a. More spines than soft rays in dorsal fin Clinidae (fringeheads and kelpfishes)

b. Fewer spines than soft rays in dorsal fin Blenniidae (blennies)

5 9 a. Dorsal fin entirely of spines 60 b. Dorsal fin entirely of soft rays 61

60 a. Anus positioned in anterior half of body Stichaeidae (picklebacks) ______

b. Anus positioned in posterior half of body Pholididae (gun nels)

6 1 a. Tail forked Trichiuridae (cutlass fishes)

b. Tail tapered, not forked 62

6 2 a. Pelvic fins on chin or under eyes Ophidiidae (cusk eels)

b. Pelvic fins not on chin or under eyes 63

6 3 a. Pelvic fins chublike Zoarcidae (ecipouts)

b. Pelvic fins not long, not clublike Brotulidae (brotulas)

barbels under chin Merlucciidae

b. Barbelspresent 65 147

6 5 a. Caudal fin absent, tail pointed Macrouridae (grenadiers)

b. Caudalfin present 66

6 6 a. Three dorsal fins Gadidae (cods)

b. Two dorsal fins Moridae (codlings) 148

Biosect DISSECTION LAB Perch Master 1

Name Date

3 0

Lateralviewshowingexternal anatomicalfeatures.

3 0 ‘S ‘S S 3 2 S 3 — 3 ‘S 5 3 3; • 0

a 3 C 3 ‘S

B‘S I, 0

Figur. I 149

Biosect DISSECTION LAB Perch Master 1

Name Date

1 U

0 ‘-4 C

0 esophagus (testisorovary) — gillrakers

11)

z 0 -4 U C,) C’) -4 poreor abdominalpors

rJ) ‘1)

.— 151

Biosect DISSECTION LAB Perch Master 2

Name Date

Dissectedtoshowinternalanatomical Structures.

Flgur• 2 152

Student Guide Name______Perch Dissection BioKit Date______

Obtain a dissecting tray and a set of dissecting instruments. Lay a perch on its side in the dissecting tray.

EXTERNAL ANATOMY

Use Figure 1 to identify the parts of the external anatomy. Carefully lift the posterior edge of a scale without breaking it. Grasp the scale with forceps and pull posteriorly to remove it. Examine the scale with a hand lens or stereomicroscope. This is a ctenoid scale, so called because of the ctenii (teeth) on its posteior edge. The anterior edge appears frilled and has grooves or radii which radiate from a center or focus. Ctenoid scales are characteristic of fish with bony spines in their fins.

INTERNAL ANATOMY

Beginning at the junction of the head with the body, remove the skin from one side of the perch to the posterior edge of the anal fin. Notice that the muscles occur in “W” shaped blocks. Each block is called a myomere. Contractions of the myomeres bend the fish’s body, producing the swimming motions. Lift up the operculum on the left side (the perch’s left) and make the cuts indicated by the dotted line on Figure 2 to expose the gills. Lift up one gill and cut it free. Place the gill in some water and examine it under a hand lens or stereomicroscope, identifying the parts shown in Figure 2. The brachial arch is a bone which supports the soft gill filaments. The anterior edge of the gill arch has comb-like projections, the gill rakers. These help to screen out debris which might clog or damage the gill. Oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange occurs through the thin walls of the gill filament. Remove the other gills. How many gills are there on one side? Beginning at the point indicated by the arrow in Figure 3, make the incisions indicated by the dotted lines. Figure 1

•

Figure 2 Figure 3 Pylonc cica Stom.a 154

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VIntrij aois Bulbgsirtios Gonac ---U..’

Figure 4

Be careful not to injure the internal organs. As much as possible, leave all internal membranes intact and in place. Lift away the body wall and discard it. Identify the structures shown on Figure 4. If you have female fish, its gonard (ovary) may be enlarged with eggs. If so, it will be necessary to remove the ovary to clearly see the abdominal organs. It may also be necessary to do some extra trimming to see the head of the kidney, the urinary bladder, and the swim bladder. The kidney runs from the kidney head dorsal to the swim bladder as a thin bit of dark tissue. Fat will often be found in the membranes attached to the intestines.

BRAIN

Olfactory lObS Remove the skin and muscle from the back of the skull where the head attaches to the body. This Cereorum should expose a sharp bony spine projecting from the back of the head. This is supraoccipital of the skull. The brain lies within the skull anterior Otc oes just to the supraoccipital. Carefully remove the mus cle on each side of the supraoccipital up to the eyes. In doing so you will remove the inner ears Cerebellum (semicircular canals, etc.) Break away the bones of the skull to the brain. The brain ‘is MdulIi expose u.,wcd jtl a clear jetly-like maLerlat ana is covered by a dark membrane, the men mx. Remove the meninx and identify the parts shown Somacord in Figure 5.

Figure 5 155

Topic Fourteen Marine Reptiles - The Vertebrates

I. OVERVIEW Of approximately 6,000 species of reptiles only about 40 have returned to marine environments. There are three groups: one lizard, seaturtles, and sea snakes. The success of this class is primarily due to the development of the hard-shelled eggs, except for the sea snakes.

II. CONCEPTS Osmoregulation Migration Exploitation

III OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) understand how the marine reptiles evolved from land-based animals to marine; B) understand how water and salt balance is maintained through osmoregulation; C) understand the migration ability of marine turtles and its implication in survival; D) be aware of human exploitation of marine reptiles and its consequences on their chance for survival.

IV. KEYWORDS Osmoregulation Uric Acid Salt Glands Carapace

V. ACTIVITIES

Adaptation Lab (Fur, Feathers, Skin and Scales) NTA #219 156

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solvong) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES

BOCES# Title 104192 Reptiles and Amphibians 108852 Reptiles 107262 Frogs, Snakes and Turtles 157

Topic Fifteen Marine Birds -- The Vertebrates

I. OVERVIEW Marine birds are reliable indicators of the productivity of the surface waters of the ocean. Wherever they are found in great concentrations, there the waters will be teeming with life. Although many birds remain at sea for a long time, all marine birds return to shore to nest.

II. CONCEPTS Feeding Adaptations Ecological Importance Adaptation for Survival

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand how marine birds evolve from land-based animals. B) Identify survival strategies of various forms of marine birds. C) Become familiar with a number of local species of marine birds.

IV. KEYWORDS Nitrogenous Wastes Ground Nesting Birds Flight Feathers Buoyancy Preen Migration Nictitating Membrane Guano

V. ACTIVITIES

Bird Adaptation Study - National Audubon Society Bird Feather Study Lab

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data 158

C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES

Boces

Birds of the Sandy Beach COPYMEPAGE BirdAdaptationStudy Bills,feet. wings, and tails reveal many bird habits—they are wonderful examples of nature’samazing ingenuity in solving the problems ofsurvival.

For .xcmpl.: Thehurnrn1ngbird delicate,needle-likebeckis adapted forprobingdeepintoflowersto feed on nectaL Long. ¼ pointed wingsandstrong flight musclesenableIttohover forlongperiodsoftimewhilefeeding.

BILLSofbirdsarevariouslyadaptedforpro WINGsizeandshapevarygreatly.Some curing different foods andalso ser’e for wingsaredesignedforsoaring, forsudden nestbuilding. preening feathers,and turnsandrapidflight,orforeasylong-dis prot.ctiori. tancetravel. :z.i arebuilt forperching. scratching, TAflISprovidebalance whenperching and walng, swimming,andseizing prey. flying, and are rudders during flight.

ADAPTATIONSOFBILlS

S.EATfl4G. (a)Short, INSEC1’.EATING.(a) PO3!NG. (a)Long, PRETG. Strong.sharp. thickbillforcruahng Sl.nd.r. point.d beaklot sl.nd.r billlot probingIn hookedbillfortearing ...da. Examples:spar- pchng up tric1s. Exam rnudtnseatchoffood. fleshofprey Examples: row.grosb.ak. bunthg. pl.s warbl.t vleo. ) Exompl.s:snip.. woQd owl,hawk.falcon. inch. ) Upperandlower Wrywid. mouthforcotch cock.othersandpip.rs.) vandibl.s crou.d to frctsanth.w1n. Long,sl.nd.r billlot enable bizdtoextractseed Exampl.Lswallownight probingth. n.c of fromcones at vergreen hawk, swift. Cowerstof..d onniclaL .ss. Ezp].: asth1ll Example:hummingbird.

$TRAIIItNG.Broad,flat. GOUND-r&wDG. FI5fl.EATDI C. (a)Long ) WItha fleb!. pouch n.d billforsning Shait stoutbilllotf..dlng andshaTpfor underneathlotholding d frommud.Exarnpl.s onth. ground. Eaamp iK Example: fj Example duct ge. bthwh.. ADAPTATIONSOF

PERCHING.Threetoesin WADING.Longlegs, SCRATCHING.Claws SWIMMING.Threefront front,onebehind. Most longslendertoes.The strongandbluntforraking icesfullywebbed.Exam fcmi1ar busdsoreofthis thre. longtoeskeepbird orscratching theground ples:goose,gull,duck. type.The footoutomati fromsinkingintothemud. forfood.Examples: cdflyclasps theperch Examples:gathnule, pheasant. quail, grouse. when theleg isrelaxed. heron.sandpipst Examples:sparrow.chick- ad... robin. CW’BING. Twotoesin PREYING.Pow.rfulfeet front,twotoesinback, and l.gs w2thstrong, sharp claws forclingingto curved, sharp talonsfor an upnght surface with grasping prey.Examples: ease Example: hawk, owl,eagle. wcodpecker

ADAPTATIONSOFWWGS

Short,rounded wings for Long,pointed wingsfor speedy take-offand fast fast,eazyflightinth.pur. flightovercomparatively Long.broad wings far suitofflyinginsects. short distances. Exam sV’ong, soaring. .fiortless Examples:swallow,swift. ples:pheasant, woodcock. flight.Examples:hawk, eagle. hummingbird. grouse.

ADAPTATIONSOFTALS

bi featherswith epln.-lik. tipsforuse as a Long,forkedtailforgrace prop orsupportwhen Broad.fannedtailforsoar ful.skinuningflightand clinging toverticalaur ing.Example:but.o.typ. xtrememaneuverczbthty bees.Examples:wood hawk. Examples:tern, barn psckezswift,brown ipe swallow.frigat.bird. 159

Topic Sixteen Marine Mammals

I. OVERVIEW Evolving approximately 50 million years ago from land-based animals, marine mammals are among. nature’s greatest creations. These mammals include the whales, seals and sea cows. Marine mammals have adapted so successfully that they hold the dominant position among all animal life in the sea.

II. CONCEPTS Evolution Biological Adaptations ECHO-Location Exploitation

III. OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand the evolution of the marine mammals from land- based animals. B) Compare the biological adaptations of marine mammal families. C) Examine the “intelligence” of marine mammals. D) Be aware of the impact of humans on marine mammals.

IV. KEY WORDS Cetaceans Diving Mammalian Reflex Pinnipeds Decompression Sickness Sirenians Embolism Baleen ECHO-Location Breath-holding Spermaceti Nasal Plug Warm-Blooded Oil Glands Counter-Current Heat

V. ACTIVITIES

Commercial Use of Whale and Alternatives Lab Comparative Whale Size Lab

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports 160

B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment

VII. RESOURCES -- SEE TOPIC 8A --VII 161

VI. EVALUATION

VII. RESOURCES

Reptiles. Birds. & Mammals

BOCES # TITLE

109033 Life on Earth: Amphibians & Reptiles #12 109035 Life on Earth: Amphibians & Reptiles #15 104252 Living Planet the Oceans 104192 Reptiles & Amphibians 107262 Frogs, Snakes & Turtles 108852 Reptiles 108411 Large Animals of Arctic 108417 Lemmings & Arctic Bird Life 104185 Great Whales 108448 Seal Island 109037 Life on Earth Whales #20 104172 Right Whale 104185 Great Whales

Bayport Blue Point H.S. Library 599.53 Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau Whale 162

Name______Section Date______

Exercise 14 Adaptations in Marine Mammals and Birds

Introd uction Whales, seals, penguins, and all other marine mammals and birds are believed to be descendants of terrestrial ancestors. As such, they have (or at one time had) many characteristics in common with their land- loving relatives. Important among these are: (1) four appendages each with five digits; (2) a skull structure similar to their ancestral types; (3) a respiratory requirement for a nearly continuous supply of air; and (4) homeothermism, or “warm-bloodedness.” In spite of these characteristics (or possibly because of them), some marine mammals and birds exhibit an extraordinary amount of structural and physiological adaptation to the marine environment and seem to be very successful in their particular ecological niche. In the following investigations, you will study some selected adaptations of a few marine mammals and birds.

1. Marine Mammals Most marine mammals are members of two groups. The cetaceans include the whales, porpoises, and dolphins. Seals, sea lions, and walruses are all pinnipeds. Other marine mammals include manatees, sea cows, and sea otters. Each of these groups are easily distinguished from each other by their general body form and other structural features.

A. General Body Forms Since most marine mammals are too large to study whole in the laboratory, prior background observations at museums and oceanariums will greatly aid the student in visualizing the specifics of the following discussion. The various forms reflected in existing marine mammals are the compromise result of their ancestral form, their need for speed in the water, and their existing requirements for locomotion on land. The pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses) are thought to have evolved from land carnivores, the ancestors of cats, dogs, and bears. These animals spend a substantial portion of their time in the sea but also periodically venture out onto land. Although their movements on land are rather clumsy, they are adept swimmers due to their streamlined body forms and use of flippers for propulsion (fig. 14.1). 163

The cetaceans, on the other hand, are completely divorced from the land (fig. 14.2). Propulsion is derived from a tail fin or flukes; the rear legs, which were useful on land, are represented merely by vestigial bones buried deep within the body. 1. How does the streamlined form of a porpoise compare with that of a seal?

2. Which do you think would be the fastest swimmer? Why?

14.1 Th. body of typical pinnip.

Plw• 14.2 Th. body foim o typlc.l c.I.c...,. 3. How does the direction of tail orientation of cetaceans compare to that of fish? Do you think this difference is important to swimming efficiency?

4. A general feature of all marine mammals is that they are large animals that ofe hav a t1ck fat or blubber layer undef the skin. What relationship can you suggest between body size and homeothermy? (You might consider how the surface area to volume ratio might affect homeothermy.) 164

Name Section Date______

5. The strength of muscles for swimming is determined by their volume, yet the frictional resistance to swimming is largely a function of the animal’s surface area. What relationship can you suggest between body size and swimming speed? (Once again, consider how the surface area to volume ratio might affect swimming speed.)

6. What relationship can you suggest between the presence of blubber layers and homeothermy?

7. What relationship can you suggest between the presence of blubber layers and swimming speed?

B. Skeletal adaptations Complete skeletal mounts of marine mammals are bulky and not generally found in undergraduate laboratories. Therefore, you should concentrate on only the two major skeletal features that exhibit structual modifications: the skull and appendages. 1. Skulls. The skeletal structure of skulls can yield valuable information about some adapative features of marine mammals, particularly in reference to their ability to secure food and air. Study the cleaned skulls of the domestic cat, horse, seal or sea lion, and porpoise. Pay particular attention to the types and numbers of teeth, length of snout, and position of nostril openings. a. Are the skulls generally comparable in terms of number, type, and relative position of bones?

b. For each animal briefly discuss the types of number of teeth. Do you think any of the teeth are specialized for a particular function? If so, which ones?

c. Speculate on their food types. cat:

horse:

seal/sea lion:

porpoise: 165

d. Compare the external position of the nostrils of the cat, horse, seal/sea lion, and porpoise. Why are the nostrils of most mammals located at the tip of the snout?

e. Why might this be important to a seal/sea lion but not to a porpoise?

f. How might the position of nostrils on the porpoise related to its swimming and feeding efficiency?

2. Appendages. Study the skeletal front limbs of a human, a seal or sea lion, and a porpoise. Assume the human appendage reflects the generalized mammalian condition. Complete table 14.1 by comparing the number, general structure, relative size, and function of each bone listed for the seal/sea lion and porpoise with that of a human. Use the charts for bone identification. 166

Name______Section. _Date______

Tabs t4. I £ Ca.ls.n.o ed $k.4,O$

Make a general statement about the use and versatility of the front appendage in each animal. human:

seal/sea lion:

porpoise: 167

tamur. Fqurs 14.3 LonQitudiflhlsictiofi of a pslicafl

II. Marine Birds The fossil history of birds is rather poorly documented. Marine birds, however, are generally considered to be members of some of the oldest of all bird genera (flamingos, loons, grebes, cormorants, rails, and a variety of other shore birds). Their long evolutionary history has given them a long time to develop a variety of adaptations to their marine environment.

A. Adaptations for Flight Several features are responsible for the successful flight of birds. Streamlined body forms, wings for propulsion, and a light body are all prerequisites for flight. Yet these features are also handy for underwater swimming. Thus many birds, because they are good fliers, are preadapted to efficient swimming. 1. Wings. The forelimbs of most birds are quite specialized for flight. Most marine birds use the wings in flight, but many also employ them for underwater pursuit of prey. Study the prepared skeleton of a bird wing. Compare the bones to those of the forelimb of the mammals listed in table 14.1. and complete the last column of. the table. t Iar wngspan of au LILU.jlILed,or even a photograph). The lift obtained from the large wings allows it to soar for long periods of time with very little expenditure of energy. Observe the penguin wing on display. How is this wing modified for underwater propulsion?

2. Bones. Quite apart from modifications in form and number, the bones themselves are highly adapted for flight. What modifications for flight are apparent in the pelican femur shown in figure 14.3? I

WHALE GKELETbtSJ

CEgVICAIVE1tMAE pog,tIc vrfl6RA. LUMA VF1CBRAE CAUPALvtrrKE

——-----——----—- —------I I I I II I II I $ I I I I

MANDIBLE (Iowf.R JAW) VADIUS WHALE GKELEbr1

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I 168

PAST AND PRESENT COMMERCIAL USES OF THE WHALE

AMBERGRIS Fixative in perfume Used in high quality perfumed soap

BALEEN Bones for corsets and bustles Whips and riding crops Umbrellas Hoops for skirts Brooms and brushes

BLOOD Added to adhesive in plywood maunfacture; Fertilizers

CHEMIICALSALTS Creatine used in soaps

COLLAGEN (Present in bone, Gelatine is used for: skin & tendons, which are photographic film boiled to yield gelatine) edible jellies candy

ENDOCRINEGLANDS Medicines and pharmaceuticals (Yield hormones)

LIVER Yields Vitamin A

PITUITARY GLANDS ACTH (cortisone derivative) used in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

SKIN (From toothed and Leather for bicycle saddles and beluga whales) handbags

SPERM OIL Mixed with mineral oil Unrefined Sperm Oil Dressing hides in leather industry

Refined & filtered Still a legal standard of illumination (Spermaceti) -- used in ceremonial candles Cold creams, lipsticks Brushless shaving cream Ointments

Filtered Sperm Oil Lubricating oil for light machinery 169

Hydrolized (Suiphated Emulsifiers Sperm Oil) Cutting oils Textile lubricants Hide dressings

Saponified (Sperm oil Cetyl alcohol used as superfatting Alcohols) agent in creams; also used on waterholes in Australia to prevent evaporation.

Oleyl alcohols: hair oils creams and lotions dye-solvents lipstick lubricants

Free alcohols: textile finishing dressing light leathers dye-solubizing and blending agents in printing inks plasticizer bases for carbon papers and stencils

Oleyl and acetyl alcohols converted to sodium salts of their sulphate esters: powders pastes detergents

Halogenated oleyl and acetyl alcohols yield cetyl pyridiniüm bromide which is useful for cationic surface-active agents and germicides

Synthetic esters of cetyl and oleyl produced for plasticizing, synthetic resins and emulsification work

TENDONS Surgical stitches Tennis racket strings 170

WHALE BONE Bone meal for fertilizers Shoe horns Chess sets Toys

WHALE MEAT Ingredient in pet foods Frozen meat staple of mink fur farms Food for zoo animals Meat meal (mixed with bone meal) Culture medium for screw-worm flies, etc. Soups and gravies Cattle feed, poultry feed Some whale meat eaten by Japanese, Eskimos and Aleuts

WHALE OIL (Glyceridic oil Saponified: yields glycerine for of baleen whales is used dynamite primarily in the production curing cigarette tobacco of glycerine, margarine and medicines soap) --yields stearates for soap

Polymerized: yields varnishes oil cloth and linoleum drying oil in paint manufacture printing ink

Hydogenated: yields margarine cooking fat compounds lard and shortening

Hardened Fin whale oil is used in candles and crayons

WHALE TEETH Ivory for carvings and souvenirs Piano keys 171

ALTERNATIVES FOR WHALE PRODUCTS

Essential Whale Possible Product Bv-nroduct Processing Alternatives

ANIMAL FEEDS Whalemeat Meal of meat Residual seed meal of Sim mondsia, various wastes: sugar- beets, seaweed, cereals

HIGH QUALITY Whale oil Hydrogenation Beeswax, paraf CANDLES Sperm oil fin wax, Sim Spermaceti mondsia wax, tallow

CRAYONS AND Sperm oil Hydrogenation Simmondsia wax PENCILS Whale oil Spermaceti

FERTILIZERS Whale bone Grinding Seaweed, various organic & composted materials

FLOOR COVERINGS Sperm oil Polynerization Linseed oil (Linoleum and Whale oil Simmondsia oilcloth) oil

GLYCERINE Whale oil Saponification Any saponified oil or fat: palm oil, ground nut oil

GELATINE Skin, bones Boiling Skin, bones, tendons tendons, hooves of cattle, sheep, goats, etc.

INDUSTRIAL OILS Sperm oil Cutting oils Hydrolization Linseed oil, castor 172

Essential Whale Possible Product By-Product Processing Alternatives Textile oils Suiphurization bean oil, tung, High-speed Rapeseed oil, machine oils Filtering Simmondsia oil Watch & clock oil Leather dressing Mixed with Various other oils mineral oil available dressing oils

MARGARINE Whale oil Hydrogenation Vegetable oils such as ground nut, soya, sesame, corn, coconut, saf flower oils

PHARMACEUTICALS Ointments Spermateci Refining and Domestic animal Hormones Endocrine Filtering sources glands Vitamin A Whale liver Oil extracted Natural carotenes from carrots & a! falfa; cod liver oil or synthesized Vitamin A from lemongrass oil or turpentine

PLYWOOD GLUE Whale blood Dehydration Fish bone

PRINTING INKS Sperm oil Sulphurization Simmondsia oil & Whale oil Polymerization Rapeseed oil

SOAP Whale oil Saponification Numerous other oils such as palm oil

WAXES (Polishes & Sperm oil Simmondsia wax Textile industry)

COSMETICS Sperm oil Saponification Essential oils Lipstick Spermaceti 173

Essential Whale Possible Product By-Product Processing Alternatives cold creams, etc such as lemon, orange Sim mondsia oil, cactus cream, avocado cream, cucumber milk

INDUSTRIAL OILS Sperm oil Refining Rapeseed oil Submarine oil Simmondsia oil High-pressure gear grease Automatic trans mission fluid

PERFUMES Ambergris None “Fixateur 404” and other fixitives based on oak moss, labadanum, clary sage, cypress oils, agar wood oil, etc.

PET FOODS Whalemeat Very little, Fungal protein, if any abattoir waste, offal, cereal pro tein, soya bean meal

SHAMPOO Whale oil Cetyl alcohol Fatty acid derived from alcohols derived . - —saponificatioii froir s’aponiñ cation of other oils& fats: coconut, palm kernel oil

SUNTAN OILS Whale oil Cetyl alcohol As above 174

Topic Seventeen Marine Fisheries (Societal Influences)

I. OVERVIEW Nearly 80 species of fish and shellfish are harvested for edible purposes in the waters off of Long Island, while dozens of others are taken for bait or for commercial use. By the time this marine life is processed for the consumer, the value of our marine life is approximately 85 million dollars. The total economic value of the recreational fishing industry exceeds $1 billion. How does New York State manage its marine resources?

II. KEY CONCEPTS Fisheries Management Maximum Sustainable Yield “The 200 Mile Limit” Mariculture/Aquaculture

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Identify the major commercially harvested marine organisms on a global scale. B) Identify the major commercially harvested marine organisms on a local scale. C) Become aware of fisheries management strategies and techniques. D) Be sensitive to the differences between the commercial and recreational fisheries.

IV. KEY WORDS Fisheries Otter Trawl Aquaculture Commercial Long-Line Mariculture Recreational Purse Seine Ranching Clupeoid Common Property Gadoid Freedom of the High Seas Fish Protein Concentrate Maximum Sustainable Yield Anadromous Optimum Yield 175

V. ACTIVITIES Analysis of the Annual Fish Catch Lab Interfering with Coastal Geologic Processes Lab --N.A.S.A. Long Island Sound Study Analysis Labs #1 Hypoxia in Long Island Sound #2 Modeling Long Island Sound #3 Wastewater Treatment #4 Profile of Long Island Sound #5 Supporting the Sound #6 Priority Action Plan #7 Pollution in Long Island Sound #8 Floatable Debris #9 Seafood Issues #10 Toxic Contamination #11 Nutrient Reduction #12 Pathogens Long Island Sound Study Update Water Runoff

VI. EVALUATION

VII. RESOURCES Human BOCES # Title 104252 Living Planet: Ocean 008664 Marine Biology: Scientists Probe to Protect 110219 Dolphins: A Cry for Help

Bayport Blue Point H.S. Library 363.73 Pollution: World at Risk 363.7 Acid Rain A Delaware Sea Grant

From the University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, 700 Pilottown Road, Lewes, DE 19958

CONSUMERS:KNOW THE FACTSABOUTEATINGRAWSHELLFISH by DorisHicks,SeafoodTechnologySpecialist(302)645-4297 The food supply available to U.S. consumers is not SanitationConference(a voluntaryorganizationof shell only abundantand of widevariety,but alsofundamentally fish-producingstates,the FDA,the shellfishindustry,and safe.This basic foodsafety,oftentakenfor granted,is the the U.S. Commerce Department’s National Marine responsibilityof the food industryand is assuredby the Fisheries Service) was established to monitor shellfish- regulatory activities of the federal Food and Drug growing waters. Those waters that become polluted are Administration (FDA) and the U.S. Department of closedto commercialshellfishing. Agriculture,as well as by state and local public health Underthis program,shellfishmust be traceableto their agencies. But, consumers, too, have a responsibility to source from the moment they are harvested from a bay, properlyhandle, store, and prepare foods of all types to river,or other estuary to whenthey end up in a restaurant assurecontinuedsafety. or market.Each containerof shellfishmust have a tag or For hundredsof years, people have been eating fresh label approvedby the appropriatestate shellfish control shu..kcd and mussels.In additionto having agencythat bearsthe informationnecessaryto traceshell a more delicate flavor and texture than cooked shellfish, fish, both to a specific area and to a particularharvester. raw oysters and clams retain more nutrients than when Inspectors can then verify if the shellfish came from y are cooked. However, recently, the media have approvedwaters.If the tags are missing,the shellfishare ned consumersaboutthe risks of eating raw shellfish. removedanddestroyed. What should you do? Here are the facts about raw shell While the seafood industry has established an exten fishconsumption. sive monitoringprogramto protect consumersfromcon Clamsand oysters are the only foods that we eat alive taminatedshellfish,there are severalprecautionarymea and raw, complete with the contents of their stomachs. sures that consumersthemselvescan take to avoideating Shellfishcan be harmful to humans because of the way shellfishthat containharmfulorganisms. these marine animals take in nutrients. Oysters, clams, andmusselsare filterfeeders;thatis, theyobtainnutrients Precautions and oxygen by pumpinglarge quantitiesof water across • Obtain shellfish from approved sources. A list their complex gill systems. By obtaining nutrients this of shellfishshippersthat meet federalstandards way,they alsotake in anybacteria,viruses,chemicalcon is published monthly by the Food and Drug taminants, and other impurities that are present in the Administration(FDA). One way to ensure that water.Thus, shellfish can ingest the bacteria that cause shellfishcome from a certifiedshipperis to buy choleraand gastroenteritis,the virus that causesHepatitis themfrom a reliableseafoodretailoutletor gro A, and the toxin that causes paralyticshellfishpoisoning cery store. Roadsidetrucks or standswith “bar (PSP).These bacteriaand virusesare harmfulto humans, gain” prices are chancy. If in doubt, ask the but not to shellfish.Thoroughcookingdestroysthese bac seafoodmarketpersonnelto showyou the certi teria and viruses. If, however, contaminatedshellfish is fied shipper’stag that accompanies “shell on” eatenraw,an individualmay becomeill fromthe bacteria products or check the shipper number on or viruses. Note that cooking does not destroy the toxin shuckedoystercontainers. that shellfish causesparalytic poisoning. • Obeypostedwarningswhenharvestingshellfish. To protect consumersfrom contaminatedshellfishand shellfish with paralytic shellfish poisoning,an extensive • Don’t cross-contaminate. Handle raw and federal/state program called the Interstate Shellfish cookedseafoodseparately;thoroughlycleanand rinse work space betweeneach operation.Keep raw and cookedseafoodfromcomingin cotitact I witheachother. • Keep all seafood chilled between 32° and 40°F SENSE (0°to 5°C). • Store seafood properly. Here are some guide L Learn The Facts lines: — Store shucked shellfish in a leak-proof bag, ism is destroyedby heat,consumersthat are consideredat plasticcontainer,or coveredjar, neverput live risk (see medicalconditionsdescribedabove)are advised shellfish in water or in an air-tight container to enjoyshellfishin theirmanydelicious,cookedprepara wheretheycouldsuffocateor die. tions. —Freshlyshuckedclamshave a shelflife of five Shellfishare a versatile and delicioussource of nutri to sevendays. Scallopshave a shelflife of two tion. They are low in calories, high in protein, low in to three days. Freshly shuckedoysters have a sodium,and low in total fat, saturatedfat, and cholesterol. shelflife of fiveto sevendays. Shellfishare a good sourceof vitamin and mineralssuch as thiamin, niacin, phosphorus, potassium, iron, iodine, shouldbe —Musselsand clamsin the shell (live) fluoride, zinc, and copper. Clams, oysters, and mussels within three in the used two to days; oysters can be quick and easy to prepare,especiallywhenserved shell,from sevento ten days. Someshellsmay raw.However,there are certain risks associatedwith eat open duringstorage.If so, tap them. They will ing raw shellfish.By knowing what precautionsto take, closeif alive;if not, discardthemimmediately. consumers can make an educated choice about their • Refrigerate leftover cooked shellfish dishes as seafoodconsumptionhabits. you wouldany otherleftovers. • Observeproper sanitation when preparing sea REFERENCES food.It’sespeciallyimportantto washyourhands Ballentine,C. 1984. “For Oyster and Clam Lovers,the beforepreparingseafoodmeantto be eatenraw. WaterMustbe Clean.” FDA Consumer,Vol.18,No. 8. • Do not eat raw seafoodif youhavethe follow ingmedicalconditions: Ballentine, C. 1985. “Pollution Narrows Shellfish Harvest.” FDA Vol. — Liver disease, including cirrhosis and hemo Conswner, 19,No. 1,pp. 10-13. chromatosis; Ballentine,C. 1986. “Weighingthe Risks of the Raw — Chronicalcoholabuse; Bar.” FDA Consumer,Vol.20, No. 7, pp. 39-40. — Cancer (especiallyif taking anti-cancerdrugs or radiationtreatment); NationalMarineFisheriesInstitute. 1988. “FoodSafety: —Diabetesmellitus; Fish and Shellfish,Raw Seafood.” Washington,DC: NationalMarineFisheriesInstitute. — Chronickidneydisease; — Inflammatorybowel disease (or if taking im Zimmerman, D. R. 1986. “The Cop on the Boat: munosuppressivedrugs); Tighteningthe Net Against Unsafe Shellfish.” FDA Vol. — Steroid dependency (as used for conditions Consumer, 20, No. 1,pp. 29-31. suchas chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease); Additional Resource Materials —Achiorhydria(a conditionin which the normal acidityof the stomachis reducedor absent). Hicks, D. T., and T. Schmersal. 1987. “Eating Raw Finfish: What Are the the If you should suffer from gastrointestinalprob Risks, Benefits?” MAS lems after consuming raw shellfish, contact a Note. Newark,DE: Universityof DelawareSea Grant physician immediately and notify your local CollegeProgram. healthdepartment. Miller, Roger W. 1988. “Fewer Months ‘R’Safe for Despitethe care taken, raw or lightly cooked shellfish Eating Raw Gulf Oysters.” FDA Consumer,Vol.22, No. 5, 22-25. qo carrya slightlyhigherrisk of causingdiscomfortor ill pp. ness than thoroughly cooked products. A similar risk exists with the ingestionof raw or very rare, rather than fullycooked,meat andpoultry. 12191:1K Duringthesummerof 1988,theFDAissuedan advisory warningto high-riskindividualswithchronicliverdisease or weakenedimmunesystemsurgingthemto avoideating raw or partiallycooked oysters.This warningwas made in response to the fact that a common saltwater micro organism,Vibriovulnzflcus,may cause severeillnessif it an open wound or is taken in by oysters that are Ia onsumedby humans. The advisoryspells out that the major concern occurs in summer months and with shell stock as opposed to shucked product. Vibrioprob lems havebeen attributedto GulfoystersalthoughVibrio has been found elsewhereas well. Since the microorgan A Delaware Sea Grant

From the University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, 700 Pilottown Road, Lewes, DE 19958

SEAFOODIS GOODFOR YOU by DorisHicks,SeafoodTechnologySpecialist(302)645-4297 Seafoodis good for you! Nutritionists,dieticians,and Fishoils,likeotherfats orlipids,are composedof glyc health and food educatorshave known for years that sea erolto whichthreefattyacidsare attached.The fattyacids food is a nutrient-dense,high-proteinfood. It’s generally contain chains of carbon atoms that are linked by single low in caloriesand total fat—the fat that is foundin sea and/ordoublebonds.Polyunsaturatedfatty acids(PUFAs) food is high in polyunsaturatesand omega-3fatty acids. containseveraldoublebondsbetweencarbonatomsin the Most seafoodalso is high in protein,low in sodium,and chain—themoredoublebonds,thehigherthedegreeof un packed with vitamins and minerals. Seafood is easier to saturation.Fish oils are uniquein that they containa large digestthan red meatsandpoultry.Andperhapsbestof all, portion of highly unsaturatedfatty acids and some fatty seafoodtastesgood andis easyto prepare. acidswithanoddnumberof carbonsin the chain. TheU.S.Departmentof HealthandHumanServicesand Manyfishoils arecomposedprimarilyof omega-3fatty theU.S.Departmentof Agricwturerecommendthatyoueat acids versus the omega-6 fatty acids found in most plant a varietyof foods;maintaina desirableweight;avoidtoo oils. The most important omega-3 fatty acids found in muchfat, saturatedfat, cholesterol,sodium,and sugar,eat seafoodare eicosapentaenoicacid (EPA)and docosahex foods with adequatestarch and fiber,and if you drink al aenoicacid (DHA).Fish and shellfishingestand accumu olicbeverages,do so inmoderation. late omega-3fatty acidsthroughthe foodchainfromalgae eafoodcango a longwayto helpingconsumersachieve and phytoplankton,the primaryproducersof omega-3fat these dietary goals. Most finlish and shellfishare low in ty acids.Humanscan onlyproducesaturatedandomega-9 fat, witha totalcompositionof lessthan5%fat,manyvari fattyacids,whichmeanswe haveto get the omega-3fatty etieshavelessthan 1%fat.Thus,withsucha smallamount acidswe needthroughour dailyfoods. of total fat, most seafoodprovidesonly 100—200calories Howdo omega-3fattyacidspreventor helpcombathu for a 3’12-ounceserving. mandiseases?Afterseveralmedicalstudies,it nowappears The fat that is presentin seafoodis rich in polyunsatu that omega-3fatty acids help keep our bodies fromover rated fatty acids, which benefitthe body. However,what producingeicosanoids,a groupof hormone-likesubstances may addunwantedfat and caloriesto seafoodis the wayit that can, in large amounts,contributeto arthritis,asthma, is prepared, such as deep-fat frying or serving it with a heart disease, stroke, and related disorders. The eicosa cream sauce.Cookingtechniquessuch as broiling,barbe folds arenormallyderivedfromthe omega-6PUFAarachi cuing, poaching,microwaving,or steamingon a rack can donate,found predominantlyin plant oil. Omega-3fatty helpreducetheamountof fat in fish. acidsact as an antagonistto eicosanoidsynthesis,thereby AnotherU.S. dietaryguidelineis to “reducecholesterol loweringtheir production.They also form modifiedeico consumptionto about 300 milligrams(mg) per day.”Fish sanoidsthat are less activethan the normalcompounds.A averagesonly about30—80mg cholesterolper 31/2 ounces. diet that balances plant foods with fish foods and their Shellfishtend to contain only slightlyhigher amountsof omega-3 fatty acids remains an effective and enjoyable cholesterol:crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp) contain wayto combathealthproblems. 60—100mg per 31,2 ounces; mollusks (clams, oysters, Mostnuthtion researcherssay that eatingseafoodonce scallops)contain40—110mg per 3/2 ounces,while squid or twice a weekmay be beneficialin preventingcoronary and octopus contain relatively high levels—250mg and heart disease. The high content of polyunsaturatedfatty 122mgper 3/2 ounces,respectively. acidsin seafoodlowersserumcholesterollevels.Omega-3 fattyacidschangethecriticalbalanceof certainblood The Bonus—Fish Oils com ponentscalledlipoproteins,thus reducingthe low-density onsequently,seafoodconsumptionis a goodidea—it’s lipopmteins(LDL) and the very low density Iipoproteins with npatible optimumdietarypracticesand recommen (VLDL) that deposit cholesterol along the artery walls. dations,and substitutionof fish for other foods can help The omega-3fattyacidsalsolowerthe levelsof bloodtri maintaina balancednutrientintakecompatiblewith a low- glycerides,anothertype of fat involved in heart disease. fatdiet.The bonus,the consumptionof fish oils,maypro Also, the omega-3fatty acids form a differentpattern of vide addedsignificanthealthbenefits. prostaglandins(hormone-likecompounds),diminishingthe clottingof bloodcells,reducingthe numberand stickiness Notesto Remember of bloodplatelets,andmakingredbloodcellsmoreflexible The way you prepareseafoodis important.Selecttech thattheyflowmoresmoothly. niquesandrecipesthatminimizefat.Youdon’twanttospoil esearcherssuggestthat otherhealthproblemsalsomay seafood’snatural low-calorie appeal. If you’re going to e controlledor alleviated by consumingomega-3 fatty meet the U.S. DietaryGuidelinefor reducingtotalfat con acids from fish. These includeasthma,arthiitis,diabetes, sumptionto 30%of calories,you need to makefoodselec multiplesclerosis,hypertension,migraineheadaches,can tionsthat derivelow percentagesof caloriesfromfat. The cer,andsomekidneydiseases. chart below identifiescalories and some nutrientcompo Fish oil capsules or supplementsthat contain concen nents,includingcaloriesfromfat,forselectedchoices. tratedamountsof omega-3fattyacidsare widelyavailable Caloriesfromfatcanquicklyaddup.Fat supplies9 calo in drugandhealthfoodstores.However,thesesupplements riesper gram,morethantwicethecaloriesof carbohydrates currentlyare not recommendedfor the generalpublic.Re and protein, which provide4 calories per gram each. To searchhasnotyetestablishedtheirsafetyor effectiveness. calculatethe percentof caloriesfrom fat in your diet or a particularfood,multiplythegramsof fatby nine,divideby Getting Seafoodinto YourDiet—WhatToDo the numberof caloriesin your diet or the food, and then 100. For 3I2 of increase seafood multiplyby example, ounces light-meat Whatcan you do to your consumption chickenwithoutthe skinhas 173caloriesand4.5 of level?First,ask whatseafood alreadylike and grams yourself you fat; therefore4.5 x 9 = 40.5 and 40.5 ÷ 173= 0.23,0.23 Lookat favoriteseafoodrecipes;thenask x eatregularly. your 100= 23%of caloriesfromfat.Here’sanother to think retailer what other fish shellfish could be sub way your or aboutit: onetablespoonof anyvegetableoil derives100% stitutedforyourusualspecies.By tiyingnewseafoodin old of itscaloriesfromfat. wiUincreasethe varietyof seafood eat. recipes,you you Now,thinkabouthowyouliketo eatyourchicken,possi Next, try substitutingseafoodin some of your recipes bly batter-dippedand deep-fried—saythe breast portion that call for red meat or poultry.Youcan add seafoodto withthe skinon. Thispopularway to eat chickenprovides homemadepizza,tacos,or sloppyjoes. Seafoodis a natural 45% of its caloriesfrom fat. This happensto fish, too. A in manystir-fryrecipes.If once a weekor onceeveryother pieceof haddockbreadedand deep-friedalsoderives45% weekyousubstituteseafoodin recipesin whichyouformer of its caloriesfrom fat, but if you broiledthat samepiece I used red meatsor poultry,you will have taken another of haddock(withoutthe breading),only7% of the calories to increasetheamount of seafoodyoueat. wouldcomefromfat. estaurantsarea goodplaceto trynew typesof seafood. Remember,seafoodis naturallynuthtiousandit’slowin Askthe staffwhatthe seafoodtasteslike;thenjudge if you caloriesand total fat. By puttingmore seafood—prepared might like it. Ask questionsat your favoritemarket.Your healthfully—inyour diet today,you may be able to look seafoodretailermayhavesomedeliciousrecipesto share. forwardto a healthierfuture.

COMPOSITIONOFSELECTEDPROTEINCHOICESPER3½-OUNCEPORTION

Calories Protein Total Fat Cholesterol DHA& EPA (kcal) (grams) (grams) (mg) Fat (%) (grams) F1NFISHAND SHELLFISH* SeaBass,Dry Heat 124 23.6 2.6 18.9 0.76 53 Bluefish.Raw 124 20.0 4.2 30.5 0.77 59 Flounder,Dry Heat 117 24.2 1.5 11.5 0.50 68 Mackeral, Atlantic.Dry Heat 262 23.9 17.8 61.1 1.20 75 Sea Trout, Raw 104 16.7 3.6 31.2 0.37 83 Shark. Raw Mixed Species 130 20.9 4.5 31.2 0.843 51 Spot, Raw 123 18.5 4.9 35.9 0.630 NA Tuna, Drained Solids 136 26.7 2.5 16.5 0.706 42 Tuna, Bluefin, Dry Heat 184 29.9 6.3 30.8 1.504 49 Blue Crabs, Steamed 102 20.2 1.8 15.9 0.474 100 Clams, Hard, Steamed 148 25.6 1.95 11.8 0.284 67 Lobster,Steamed 98 20.5 0.6 5.5 0.084 72 Oysters,Steamed 137 14.1 4.95 32.5 0.878 109 Squid, Raw 92 15.6 1.4 13.7 0.488 233

POULTRYAND REDMEAT** . Chicken,Breast (Roastedw/Skirr) 197 29.9 7.8 35.5 NA 84 Ground Beef (Lean, Broiled) 280 28.2 17.6 56.7 NA 101 Bacon, Fried 576 30.5 49.2 76.9 NA 85 NA = NotAvailable:•Source:USDA HandbookNo. 8-15. Compositionof Foods: Nnfishand SheiltishProducts,1987; Source: LowCatorie FoodsA ScientificStatus Summaryby the Instituteof Food Technologists’Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition,Food Technology,April 1989.pp. 113-125.

12i91:1K A Delaware Sea Grant

From the University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, 700 Pilottown Road, Lewes, DE 19958

EATINGRAWFINFISH: WHATARE THE RISKS, THE BENEFITS? by DorisHicks,SeafoodTechnologist(302)645-4346andTracySchmersal,MASIntern

Sashimi,thin slicesof raw finfish,is now a popular cyclestartsagain.Humansinterruptthiscycleby eating dish in the United States.Originally from Japan, fish. sashimiis commonly served molded over vinegared Thereare twotypesofparasiticwormsthatcan fingersof rice and called sushi.Many enjoy the taste of infecthumans. One type of infection,called anisakiasis, sushiand sashimibecauseof the delicate flavor and is caused by ingestingthe larvae of severaltypes of texture of the uncooked fish.An added plus is that raw roundworm.Symptomsincludeabdominalproblems foods have not lost any nutrients to cooking. and fever,and may resembleappendicitisand intestinal Nevertheless,some people are concerned about the obstruction. Roundworms are found in saltwater fish presenceof parasitesin raw fish.These worms are killed such as cod, plaice, halibut, rockfish,herring,pollock, by thorough cooking or adequate freezing.Only the seabass,and flounder. ingestionof raw, lightlycured, or insufficientlycooked Theothertypeof infectioniscausedby a fish infectedtish can transter the live worms to humans. tapeworm. This infectionoccurs after ingestingthe Most of these parasitescannot adapt to human hosts; larvaeofa speciescalleddiphyllobothrium,foundin quite frequently,if an infectedfish is eaten, the parasites freshwaterfish such as pike and perch, as well as simply digestedwith no ill effects. anadromous (fresh—saltwater)fish such as salmon. An Fewer than 30 casesof illnessesresultingfrom the infectionby tapeworm is known to deplete the supply presenceof parasitesin sushi or sashimi were reported of Vitamin B—12 and produces other symptoms in the U.S. during1986,and most were on the West includingfatigue,diarrhea, weakness,numbnessof the Coast. More fish are infected—and therefore more extremities,and a feelingof hunger. humans — on the WestCoastthanthe Eastbecause It’simportant to rememberthat adequatefreezing the primaryhostsforthe parasitesare marineanimals and/or cookingeliminatesinfectionby theparasites.In commonly found in the Pacific,such as seals,porpoises, commercialfreezing,a temperatureof —40°Fkillsany sea lions, and whales. parasitein 15hours.Ina homefreezer,at 0° to 10°F,it Takea lookat thelifecycleofa parasiticworm.The can takeup to fivedaysto killall the parasites, parasite matures and reproducesin marine mammals. especiallyin largefish.Fishisalsosafeto eatwhenit reachesan internaltemperatureof 145°Fforfive minutes.Thus,traditionalcookingmethodssuchas dull worms ir baking,broiling,frying,grilling,poaching,and /7 tomach of seal microwavingwillkillanypotentialparasitesproviding the fishtemperaturereaches145°Fforfiveminutes. Similarly,hotsmokingof fish,whichisa slowprocess Stage3 larvae Eggs expelled n fish thatactuallycooksthefish,providesan effective with feces methodof eliminatingparasitesprovidedthefishis smokedat 150°to 200°Fforfourto sixhours. On theotherhand,cold—smokedproductsmaynot Hatched be safeto eat unless been frozenfirst. Stage2 larvae they’ve properly larvaein Unlikehotsmoking,coldsmokingdoesnot use heat benfhic and thefishdoesn’treachthe temperaturerequiredto crusfacearis killthe parasites.Likewise,ceviche,or rawfish Life cycleof theparasiticworm. marinatedin lemonor limejuice,maycontainparasites unlessit hasbeenproperlyfrozenbeforemarinating. ext, the parasiteeggspasswiththefecesintothe It’salsoimportantto observepropersanitationwhen water,and hatchintolarvae.Then,small water preparingfish.Cookedfishshouldnotcomein contact creaturessuchas crustaceansswallowlarvae. Fish eat withuncookedfishor withany packagethatheldthe small watercreaturesand thusbecomeinfected. uncookedproduct.Also,beforeservingcannedseafood, Finally, marine mammals eat fish,and then the whole checkforindicationsofspoilage.Discardanyjars with bulginglids,broken seals,or leakingcontents. After opening,check the contents for mold or an off odor. If y signof spoilageis present, throw it out! Proper nning will destroy parasitesand Clostridium botulinum,a bacteria that causesbotulism food poisoning.In addition, people with liver disease shouldn’teat raw fishbecause they are particularly susceptibleto a bacteria, Vibriovulnificus,that may be present. If you do choose to eat raw fish,a processcalled candling reducesthe risk of infectionby parasites. Candling means holding each filletin front of a light so that any parasitescan be seen and then removed.The parasite is a tightlycoiled, clear worm, 1/2—to 3/4—inchin length,that imbeds itselfin the flesh. Candling is required by any good packing house.The processis quick and inexpensiveand avoids much grief. Candlingalso revealsany pinbones left in a product intended to be boneless. Finfishis a versatileand delicioussource of nutrition. Most fish is low in calories,sodium, and total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.Fish is high in protein and a good source of many vitaminsand mineralssuch as thiamin, niacin, phosphorus, potassium,iron, iodine, fluoride,zinc, and copper. The differentvarietiesof finfishare easy to prepare, especiallywhen served raw. Even though incidencesof parasitic infectionare re, there are certain risksassociatedwith eating raw r insufficientlycooked fish.Once consumersare aware of these risks,they can make educated choicesabout their seafood consumption habits.

References

Dore,I., 1984.Fresh Seafood The CommercialBuyer’s Guide.OspreyBooks;Huntington,NY,pp. 228—229.

Gershoff,S. N.,editor,1987.“Overcomingcommon causesof foodpoisoning,”Tufts UniversityDiet and NutritionLetter, Vol.4, No. 12,February, pp. 3—6.

Redmayne,P.,editor,1987.“A primerto parasites,” Seafood Leader, Vol.6, No.5, pp.44—50.

Zamula E., 1987.“When it comes to stylishsushi, it’s safer to be square,” FDA Consumer, Vol.21, No. 1, pp. 18—21.

3/92:1K 176

Topic Eighteen Marine Pollution (Societal Influences)

I. OVERVIEW The oceans serve as a source of recreation, transportation, commercial and recreational harvesting of marine resources and unfortunately as a dumping grounds for sewage sludge, chemical effluence, radioactive wastes and a wide variety of other serious pollutants. There has been a growing awareness snd concern for the impact of humans on the marine environment. Education plays a key role in dealing with marine environmental issues.

II. CONCEPTS Marine Pollution Bio magnification Coastal Zone

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Understand the major sources of pollution and their impact on the marine environment. B) Be aware of those Government Agencies that are involved in marine protection. C) Become involved with one area of marine protection.

IV. KEYWORDS 1 Sewage Treatment Dredging Wastewater Effluence Short Dumping Sewage Sludge New York Bight Secondary Treatment 106 Mile Dump Heavy Metals Tar Balls PCB’s BOD Radioactive Materials Minimata Disease Biomagnification Methyl Mercury

V. ACTIVITIES

Long Island Sound Study Fact Sheets 1-12 Long Island Sound - Environmental Activity Kit 177

VI. EVALUATION

A) Laboratory reports B) Construction of graphs from experimental data C) Written Tests (short answer, essays, and problem solving) D) Evaluation based on successful completion of activities as evidenced by responsible classroom use of lab equipment Noticeof copyright: Graphiccontentsmaynot be usedoutsideof thispackagewithoutwritten permissionfromthe U.S. FishandWildlifeServiceandthe artist. Onbehalfofthe UnitedStatesFishandWildlifeServiceand the United States Environmental Protection Agency‘ s National Estuary Program, thankyoufor showingan interestin the qualityofour environment.Public educationand involvementwillplayan importantrole in restoringfish and wildlife, and their respectivehabitatsin and around Long Island Sound. This packetcontainsinformationsheetswithactivitiesthat presentimpor tant issues relatingto the area. The goal of this informationis to develop an awarenessof the problems, the skills, and the commitmentneeded makeresponsibledecisionsthatwillenhancethepioductivity ofour Sound. Wehopeyouwillutilizethis materialin yourschool,club,or organization. Thank you for all you are doing. Together,we can makea difference.

‘I, IslandSound:it Starts With You

AdropofrainthatfallsintheConnecticutRiverValleyofNewHampshireintimetravelstotheLongIsland Sound(LIS)andonto the AtlanticOcean.Thepesticideusedina RhodeIslandgarden,thefertilizerspread on a Vermont farm, the wastewater of Springfield, Massachusetts,chemicals from New York and Connecticutindustries—allof these reach the Long IslandSound, as well.

Allof us livingin the sprawlingLIS watershedare neighborswhenit comesto the environment.The way welive andthe thingswedo all affectthe Sound, for better or for worse. The Long Island Soundand its tributariesare a rich resource, providing a livelihoodfor thou sands of people and recreation for millions of others. Boaters,anglers,crabbers,birders, hunt ers, hikers, campers—all of these people and manymorefind fun and relaxationon the Sound and alongthe hundredsof milesof its shoreline, or on the thousandsof milesof riverwaysin the LIS watershed.

The reason that Long Island Sound is such a valuableresource is its productivity.Estuaries, likeLIS, arethe mostproductivebiologicalzones on our planet.They are four timesmoreproduc tivethana cornfieldthathasbeencultivated,nurtured,andfertilizedbyafarmer.Despitethisfact,estuaries do notreceivethekindof attentionor eventhescientificresearchbenefitsthataregivento thefarmer’sfield and crop. The LIS systemis a responsibilityas wellas a resource--aresponsibilitywe all share. Pollutionendangers the healthof the Sound. Fish populationshavedwindled.Oystercatchesare down and shellfishbedsare occasionallyclosed.Underwatergrasses,vitalashabitatandfeedinggrounds,havedisappearedoverwide areas. There are other danger signalsas well.

LongIslandSoundis an estuary. ft is a relativelyshallowbodyof saltwaterwithareasof varyingsalinity. It has a narrow openingto the ocean and its shoreline is cut by many bays and wetlands. Some of the propertiesthat make estuariesbiologicallyimportantalso makethem vulnerableto pollution.

Manygovernmentagencies—state,federal,andlocal--arepartnerswithprivategroupsinprogramstorestore and protect the Soundand its tributaries. But they cannotdo thisjob alone. The CleanWater Act allows citizensto becomeinvolvedin coastaldecisionmaking.There are manywaysto helpand everybodymust be included:boys and girls, womenandmen, youngandold. Youmayfeelthat the tide of pollutioninthe Sound is just too muchfor you to change.But, YOU HAVETO HELP. The Water QualityActof 1987,Section320 establishesthe NationalEstuaryProgramand authorizesthe Administratorof the U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)to conveneManagementConferences to developcomprehensiveplansfor estuarieslikeLIS.ThepurposesoftheConferenceincludeamongother things (1) the assessmentof trends in waterquality,naturalresourceuses, and the discoveryof causesfor environmentalproblems, (2) the developmentof managementplans and the coordinationof these plans between government agencies, and (3) monitoringof effectivenessof actions and financial assistance programs.The ManagementConferenceincludesrepresentativesfromall levelsofgovernment,industries, academia,and the public. IHow can Ihelp?I

We areallpart ofthe SoundCommunity!Evenif youdo notlive inthe LISwatershed,but liveina State that is part of the watershed,you are connectedto the Sound. You have a say in whathappenswithin your community,within your State and within your nation. Pollutionand resource abuse knows no boundaries.The SoundCommunitymust worktogetherto improvethe environmentaloutlookfor this preciousresource.

Becomean informedSoundCitizen.If you are concernedabouta particularsubject, learn all that you canaboutit. ThiscurriculumonlyscratchesthesurfaceofthevariousissuesconcerningtheSound.There are many materialsavailableto you. The Long Island SoundStudy (LISS)is a six-year researchand managementproject that began in 1985.LISShas producedcountlessreports and fact sheetsfor your use. The EPA hasthe on-goingNationalEstuaryProgramwhichincludesa LISproject. The U.S. Fish andWildlifeServicehas a LongIslandFieldOfficedealingwithfish and wildlifeissueson the island. Listed amongthe resourcesare manyother officesand agenciesconcernedwith Soundissues. Afteryouhavebecomeinformed,becomeinvolvedandmakeyourvoiceheard.ConsiderstartingaSound Club as describedon one of the activitysheets. If you start a club, try to ally yourselfwith one of the establishedLIS institutesor officesand becomepart of the Long Island SoundAlliance.

PLEASEJOININ. . YOU’RE NEEDED! to use this kit:

This kit is intendedto helpyoulearnmoreaboutthe Soundandwhatyoucando to help. Insideyouwill find: - basic facts aboutthe Long IslandSoundand its tributaries; - activitiesthat demonstratehow the Soundsystemworks; - projectsthat you can do to help protectthe Soundand its tributary system;and - sourcesfor additionalinformation,includingaddressesand phone numbers. The coreof the kit is the activitysheets.Eachactivitysheetis intendedto makeyoumoreawareof your interactionwithand affecton the Soundenvironment.Onesideof the sheetdetailsan importantSound issue, lists objectives,and presentsan activitydescriptionwiththe suggestedage group and materials needed. The other side continues the text description or instructions and presents references, acknowledgements,and fun facts or questions.

Some activities will be more appropriatefor certain age groups. Please don’t feel limited by these distinctions.Youngerchildren,withtheproperguidance,canget involvedin virtuallyall the activities. Adultswillbe interestedinthehands-ondemonstrationswhichhelpillustrateimportantSoundconcepts.

Therearethreesetsofpagesthatarenotactivitysheets,butpresentinformationandreference.Onesheet is entitled “Doing Your Homework”and it offers guidancefor peopleseekingadditional’information aboutthe Sound.Studentspreparingschoolreportswillfindthissheethelpful.“AClubFor TheSound” describes some steps involvedin organizingan ecologyclub. The resource pages have referencesto organizationscited in the activitiesand involvedin the Long IslandSoundwatershed.While it is not complete,it is a good basic reference. Other excellentresourceswith useful, in depthbackgroundinformationand tips are availablethrough the Long Island Sound Study, availableupon request from the Sea Grant offices in New York and Connecticut.

Wehopeyouwillusethesematerialsyourselfor withothersto findnewwaysto helprestoreandprotect LIS. Whether you are a student or a teacher, a memberof a civic association,the leader of a youth organization,or simplyan interestedandconcernedcitizen,there are specificthingsyoucando to help bring the Soundsystemback to sound health. Illustrasionby Sandra Koch onservation& Use

Introduction: LongIslandSoundis a uniquenaturaltreasure. OftenLIS is calledan “UrbanSea.”The Soundis 110mileslongfromendto end, and 21 mileswideat its widestpoint, nearthe ConnecticutRiver. Its mixtureof fresh andsalt wateroffers somehabitatswithunusual ACTIVITYDESCRIPTION characteristics.Once,stripedbass andharbor sealsabounded.Oystershell middensand LL is a natural resource ancienttykesburiedinsiltattestto thepre-Columbianpresenceof nativeAmericanswho to treasure. usedtheSoundforhuntingandgathering.The naturalabundanceofseafoodandbirdlife attracted Puritan settlementin the 1630’s. Now, although still a spawning place for OBJECTIVE: shellfishand fin-fish,and a restingplacefor migratorybirds, the abundanceandvariety To understandthat of organismshas diminished. natural resourcesare the resourcesby which we The LIS environmentis not indestructibleand its resourcesare not limitless.Everyday, existon Earth and to all around the watershed, people take actions which negatively affect the Sound. c1a415’values Pollutants,such as fertilizersand toxic chemicals,are washedfrom the soil or poured concerningthem. directly intoour rivers. Preciouswetlandsare drainedor dredgedfor developmentand agriculture.Forests are cut down. AGE GRoup: If future generationsof peopleand wildlifeare to enjoyand live aroundthe Sound, we Upperelementary must become responsible stewards of the land, water, and air. We can use natural through adult. resources,butwemustusethemwiselyandconscientiously.Humanusemustbebalanced with naturalconservation. MATERIALS: Books,articles andfact Environmentalethics questionsare never simple. It is easy to say we should conserve sheetson controversial nature, but exactlyhowdo we accomplishthis?To whatdegreeshouldwe go?To make US issues intelligentdecisions,wemustbe informedaboutthe issues.Wemustexamineour values and considerthem in the contextof the Sound’secology,and economy,and our social REFERENCES: and legal systems. • Wahie,L. 1990. Plantsand Animals of Wemaynotallhavethesameethicalstandards.Butthis isnotessential.Whatisimportant Long Island Sound. is that we arriveat our personalenvironmentalmoralsthroughthoughtfulconsideration ConnecticutSea Grant of LIS issues:natural resources,our use of them, and their conservation. CollegeProg., Univ.of CT, Groton. 33pp. • Long Island Sound: SoundEthics Choosea Topic An Atlas of Natural We all mustdecidefor ourselveswhere There are many controversialSound- Resources.1989. we standon issuesof conservationand relatedissues.The followingare some ConnecticutDepartment resourceuse. To do this, we must look examples. of Environmental at all the facts and consider Protection, Hartford. different viewpoints. A D e ye lop m e n t - S2pp. classroomdebate is a good Roads, houses, forumfor analysis.Youcan shopping centers, also apply the same andevenfarmfields pIes torealissuesbeing displace natural in your community. Y habitats, such as [ position, whether in wetlands. Should classroomor publichearing there be limits on room,willbestrongerwhen development?Ifso, you understand the diverse issues in what should these be and who should volvedinusingandprotectingthe Long determinethem? IslandSoundenvironment. neartheproposeddevelopment,a farmer,a represen tativeof a conservationgroup, andan electedlegisla tor. Combinedwithlibrary research,this shouldgive thecommitteea varietyofdifferentviewsontheissue. DebateandCompromise The panels should prepare a final report for the commission.This couldbe a speech, written report, and/oraposter.Includeadescriptionoftheproblem(s) anda recommendedsolution.If necessary,committee members should question panels to clarify certain points. The teacher or group leader should act as a mediator in discussion, but should allow the com mittee to arrive at its own decision. As in real life, there probably will not be a single solution to the problem. Evaluate the trade-offs involved in each scenario. Then compromiseto achievethe best Out comefor the environmentandthepeople.Summarize the results in a report, speech, or poster. FunFacts: Solid waste disposal - Landfills are rapidly being SeafoodFactory - The Soundproducesoysters,hard- filled. Should communitiesfind new landfills, build shell clams, whelks, and lobsters. The Sound also trash incinerators,and/or recyclewaste? yieldsa varietyof fin-fishincludingwinterflounder, bluefish, Americanshad, striped bass, and Atlantic Fertilizers and pesticides - Farmers use them to salmon.There are4000 NewYorkharvestersandthe increasecrop yields,but fertilizersandpesticidescan seafoodindustry is valued at $50 millioneach year. harmwaterqualityinstreamsandtheSound.Canthey The variabilityin the valueof the seafoodindustryis be used safely? becauseofshellfishbansimposedduringrecentyears.

Fisheries- New York and Connecticuthave imposed fishingrestrictionson severalspeciesof shellandfin- fish. Shouldtheserestrictionsbeliftedor modifiedfor recreationalor commercialfisheries? OrganizeGroups Divide the class in half. One half will represent a legislativecommission.This group will evaluatethe differentpositionsandarriveat a solution.Dividethe other half into 2-5 researchgroups or “panels.” The panels will research different aspects of the issue, their findings, and their positionto the present argue Commercial Waterway - The Port of New York, committee. Bridgeport, and New Haven Harbor are important centersof commerceand shipping. ResearchTheTopic Wildlifehabitat - LISlandsandwatersarevitalhomes Each panel should study a different aspect of the for a varietyof plantsand animals.Fish spawninLIS problem. Get facts from all sides: environmental, riversandmatureintherichestuaries.Migratorybirds economic,legal, andotherwise.Lookin newspapers, findfoodandshelterinwetlandsduringtheirjourneys. contact environmental citizen groups, and inquire Playground - The Sound is a the most populousand about relevant legislationin your county or state. If popular water recreation area in the Americas!LIS you are examining the developmentquestion, you supportsthelargestrecreationalboatingfleetin North could interviewa biologist, a state naturalresources America. official, a developer, residents, and businesspeople

lilustranons by Sandra Koch ore Than : A Swamp

Introduction: Wetlandsshould be protected and enhancedwherever they occur. Wetlands not only providehabitatto wildlifeandfish,buttheyarethemostproductiveplaceson Earth.They Aciiviiv DESCRITPTION serve as water cleaningfiltrationsystemsand buffersduring both drought and floods. rveua,wsare important They are an intregralpart of the globalwater cycle. to the health of the ecosystem A wetlandis a land area with soggysoils. It is sometimescoveredwith a shallowlayer of water. There are also wetlandswhichcan be dry for part of the year. The plantsand OBJECTIVE: animalswhichlivethereare adaptedtothiswateryenvironment.Therearemanydifferent Wetlandsare very types of wetlands;bog, marsh, and swampare the maintypes. importantto the well being of manyplants and animals, including people. But whatare WetlandFunctions theseareas and whatdo FloodControl - Excess theydo? water is slowedby wet landplants, dispersedin C] C] 4L’J _ the wetland’s shallow Elementasythrough “bowl,”andabsorbedby adult the soil. Water Cleanser - Wet MATERIALS: landscanhelppurifywa Nonerequired ter, which carries pol lutants from the land. Sediment,whichchokes aquatic life, is filtered Out. Pollutants,suchas toxic chemicalsand nu trients, are partiallyab sorbed and sometimes brokendownby plants. Water Reservoir - Wet landsallowwatertoseep intothe soil to recharge the underground water supplies(aquifers).Wet lands also remain moist when other Home Sweet Home - Wetlandsprovide areas are parchedby drought. foodandshelterfor manyanimals.They Stonn Buffer - Wetlands can take a are nurseriesfor young fish, birds, and beatingfromroughwindandwater,yet crabs. A thriving wetlandprobablyhas remainintact.Thethickvegetationless more life in it than any other kind of ensthe storm’sforceandprotectsland habitat. from erosion. Wildl(fe Pantry - Manyanimalsdepend WetlandsinDangerl on wetlands for food because these More than half of U.S. wetlandshave areasaresoproductive.Migratingbirds been lost since the 1600’s! They are will make pit stops to “refuel” and drainedto becomefarm fields, or filled somespendtheir winterthere. for developments,or dredgedfor water- page1 In choosingyour site, make sure that there are no more than 3 miles of open water, wherewavescangatherener gy. Whilevegetationcanhelp prevent erosion, it is not as effectiveagainststrongwaves, suchas thoseencounteredon the openSound.This is espe cially true of new plantings. The soil shouldbe sandyand there should be a minimum distance of 10 feet between the foot of the bank and the low.tideline. Also,makesure the area gets more than 4 hoursofdirectsunlightdaily.

The primarysalt marshplant is grass. Smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) re quires daily flooding, and shouldbeplantedintheinter tidalzone(betweenmeanhigh water and mean low water lines). Saltmarsh hay (Spartina parens), if used, should be plantedjust above ways. Wetlands become “drylands” when people the cordgrass. These plants can be obtained from builddamsor divert waterthat feeds these areas. certainnurseries.

Enthe past, wetlandswere considereduselesswaste Marsh grasses should be planted at low tide, in the lands. Now we know that they are very valuableto spring or fall. Followingthe instructionsfrom the peopleand wildlife.Changingopinionsare resulting nursery, plant the grass with some time-release in new laws to help save wetlands.But there is still fertilizer,suchasOsmocote.The grasswillfill inthe muchwork to be done to stop the destructionand to area in several months. Protect the site from dis restore our wonderfulwetlands. turbancewith stakesand string, or a snow fence.

CreatingWetlands It is stronglyrecommendedthat youget someprofes A goodprojectfor a group motivatedto help restore sional assistanceto chooseand preparethe site, and wetlands is to plant wetland vegetation. With help to locatethepropermarshgrasses.TheU.S Fishand fromanexperiencedconsultant,youcanturna barren WildlifeServiceprovidesassistancein weiand res shorelineinto a thriving marsh. toration.Youcanalsousea privateconsultant.Look under “Environmentaland EcologicalServices” in Theeasiesttypeof wetlandto establishis an intertidal the phonebook. saltmarsh.This type of wetland is characterizedby grassyvegetationand tidalfloodingby salt or brack FunFacts: ish water. Suitableareasto plant are river shorelines NewYork’sshoresfaceContinuouserosionat a rate with tidal flow, no overshadowing trees, and a ofoneto four-and-a-half(1-4.5) feetof shorelineper shallowslope. year.

Ilius:rations by SandraKoch FloatableDebris Introduction: Materialthat washesup on shores, or “floatables”, have washedonto beachesfor years, but only recentlyhave they gainedattentionas a serious water qualitythreat. Floatabledebris consistsof bottles,paper, wood, sewage,garbage,street litter, and now the muchpublicizedplastic and medical-relateditems. Floatabledebris can be W_x.uL’AI’a ‘J1I[.iU stopped. Floatabledebris, includingmedicalwaste, Municipalgarbagehasnotbeenlegallydisposedof in coastalwatersfor over50 years is a controllableproblem. and illegaldisposalis not accountablefor the suddenrise in beachdebris. Thesource of floatablesis, surprisingly, commonhouseholdlitter and householdwaste. This includesthe medicalwaste, such as insulinsyringes, that are flusheddown toilets. OBJECTIVE: The user willdiscover Litter washedoff streets is carried ei into the Sound. South windspersisted that floatable debns can therdirectlyintothewateror intostorm throughJuly, collectingthe floatables be stoppedat its source. sewers. Many storm sewers are com into large slicks that were pushedon Unlikesomeforms of bined with sanitary sewers and the shore. thisproblem debrispassesintothe sewagetreatment pollution, With combined Theseweatherconditions beginsat home. plants(STP). a system, are unusual, moderate rainfall overloads the STP. but theycombinewiththe everpresent Everything, sewageand floatables, is floatablesto makethis severeproblem A GROUP: dischargedasrawcombinedsewerover noticeable.Althoughwe don’t always Elementarythrough flow (CS0) directly into the water see the floatabledebris, it is out there adult. ways. CSO’sare the greatestsourceof anditsvolumeis increasingyearly.On floatablesinthe Northeast.Powerout top of that, since 1970, our use of MATERIALS: agesor equipmentfailuresalsodisable plasticshastripled, increasingthe per STPs and cause the dischargeof raw centageof persistentplastic in debris. • styrofoampellets Floatabledebris itselfdoes small sewage. by notpose wadingpool half a greatthreatto humanlife, but itdoes filled with water There are offshoresourcesof floatable threatenwildlife. • varioussinai!floatable trash and plastic. Naval, commercial and non-floatable shipping and fishing fleets have regu The debris epidemic of 1988 had a objects. larly dumpedwaste into the ocean. In tremendousimpacton the economyof 1989, the US entered an international theSound.Peopledidn’tvisittheSound REFERENCES: agreementto controloffshoredisposal. and were afraidto eat the seafoodthat fromthe Sound.The Adaptedfrom Long Floatablesalsoenterthe waterthrough came LongIsland mishandlingsolidwastesthat arebeing economyalone suffered a 1-2 billion Island Sound Studyfact off loaded for dollarloss the of 1988. #8 “Floatable on or on barges transport during summer sheet to landfills. US supports one of the Debris”by the largestrecreationalvesselfleetson the Medicalwaste ConnecticutSea Grant continentandthesepleasureboatscon Medicalwastesdiscoveredon beaches MarineAdvisoryPlvgram tributetothetrashproblem.Evenbeach in 1988 received much publicity. In and the New YorkSea goers add significantlyto the problem reality,theamountof medicalwasteon Grant&tension by littering. beaches was very small. Insulin sy F?wm. ringesoriginatingfrom CSOand from Thesummerof 1988 intravenous drug users on the beach Weatherduring 1988contributedto the were a frightening discovery. Some floatabledebrisepidemicandthesubse- isolatedincidentsof medicalwastede quent closureof beachesthat summer. bris may have originated from illegal Litter accumulatedthroughoutthe wa- dumping. tershedduringa dry winterandspring. Mid-summer torrential rainstorms Concern about medical debris stems washedthelandscapeclean,overloaded from fears of infectiousdisease.How combinedsewers, and flushed debris ever, only 1%of beachdebris is medi

Po9e1 tional treaty (MARPOL Annex V) signed by Con gress now prohibits the dumpingof any plastic in our oceans. If you see illegal (off-site) dumping, pinpoint the lo cationandrecorddischarge typeandtimeofobservance, as well as the violating vessel’snameandID num ber. Report it to the Coast Guard (212-668-7920).If youseedebris inthewater, pinpointthe locationby lo ran, latitude/longitude,or visual sightings. Report it to NYS DEC Debris Line (718-482-4955).Beableto describe the nature of the material and the extent of the slick. Other telephone numbers are listed on the resource card(s) contained in this activitypacket. Setupa miniatureItS in a small wading pool:Put various small callyrelated. Ofthat, only 10%of the debrishasbeen objectsin the wateranduse a smallfanto pushthem in contact with infectious disease. Many infectious aroundthe pool. Whattypesof objectsfloat?Which diseases, including the AIDS virus, are fragile and objectssink?Whatdoeswaveactiondotothesystem? cannot survive the harsh ocean environment. The Do somethingssuspendinthe watercolumnbeneath tremendousdilutionthattheoceanoffersalsodecreases the water surface?What is buoyancy? the virulenceof the pathogen. FunFacts: FloatableDebris- Whatcanyoudo? Youcanbeofgreatassistanceinpreservingthewater Unlike manypollutionproblems, the floatabledebris qualityof the Sound, so that we can all ensure the problem and its source is well understood. Litter future enjoymentof our most bountiful natural re control, recycling, and enforcementof existing laws source. arethe bestcontrolsof floatabledebris. Becausestorm PLEASE: and combinedsewers are a major source of debris, • Do not discardtrash overboard; redesign and restructuring these systems are major • Usereusablecontainers and limit use of non- public works projects that are underway and will biodegradablematerials, greatly improve the situation. Relativeto upgrading • Retrievetrash found in water; and better operationof STPs is teachingthe publicto • Participate in beach clean-ups; and onlydisposeof humanwaste in their sewagesystems. • Be aware of the dangers of plastics to the The control of flóatables must be incorporated into marine environment. Soundmanagementplans. Polystyrenefoamlookslikefoodtoaseaturtle.When Plasticbags, monofilamentline, and 6-packrings can they eat it they becometoo buoyantto dive. It also be deadlyin the ocean. Beverage6-packholdershave clogstheirdigestivesystemsandtheystarveto death. beenestimatedto causethe deathsof6 millionseabirds Each Americanthrows away 60 pounds of plastic and 100,000marinemammalsannually,andhavealife packagingevery year. expectancyof 450years. Fourteen billion pounds of garbagearedumpedintotheworldsoceanseveryyear, And remember... most of it in the Northern Hemisphere. An Interna STOWIT- DON’T THROWJT!

Illustranonby SandraKoch [How Does YourGardenGrQw? Introduction: Mostpeoplewantdense,healthylawnsandthrivinggardens.Notonlydoessuchlandscapingmake your home more attractiveand valuable,but it also has importantenvironmentalbenefits. rxnne’a ‘J.Iii[.JU Plantshelppreventerosion,moderatesummerheat,andact as a Small wnounts of filter for rainwater from downspoutsand driveways. A lawn also benefitsthe soil from healthy by adding organic pollutants matterto improvesoil structureand infiltration.Your thousands0/yards adds localstreamandultimatelytheSoundwillbenefitfrom up to a majorproblem. thefilteringcapacityandreducedrunoffprovidedby your landscaping. OBJECTIVE: With careful maintain •Landscapingand management,you can a gardening techniques healthylawnorgardenwithoutexcessiverelianceon can have either a very commercialfertilizersorpesticides.Thenameofthe is responsible positiveora very game use. detrimentaleffecton the qualityof surface and ground water. The user TooMuchFertilizer? will learn techniques/or Lawnsandgardenscanbecomea sourceof soundyard pollution if we use fertilizers indiscrimi and with aidofre Thesematerials washintowater for andthreat management. nately. can coveryprograms endangered ways and contributeto the Sound’sprob enedspeciesthesebirdsarereturningtothe lems. Too many nutrientsfrom fertilizers US watershed.They are reminders,how AGEGROUP: stimulatetherapidgrowth(bloom)ofalgae, ever, of the costsof usingtoxicchemicals. Elementarythrough whichcloudthewater.Thiscutsoff lightto adult. submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) and Bea SoilScientist kills it. In additionto chokingout SAy the Lawn treatmentsshouldbe tailoredto the MATERIALS: decayingalgaerobthe waterof oxygenand specialneedsof your sOiland vegetation. make it less habitablefor animals. You determinethese needswith soil • trowel aquatic can a a garden test. A test kit can be obtainedfrom your • small bag to hold soil PesticideProblems countyCooperativeExtensionOfficeor a sample Insecticidesandherbicidesarealsodanger local garden store. • soil lest kit or address ous to the Sound.They arejust as toxic to of the soil testingservice many beneficialSound organismsas they AtHome... for your area are to garden pests and weeds. Pesticides Test your soil for pH and nutrient levels can seriouslyupset the delicatebalanceof before starting any lawn treatment. The REFERENCES: this ecosystem.Upto 60%ofthepesticides results will tell you how much nitrogen, in use are for cosmeticpurposesonly. potassium,phosphorus,andlimeyoursoil “SoundGardening”, requires.Testingyoursoilsavesyoumoney Cornelland Universityof A dramatic example of the harm from and decreases your use of fertilizersthat ConnecticutCooperative pesticidesis the caseof DDT. Usedexten harmthe Sound.KeeppH between6.5 and Extension Systems,New sively after World War II, DDT contami 7.5 to minimizethe needto fertilize.Neu York Sea Grant natedinsectsandotherinvertebrates,which tral soil supports good micro-organisms Extension, and were eaten by other animals. A toxic and worms and gives up its nutrients to ConnecticutMarine byproduct, DDE, became more concen plants easily. Soils in our area are usually Order trated in animal tissues as the food chain acidic and need to be limed. Use a long- Advlsoiy. by ascendedfrom insects rodentsand small lime $2.00 Cornell to lastinggranular inthe fallandtestthe sending to birds and finallyto birds of resultsof applicationthe nextspring. CooperativeExtension, prey. your Suffol* County,246 This poisonousbuildupinbirdsof prey led Mowyourlawnnoshorterthan2-3inches. Griffing Avenue, to eggshell thinning. The fragile eggs of Longer grass has deeper roots and is Riverhead,NY11901. bald eagles,ospreys, andperegrinefalcons healthier. Mowfrequentlyand leaveshort broke easily and few young birds were clippings to decompose naturally. Water hatched. DDT was finallybanned in 1972 your lawnonly when necessaryand never Ip0ge1 Do yougetdifferent results at different sitesanddates?What are the needsof the soil around the school?Aretheybe ing met by the lawn treatments used? Does the soil need more fertilizer? Or does it get too much already? Put your findings in a short report. Your school maybe interestedin your study and may changeitslawntreat ment.Thisstudycan alsobe conductedat aworkplaceor local park, anywherefer tilizersor pesticides mightbe used. more than once a week. Water deeply so that the wateringand rainfall for the week equalsaboutone FUNFACTS: inch of water. There are 10 million acres of lawns in the U.S. Wateringthemuses270billiongallonsof waterevery Use a “biostimulant” that helps your lawn absorb single week. nutrients. This will cut your fertilizingrate by 25% Fertilize inthe andenhanceroot growth. only spring TIPSFORRESPONSIBLEUSE andfallandusenomorethanyouneed.Analternative to the traditionalgreen lawn is to convertyour lawn • only use whatyou need to use (more is not always totrees, shrubs,gardens,or nativeplantings.Ifgreen better) lawnis a necessityfor you, thenplanta diversegrass • consider using less harmfIdproducts seed mix that will thrive with minimalcare in your • checklabelsfor the proper times and application area. Try naturalalternativesto herbicidesandpesti rates cides. “Greengardening”suppliesareavailablefrom • avoidgetting materials on sidewalksor drive organicgardeningsupply companies. ways—theycan wash into storm drains and don‘1 apply qexpecting , .andatSchoo • if using a commerciallawn service, make sure You can also analyzethe soil around your school. It thefirm testsyour soil and tailors the treatment is important to know first if the groundskeeperis to your lawn already applying fertilizer or pesticides. Find out whattypeandbrandofmaterialsarebeingused(weed killers, insecticides,lime,turffood?).Findoutwhere Fertilizersandpesticidescanhelpproducea lushlawn and whenthese are applied. or garden,but they mustbe used accordingto instruc tions to prevent water quality problems. You should Armed with this background information,test soil also investigategardeningmethodswhichdo not rely samplesaround your school. If possible, test before exclusivelyon chemicals.IntegratedPestManagement any treatmentshave been applied(earlyspring)and (1PM)emphasizespestcontrolwithlessdependenceon after treatment (wait two or three days after the pesticides.Compostmixedwith your soil can provide material is applied!). This can become a long-term someoftheorganicmatterandnutrientsyoursoilneeds monitoringproject. Record the soil test results, the withoutusing commercialpreparations. plants in the area (grass, shrubs, trees), and the • locationof nearby creeks or stormdrains. Mapping your sites is helpful, too.

Illustrations by SandraKoch ypoxia

Introcluction: Hypoxiaisthe scientifictermfor lowdissolvedoxygenlevelsinthewater.Generally,3 parts 1 per million(ppm)isconsideredtobethelowestdissolvedoxygenlevelthatcansustainmarine ACTIVITYDESCRIPTION: life.Whendissolvedoxygenlevelsdropbelowthis,hypoxiaexistsandmarineorganismsmay Hypoxiahas becomea becomesick, die, or moveto areas with more oxygen. majorproblem inUS

OBJECTIVE: Hypoxiacanoccurnaturallyin the summer ral”. Humanwastefrom sewagetreatment Totake the user’s when the waterstratifies, or formsdistinct plantsand septicsystems,increasedrunoff understandingof layers. Oxygen is added to the surface resulting from land development in the nutnfl cationa step watersbywaveaction,butitisunabletomix watershed,and over-fertilizationof lawns further and to examine intothelowerlevelsof thewatercolumn.In and agricultural fields all contribute to the effectsof the fall, the conditionschangeso that oxy elevatedlevels of nutrients in the system. nutrificatlonin a gen is restoredto the deep water. Identifyingthe source of nutrient enrich demonstration. menthasleadto a “nonetincrease”policy In recent hypoxia has on nitrogeninput. Nitrogenis AGE GROUP: years becomeso severe that there the nutrient fuelingthe algae Elementarythrough appearsto be causefor con blooms, and over half of that adult. cern.Inthesummerof 1987, nitrogenoriginatesfrompoint therewasliterallyno source pollution. Holdingni MATERIALS: oxygen inthebottomwaters,andalmostnoneatthe trogen inputto currentlevelswillstemthe 9 garden seeds(corn, surface in areas of the western Sound. increaseof hypoxia.Non-pointsourcepol peas, or beans) Surveyson marine life resulted in no fish lution contributesto the nitrogenloading, • 3 sir inch plant pots or being found in of the samples. Of the as well. This is harder to control, but other growing any pot bottomsamples, 80% of the bottomdwell arebeingmadeto curbthis • sterilepotting soil attempts source ing invertebratessuch as starfishand crabs of nutrients. • liquidfertiliter mLxed were dead. in two concentrations - (1)according to Combinedsewagesystemsareapointsource directionsand (2) double Thishypoxiaperiodcoincidedwithanalgae for nitrogen loading. The redesign and strength “bloom”whenfloatingalgaewereso abun restructuring of these systems are major dant that they colored the water surface a public works projects, involvingmassive deep red-brown. Natural algae “blooms” allocations of money, long construction Adaptedfrom the Long are short lived because they use up the periods, and inconvenientdisruptions in island Sound Study nutrient resourcesaroundthem and conse service. Nonetheless, the states of New Status Reportand quently die. However, in the Sound, a York and Connecticut, the City of New Interun Actions/or billion gallons of treated sewage are dis York,andothercommunitiesareallunder HypoxiaManagement, charged into the water daily, renewingthe takingsuchprojects.Inaddition,effortsare 1990, by the Connecticut nutrients.Themillionsoftinyplantsthatdie ongoingfor the better operationof sewage Sea GrantMa,i.ne each day sink into the bottom waters and treatmentplantsandstricterenforcementof AdvisoryProgram and decompose.Decompositionusesupoxygen laws regulatingdischarge. the NewYork Sea Grunt and createsthe severehypoxiasuch as that Extension Ptogram. which was observed in 1987. Non-pointSourcePollution...You canhelpi Human-madesources of nutrients to the Non-pointsourcesof nitrogenare difficult Soundexceednaturalinputsof nutrients.In to identifyand to manage.They are often fact,56% ofthenitrogenloadingis “unnatu causedby individualsratherthanindustries I pogell and that is why everyone in the LIS atershedcanhelpto lowernon-point sourcesof nitrogenloading.

— _%_ Limittheuseof chemicalfertilizerson your lawn and garden. Decreaserun off fromyour lawnandyard by plant ing native plants that hold soil and nutrientsin place and do well in your ...:.. 4 area withoutheavyfertilizingand ex PLANKTONRLOOM SOURCE tra care. s.t.”iThrhes on ,ugtrienLs FORNEW - OXYGEN OXYGEN ,.,ç Createdbywaveaction, Faultysepticsystemscan increasethe Oxygenused up by PtQflktORgrowth inputofnutrientsintotheSound.What mJcroorga.Asmrespiration into tank goes your septic eventually Oxygentrappedabove)’ 4 comesoutof it inoneformor another. pycnocllne Make sure that septic systems are workingatmaximumefficiency.Moni tor your septic system and have it I PYCNO pumped every three years. Do not CLINE poison your septic system by adding harsh chemicalsto your wastewater. 4- Use soaps, particularlylaundrysoap, that is quickly biodegradable. Some I 1?’ Xl ADVECI £-- advertized biodegradablesoaps take OXYGEN twoyearsto degrade!Duringthattime Decomposition ‘he is reacting with to soap paper FISH 4- create froththat candamage Oxygen a gummy Ableto move the septicfield. from Hypoxia Be an advocate! Support efforts by yourcommunitytoupgradewastetreat mentfacilities. NUTRIENTS Donutrientsreallymakea _jReleased bybottomsediments SHELLFISH difference? S Unableto move Oxygenconsumedby Plantthreeseedsineachof threepots. from HypoxIa - ,,ents Labelthe pots as (1) “fertilized”, (2) “2X fertilized”, and (3) “control”. Waterpot #1 withthe fertilizermixed in wateraccordingto directions.Wa ter pot #2 with a double dose of ci’.Decomposition0/organic matter fertilizermixedinwater.Waterpot#3 with plain water. Keepthe soil moist and warm until the plants appear. Makesure that you fertilizethe plants at least weekly. After the plants are 1 several inches tall, measure them to This activityworks best if each studenthas three pots. The larger seewhichplantsare growingthe fast samplesize will makeup for experimentalerror. If you are near a freshwater to the add fourth the est. You may wish to continue the tributary Sound, a potto experiment andwateritwithtributarywater.Howdotheplantsinthefourthpot experiment and measure the plants compareto the other plants? severaltimesover a few weeks.

!IJus:ranonsy SandraKoch LWh1tt’s a Watershed?

Introduction: Allofus areconnectedto LongIslandSound.Whetherweliveon LongIslandalongthesouth shoreof LIS, in Connecticutor westernRhodeIslandat its north shore, or in Massachusetts, NewHampshire,or Vermontnear the ConnecticutRiveror others flowingto the Sound,we ACTIVITYDESCRIPTION: all share the samewatershed. Waterto US travels Watershed: an area of land that is drainedby a river or other body of water. throughstreamsand Runoff: water (usuallyfrom rain) that flowsover a land surface. groundwaterin a watershed. Smallwatershedsreceiverunofffrom a few acresof land into a creek. Large watershedsare made up of manysmallerones, just as large rivers are fed by many small tributaries. The OBJECTIVE: Sound’s massive watershed receives water from New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts,Vermont,NewHampshire,and Canada.The drainagebasin includes15,820 The watershed is concept square miles and there are over 13millionpeopleliving withinthat area. not an easyone, but withsomecreativityand a map, the user can It is importantforus to realizethatanything Asa raindrop,youwilldependongravity understandhis/her thatgoeson the landor intothe waterinthe to moveyou. Gravitydraws you literally connectionto Long LIS watershedwill eventuallyendup inthe downhillto the sea.Thinkof theSoundas Island Sound (LIS). Sound.Thatincludesusedoildumpeddown the bottom of a wrinkled bowl of land. a storm drain in Hartford, CT, pesticides Althoughyou may take an indirectpath, AGEGRbUP: froma Vermontfarmfield, sewagefroman you will eventuallyflow down into this Elementarythrough overflowingseptictankonLongIsland,and body of water. adult. sedimentfrom a North Shore construction project. So even if youdo not live near the You will need a mapto guide yourjour Sound,youractionsmostdefinitelyhavean ney. Lookat a localmapwithmostof the MATERIAL.S: impacton it. Through the liquidthreadsof smallcreeksmarked.The bestmapto use topographicalor road flowingwater,we are all connectedto LIS. is a topographicmap.This mapshowsthe maps coveringthe US actual folds and contours of the land. watershedfrom the Non-pointSourcePollution Rememberthat you will be goingfrom a user’s Locationto the Pollutants enter the Sound by many non- highelevation(ahilltop)to a lowerone(a Sound point sources.Theyare washedby rain and valley). State maps are also good, espe snow from the sky and enter the Sound cially as you move into larger rivers and REFERENCES: directlyas airbornepollution.Manypollut get closer to the Sound. carried in runoff from the Adaptedfrom Long ants are water shed. These of hard Sowhereto begin?Well, is Island Sound Studyfact sources pollutionare to yourbackyard identifyandto Theyaresometimes agoodplace.Using trace sheet #7 “Nonpoint manage. yourmaps, your createdby individuals,notjust by industry. pathasa raindropfromyourhometo LIS. SourcePollution in Long Youwillhaveto flowovr somelandfirst- Island Sound”by the A RaindropGoestoSea remember, flow downhill. What do ConnecticutSea Grant you Imagine yourself as a raindrop. You are encounter?Howdoyougetintothewater Marine Advisory goingto take a trip from somewherein the ways--bystormdrainor bytricklingfrom Progmm and the New Connecticutriver watershedall the way to theland?Wheredo youentera creek?Into YorkSea Grant the AtlanticOcean.Alongthe wayyouwill what larger streams and rivers will you ExtensionPvgram. encountermanydifferentareas: lawns, cit flow? Will you pick up some “baggage” ies, highways,forests,andfarmfields.You alongtheway?Howlongisyourjourney? may alsopick up some “baggage”to carry Mark these things on your map (or draw to the Sound: sediment, fertilizers, pesti your own map). Do you see how you are cides, oil and salt from roadways,sewage, connectedto the Sound? and toxic chemicals.Your “baggage”will depend on how people use the land and waterwaysthrough whichyou flow. I I page Try mappingout differentwater paths from different STEPSTOHELPTHESOUND: placessuchas Claremont,NH; Montpelier,VT; Hart ford, CT; Springfield, MA; Arcadia, RI; and even 1. Plant trees and shrubs Quebec,Canada.Whatdifferent“baggage”wouldyou 2. Test your soil before fertilizing pickupfromeachplace?Youcouldbecomeaverywell 3. Never pour chemicalsdown drain traveled raindrop! 4. Checkand pump septictank every three years Questions? Effect What type of baggageis comingfrom each land use? 1. Hold runoff, curb erosion, and replenishground Matchthe land typeand the “baggage”. water V 2. Avoidexcessfertilizing 1. forest a. chemicals-lead,oil, etc. 3. Reducepollutantsflowingto US 2. farm b. sanitary wasteand oil 4. Reducemalfunctionsand allow tank to perform 3. homes c. sediments efficiently 4. city/factory d. sediments,fertilizers, pesticides 5. boats e. householdchemicalsand sanitary FUNFACTS: waste 1/4teaspoonof oil will form a filmover about2000 squarefeetofthewater’ssurface; 1quartofmotoroil contaminates250,000 gallonsof water--morewater than 30 people drink in a lifetime; the oil from 1 enginecan producean 8-acreoil slick.

Illustration by Sandra Koch L RecyclingMakes Sense

introduction: Why Recycle? makes in this of ACTIVITYDESCRIPTION:r, Recycling sense age disposablegoods for several reasons. Recycling: . r I.,.— *Reducesneedfor landfill spaceand trash incinerators(papermakes up 38% of this precycling-the whysand nation’s solid wastein landfills!). how-los Conserves natural resources(metalfor cans, woodfor paper, petroleumfor plastic). Conserves energysincemakingproductsfrom recycledmaterials is energy efficient. OBJEcTIvE: *Reducespollution of air and water. SMokesmoneyfor people whocollectand sell recyclables. welivein an age of disposablegoods, but we don’t have lobe WhatCan BeRecycled? wasteful. The user will Thematerialsmostcommonlyrecycled 20% crushed, recycledglassand 80% learn the benefitsand are paper, aluminum,bi-metaland tin virginglass is used. Recycledglass is methodsof recycling cans, and glass. Usedoil is recyclable notusedinhighstrengthitems,suchas and precycing. and accepted by most car mechanic windowsor test tubes. shops. AGEGROUP: WhereCan I Recycle? While plastic products, such as soft Checkinthe YellowPagesunder “Re Elementarythrough drinkbottlesandmilkbottles,andchip call adult. cycling”or yourcountysolidwaste board from packagingcan also be re managementofficeto find information cycled,theyareacceptedat fewcollec on centersand curb-sidepick-up. Cit REFERENCES: tion centers. It has not yet become ies are finding it cheaper to promote • Adaptedwith economicallyfeasible to collect these recyclingand provide curb-sidepick permissionfrom very light materials. up, than to build new landfillsor haul “MarylandRecycling trash long distances to existing land “ WhatHappensto Recycled fills. Directory, Maryland Materials? EnvironmentalService, Recycled usuallyends asnews 1988. paper up Reduce.. . reuse...reuse.. .recyclei print, papertowels,tissues,andinsula The best to reducetrash is be Ranger Rick’s way to a tion. Someis made into card stockbr “green” shopper. “Precycle!” pur NatureScope. “Geology: regularpaper, althoughthis process is chasebulkproductsor thosewithmini TheActive Earth,” expensive. Corrugated cardboard is mal packaging. Tell your grocer of NOJIOna! used make but Wildlife overseasto new, flimsy, your preference for reduced packag Federation, 1987. cardboard. Becausereusedpaper can ing, particularlyof produce. Choose not be made into a higher paper grade toys that are simply packagedand of than it was originally, your morning good qualitythat will last a longtime. newspaper will not become writing Reusepackagingor materialsin inge paper. nious ways until it can no longer be reused. Aluminumpie and Aluminumis well plates plas suited to recycling. tic yogurt containers come in very Re-manufacturingcansusesonly5%of handy. Support “bottle bill” legisla the energyneededto refinenewalumi tion if your state does not have it and num—asavingsequivalentto 4 ounces return your beverage containers for of gasolineper can! About50% of all refund if your state has a deposit law. cans now come from recycled alumi Go a step further and purchasebever num. age containersthat are returnable/re fillablewheneverpossible.Everylittle Recycledglass can becomefiberglass, bit helps! road paving, or new glass, depending on its contents. For newglass,a mixof RecyclingMakesCents A recyclingdrive or returnable drive (instateswith 6Arrange transportation. Once you have com a returnablebeveragecontainerslaw)is an idealway pleted your drive, you have to get your materials to help cleanup the environmentin the LongIsland from the storageor collectionarea to the recycling Sound watershedand to raise money. Many recy center. cling centers will pay for some materials. Most peopleare interestedin puttingtheir “trash” to use. 7.Use your profits. Think abouthow your group Ifsomeonewillmakeitconvenientforthembytaking can spendthe moneyit makes. You can fundyour the materialsto a recyclingcenter,theywill recycle. club,donateittoanenvironmentalgroup,or finance a long-termrecyclingprogram. Evenif youdo notwantto tackle-alargeprojectsuch as a communitydrive, you canget intothe recycling Forthosecommunitieswitha recycling habit in your own household. Set asidea cornerfor your family’spapers, aluminumcans and glass. A program: monthly trip to the center is all that’s Contactyour countysolid wastecommission. Ask recycling whethercurb-side is necessary. So get organizedand get recycling! recycling available. Promote curb-side pick-up in your communityand help to 1 What to Decide what want to informneighborsof the program. Get a list of the recycle? you re materialsthat will collect. cycle— newspapers, computer paper from busi your recyclingprogram glass, and/or aluminum. Also decide Is the rangeof materialsbroadenough? Investigate nesses, on a the marketfor materialsand time frame—will,your drive be one day, or once recycled find out why monthlyfor a few months? some articlesare not recycledin your community. Purchaseand 2.Find a recycling center. Contact a recycling requestrecycleditems. Recyclingwill collector in least six not make“cents” unlessthe re-manufacturedprod your area at to seven weeks have before the drive. Check the Yellow Pages under ucts a market. “Recycling.” You can also call 1-800-228-2525to find aluminumrecyclingcenters. Goto a grocerystoreandcountout250six-packsof soda. That ishowmuchthe averageAmericanuses in - 1,500 Be sure the collector will take your materials and one year cans. checkonanyrules. For example,glassmustbeclean, sorted by color, and without metal. Newspapers should be bundled. High-qualitypaper, magazines FunFacts: and newspapersshould be separated. • The oil from enginecan make an 8 acre 3.Arrange for temporary storage. Find a placeto oil slick. store the collectedmaterials (someone’sgarage, an • The averageAmericanuses 7 trees a year in empty schoolroom). This is importantif the drive paper, wood, and other products. takesplaceoverafewmonthsor ifyoucan’ttransport • That is over 1.5 billion trees a year. the materialsimmediatelyto the recyclingcenter. • We use 80 billion aluminumsoda cans per 4.Choosea convenient drive location. Goodloca year and the energy savedby recyclingone of tions for a drive includeshoppingareas, recreation them, insteadof makinga new can, will power a centers,or schools. Theareashouldhaveeasyaccess TV for 3 hours. andbe visiblefromthe road. Checkwiththe proper • Americansbuy 500 milliondisposablelighters authoritiesfor permissionto use the area. every year. - • Each Americanthrows away about 60 pounds 5.Publicize the drive. Makepostersand/orfliersto of plastic packagingevery year. tellpeoplewhatyouarecollectingandanyrulesofthe collectingcenter. Includethedate,time,andlocation of the drive. You may want to includeinformation on the importanceof recycling. Contactlocalnews papersandradiostationsto seeifthey’lladvertisethe drive. ousehold Hazardous Waste

Introduction: Every time we open the newspaperor watchthe eveningnews, we ACTIVITYDESCRIPTION: find out about yet another toxic waste site which is polluting the environmentand endangeringhumans and wildlife. But there are Many common householdsubstances hiddenhazardouschemicalsites whichnever makethe news. You under in are toxic to the Sound may even have one in your garage, your sink, or your environment. bathroom!

OBJEcTIvE: Commonhouseholdproductsoftencontainchemicalingredientsthat harmful and threat the Sound. Sound • The user will become are potentially to you are a to with toxic materials in aware that households environmentalbehavior starts recognizing as wellas industriesare homeproducts, limitingtheir use, and findingsafer alternatives. responsiblefor our toxic contaminationproblems. DowntheDrain? There’sa ToxicDumpUnderthe • An excersisewillhelp SinkI the user recognizetoxic Materialspoured down drains or flushed householdsubstances. down toilets are carried to your septic Examples of HazardousSubstances: systemor a sewagetreatmentplant(STP). Kitchen: Cleanersforoven,drain,floor; - - AtEGOUP: -: Neitheris designedto completelyremove furniturepolish. toxic chemicalsfrom wastewater. Bathroom: medicine,nail Elementaiy through Cleansers, polish adult. remover. Hazardous materials poured down Garage: Usedmotoroil,antifreeze,carwax, stormdrains,or evenspreadonthelandcan ratpoison. MATERIALS: enter local waters and the Sound. Pesti Workshop: Thinner,varnish,glue,rustre coloredcirclestickers cides and fertilizers used on plants and mover. (red, orange, blue and lawns, oil, road salt, and other pollutants green) canbewashedintostormdrainsandcreeks. UsetheLeastToxicProduct The toxic materialscarried in this water We can often get by with a less harmful REFERENCES: can harm aquaticlife. product. For example, a combinationof • The ChesapeakeBay lemon oil and linseed oil can replace Alliance’s “Baybook” IntheTrash? furniturepolish. Buyonlywhatyouneed • ChesapeakeBay Ourtroubleswithhazardousmaterialsdon’t of a chemical, store it in its original Foundation’s end when we disposeof them in the trash container,and readthe label. Knowwhat “HomeownerSeries: can. If your communityuses an incinera youarebuying,howto useit, andwhatthe Guideto Household toxic fumes be released when potentialhazardsare. Hazardous Waste” tor, can certain chemicals are burned. If your • Adaptedfrom Long ofWastes Island Sound wastegoesto a landfill,hazardousmateri Dispose Carefully Studyfact Never hazardous down the sheet #10 “Toxic als could leach into the soil. These may pour wastes Contanzinationin contaminatebodiesof water if they wash drain, on the ground, or intogutters.The Long best of household Island Sound”by the into creeksor seep into aquifers. way to dispose your ConnecticutSea Grant toxinsis at a HazardousHouseholdWaste Collection Call to if MarineAdvisoiy Prograni Theregulationsconcerninghouseholdhaz Day. yourcounty see and the New YorkSea ardouswasteare few and sketchy.It is one is scheduledor contactan expertwith up state GrantExtension to us to cleanup our own wastes. Hazard your or county government(see re Plvgram. ous chemicalsin our householdswill poi source card). son our environmentand us if we do not I take precautionsin their use anddisposal. L Poe1 Whattoxicchemicalsdoyouhavein productlistingstrongwarningsagainstcontactwith yourhome? skinor eyes mustbe labeledwitha redor orange Label the red stickersas “hazardous”,theorange sticker.“Friendly”materialsarethosethathaveno stickersas “toxic”,thegreenstickersas“friendly”, specialhandlingandcanbe safelyusedatalltimes. and thebluestickersas “safe.”Gothroughall of Thebluesticker,“safe”materialsare safelyusedif yourhouseholdchemicalsand readthe ingredient you followthe instructions.“Safe”materialsmay labelsand warnings.Placethe appropriatesticker havewarningsaboutingestionor inhalationof the on each container.Note thatthe red and orange product. stickercontainersrequirespecialhandling.Any

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Jllusfralionsby SandraKoch lean Water:A PRICELESS RESOURCE

Introduction: Ever think abouthow muchwater we use? JJ. gallonsare treated eachday for each personintheUnitedStates.Thereareanestimated13millionpeoplelivingintheLong I_Iu4k’Aw i*!STh11(S]U IslandSoundwatershed.We all needwaterto carry on our daily functions.At home, Usingwalerfrom a at school, at work and at play, so muchof our lives dependson water. premeasuredsource. Peopletodayusemuchmorewaterthantheydid intimespast. Industryandagriculture OBJECTIVE: havehuge waterdemands.But wateris not a limitlessresource.The amountof water Tobecomeawareof in the world is the sametodayas it wasbillionsof years ago. And whilethe Earth is home use and awateryplanet,only 1%ofallwaterisfreshwaterwhichwecanuse.Throughthewater conservationof water. cycle, we reuse water which may have been used millennia ago! So we must be extremelycarefulin how we use water. Ac Gpoup: Elementarythrough WastewaterTreatment which adult must be treated at no small Wheneverwe turn on a faucetor flush expense.Onesolutionis to buildmore send into treatment Butthis is MATERIALS: a toilet, we water our septic plants. verycostly systemor asewer.Bacteriaintheseptic and does not get at the root of the 2 clean milk jugs tank break down the solid waste. The problem. Instead, we must be more water is then filteredby the soil in the carefulwithour preciousresource.By REFERENCES: septicsystem’sdrainfield.Sewerscarry conservingwater, using it wisely,and • 25 things you can do waterto a wastewatertreatmentplant. not polluting it, we can ensure a safe to Drevealwater waste. There the wastewateris treated with and adequatesupplyfor the future. NewYorkState Dept. of bacteria and chemicals to purify it. Envir. Cons., Bureau of Onlythen is the watercleanenoughto EveryDropCountsl WaterResources,50 How Much NY be returnedto the rivers andultimately Water Do You Use? Wolf,Rd., Albany, the Sound. We live in where 12233-3504, a country finding cleanwaterisnot But phone (518)457-8681. adailydifficulty. = this often For CleanWater CleanSound leads us to take water for moretips on But with To make of reducing water so manypeopleusing water, granted. you more aware water this pollution, consult some treatment plants have become your usehabits, try activity “WCBSNews88: Earth overloaded.So much water is coming for an evening. Guide, 88 Action ups into these plants that it cannot be ad For Cleaner Water” equatelycleaned.Also,everythingyou Fill two cleangallonjugs with water. from the T,i-SlateArea pourdownthedraingoesto yourseptic This is your allowancefor the night. Sea GrantPrograms. systemor a wastewatertreatmentplant, Wheneveryou brushybur teeth, drink • Adaptedfrom Long whichmaynotbeabletotakeoutallthe a glass of water, or wash your hands, Island Sound Studyfact harmfulthings. As a result, the water use only water from your jugs. Keep sheet #3 “Wastewater that enters the Sound is not clean and trackof yourother waterusesaswell—. Treatment”by the can even be unhealthy. remember,flushinga toiletuses5 gal ConnecticutSea Grant lons. MarineAdvisory WhyConserveWater? Programand the New As the droughtsof the past yearshave What do you think? Did this activity YorkSea Grant demonstrated,our water supply is not change how you use water? In what ExtensionProgram. limitless.In manyareas, wateris diffi ways? How much water do you think cult to obtain. And as pointed out you use in a regular day? Where can above, wasted water is wastewater, you cut back and save water?

Po9e1 TheJourneyof Wastewaterto LongIslandSound

Funfacts: People and Water—It Adds Up • A toilet flushesfive gallons • A dishwasheruses 16.5 gallons • A bath uses 30-50 gallons • A shower uses 5-10 gallons/minute • Washingclothesuses 40-60 gallons (permanentpress uses 12-18moregal lons)

WATERTIPS: • don’t let water run whenyouare brush ing your teeth or washingdishes; • adjustthe float in the toilet tank to reduce the amountof water flushed; • take a quickshower insteadof a long bath; • makesure leakyfau cets are repairedin your home and school (a steady drip can waste20 gallonsor more achday and a leakytoilet can waste200 gallons per day without makinga sound!); WaterConservationAroundYourHome • use the dishwasherand clotheswasher Byusinglesswateryourselfandhelpingotherseliminate only whenthey are full; wastefulwaterpractices, you can reducethe amountof • when you next replaceyour clotheswasher, buy waterthatmustbetreatedbywastewaterplants.Thiswill a suds-saverwashingmachine; in turn reduce water pollution and help restore Long • bring your waterconservationhabitsto school;if IslandSound. you see water being wasted, speakup!

IllustrationbySandraKoch Nutrients: TOOMUCH OF A GOOD THING Introduction: LongIslandSoundSoupi TheSoundislikeasoupwithmanyingredients.Thewaterhasmanychemicalsdissolved in it, such as salt and nutrients.Butjust as too muchpeppercan turn a tasty soup into aterriblesoup,toomuchof a particularchemicalcanharmLIS. Acurrentproblemwith AcnviivDESCRIP11ON: the Soundis too manynutrients. Excessnutrification of which andanimals Two the aquaticecosystem. Nutrientsare substances helpplants grow. chemicals,nitrogen and phosphorus,are importantto plant growth. Lawn and plant fertilizer and animal waste(includinghumansewage)containnitrogenandphosphorus.Too manynutrients OBJECTIVE: can be just as harmfulto an ecosystemas too few nutrients. The user will learn the basicsof nutnfication Howdo nutrientsget into11$? What’swrongwithnutrients? and utilizea simple, Waterwhichrunsoffthe landintocreeks Oncethe nutrientsare inthe Sound,they hands-on demonstration andriverscancarrymaterialssuchassoil, helpplantsgrow. Buttoo manynutrients of how unnatural input toxic chemicals,and nutrients.Fertilizer meantoo muchplantgrowth, especially of nutrients cangrossly andmanurecanbewashedfromfieldsand of algae (microscopicfloating plants). alter the aquatic lawns. Humanwasteis also a big prob This over-enrichedsystemis called“eu ecosystem. lem. Some homes use septic systemsto trophic.” Whenthere is too muchalgae, handletheir sewage.Butifthe septictank the water becomes cloudy and blocks AGEGROUP: is not keptingoodrepair, it canoverflow light to underwater grasses, which are Elementarythrough withnutrient-richsewage.In morepopu called “submerged aquatic vegetation” adult. lated areas, human waste is treated at (SAy). Algaecan alsocoatSAVleaves, sewagetreatmentplantsto produceclean further blockinglight and killing them. MATERIALS: water. But all the nutrients are not re SAV is very important to many LIS • five 1-qt.glassjars moved before the water is returnedto a animals for food and shelter. In the plantfood riverandsometimesrawsewageisvented Sound, eelgrass is the most important aluminumfoil directlyintotheriver.Theserivers,carry aquaticgrass. WithoutSAy, the ducks, labelsand waterproof ing nutrients, eventuallyflow into Long fish, crabs, and other animals are in pen Island Sound. trouble. • water (pondor US and tap water) All these algae cannot live forever. Whenthey die and decompose,theyuseupa lot ofoxygeninthewater.This causes more problems for animals, which can suffo cate. You may have seen dead fish floating in green water in the summer. (See “Hypoxia” in this curricu lum.) HelpingtheSound People are now trying to savethe Soundby reducing the amount of nutrients which enter LIS. This in-

page1 volves responsible and limited use of fertilizers, Cover the jars lightly with foil to preventthe water proper treatmentof sewage,and preventivestepsto fromevaporating.Placeall yourjars ina cool,sunny keepfarmanimalwasteout of streams.There is still place (not direct sun, which can heat up the water). a lotofworkahead,buthopefullywecanrestoreUS Every few days, stir the water and checkthe mini to a healthychemicalbalance. LISs.Tipthejar soyoucanseeifanyalgaeisgrowing ontheglass(itwilllooklikeathingreyor greenfilm). AlgaeSoupi Bepatient--ifyourwatersamplehadonlya littlealgae You can be a scientist and see what happenswhen init, itmaytakeweeksforthealgaetobecomevisible. there are too many nutrients in the water. You can createmini-LISsin glassjars and test the effectsof Do all fivejars look the same? Whichjar has more varyingamountsof nutrientson algaegrowth. You algae?Doesthe waterbecomecloudy?Whathappens will need 5 glass 1-quartjars (mayonnaiseor spa after 1 week?After severalweeks?Doesthe amount ghetti saucejars work well), houseplantfood (your of fertilizerseemto have an effect? sourceofnutrients),aluminumfoil, andlabelsforthe jars. Pond, aquarium, and/or Sound water will be Look at a drop of water from each jar under a usedtomakeeachmini-LIS;thesewatersampleswill microscope.You can also examinethe water with a probablyhavesomealgaeinthem. (Teachers:If you magnifyingglass. Do you see any small creatures? wishto speedup the experiment,youcanpreparean What kind of organisms do you see? How do the algae culture and use differentamountsof fertil this to “inoculate”the izer effectaquaticlife? Are water. Add the same there any small animals in amountofalgaeculture the over-enriched water? to eachwater sample.) Why?Write downyour re sults and includedrawings Washthejars, making if appropriate. suretorinsethemwell. Filljar #1withtap wa We wouldexpectthatthere ter, label “Tap water” wouldbe more algaein the and set it aside. This jars with more nutrients. will be your control— There maybe a levelingoff no algae should grow ofalgaedensityatthehigher inthisjar. Filltheother nutrient doses, since algae four jars with pond, can only grow so fast. In aquarium, or Sound nature, over-enrichedlakes water (makesure it is producetoomuchalgaeand the samekind for all 4 become eutrophic as algae jars). Labeljar #2 “no die and use up oxygen in nutrients added” and decomposition.This is un set it aside. healthyfor fish, plants,and other animals: Depending Following the direc on the fertilizer, there may tions on the plant food also be some toxic effects label, mix enoughfertilizerwith the water injar #3 which inhibitanimallife. to makea regularsolution.Injar #4, usethreetimes morefertilizerto makethe solution.Injar #5,mixa You can run this experimentagain, using fewer or solution six times stronger than normal. Label the moretest jars with differentconcentrationsof nutri jars accordingto the amountof nutrients: No nutri ents.Youcanalsouseotherwatersourcesto seewhat ents, 1 dose nutrients, 3 doses nutrients, or 6 doses differences,if any, thereare amongaquarium,pond, nutrients. stream, and US waters.

Illus:ranon. by Sandra Koch Rivers,Mur’ Sound

Introduction: The interactionof waterandlandinvolvessomegiveandtake. Rain,streamcurrents,and Aci;vitv DESCRIPTION: wind-sweptwaveswearawaysediment(smallparticlesof soil andothermatter)fromthe landin a callederosion.The sedimentis thendepositedfurther oftenatthe acgruuna injormwwn process away, about soil erosionand a mouthsof rivers or other areaswherewater flow is slow. In this way, the land is lost in relatedexercise. someplaces and gainedin others as part of a naturalprocess.

OBJEcTIvE: Sometimeshumanactionscancausetoomucherosionandsedimentation.Erosionoccurs Toillustratehow human whenthereisalackofvegetationtoholdsoilduringconstructionanddevelopmentofland, activitiesin a watershed or poorfarmingpracticesareused. In citiesandsuburbswheremuchof the landis paved increasesediment or covered,rainwaterruns off the land as muchas 10times fasterthanon unpavedland. loading inflowing Thissurgeofwaterfromstormincidentsleadstodownstreamfloodinganderosion.These waters.Those waters sedimentswash into Long IslandSound, wherethey can.causeproblems. depositthe sedimentsin US, creatingmurky waterand coveringthe SedimentsandToxic ofErosion bottomsubstrate. Signs Chemicals Certain vulnerable Sedimentscan also act areasaremore toerosion than others. Bare as a vehiclefor Sedimentparticlescancarrychemicals soil is more prone to the chemicals. on their surface, muchlike a dog with erosiveforcesofwaterthanvegetatedareas. burs caughtin its fur. Thesechemicals Sandy, unstableor loosesoils can be more AGEGROUP: can be nutrients, organic material, or easily washedaway. Fast-flowingstreams •Elementarythrough metals.Scientistsare particularlywor have more energy to cut away the banks. adult. ried about the toxic materialsthat are Eventhefeetofpeopleandanimalscanwear trappedby sediments.Thesechemicals awaythe soil on fragile shorelines. MATERIALS: can accumulateto levels. • Dialomaceousearth dangerous Industrial (DE)availablein 1O# areas or the NewYork 25# bags at pool supply near stores City and New Ha .1 plastictray ven, CT have high (2’X3’X8”) levels of toxins in • 1 largecup the sediments. ‘food coloring skinnystir straws CloudyWater, • spraybottle, matches, Choking Q-tips, “monopoly” Sediments houses, toothpicks Sediments also harm LIS life by cloudingthe water. • Adaptedfrom “River Underwater plants “LawrenceHail Cutters, cannot get enough of Science,Berkeley, survive. Silt fish theProblem CA. •Thanksto lightto canclog gills Preventing andsmotherfish Erosion be Stream-side Farm eggs.Clams,oysters, can prevented. veg Hanibargain and other bottom dwellers suffo etation benefits: the EnvironmentalCenter, can provides two plants’ MD cate under the blanketof sediment. rootsholdthe soilandthe plantsthemselves I

page absorbchemicalswhichcanharmaquaticlife. Most 5.WatchingtheWater - Oncethe siphonis running, construction projects are required to implement let the water run its course. You will see it form a sedimentationcontrols, such as hay balesand filter lake, then flow into one or more rivers. How does cloth,topreventsoilfromwashingintolocalstreams. the watererodethe earth and carry it downstream? Careful landscapingwith grass, shrubs, and trees Dependingon the landscape,you mayhave water canhold soil togetherand absorbrunoffthat would falls, rapids, undergroundrivers, and deltas. ordinarily run directly into streams. 6.MappingThe River - At certain time intervals, Erosionandsedimentationarenaturalprocesses,but stop the siphon and draw your landscape. Good todaytheyoccur at unnaturallyhigh rates. The loss timesto stopare after3 minutes, 10minutesand 15 of soil is bad for landowners, farmers, and the minutes. Map the river’s course, features such as Sound. This accumulationof sedimentfills in har fallsanddeltas, andareasof high erosion. Youcan bors, traps toxic chemicals, and smothers marine alsomarktheseontheDEwithtoothpicks.Compare life. Erosion and sedimentationare LIS problems your river with rivers in the LIS watershed.Think that we can all help eliminate. abouthowwatererodesand shapesthe landaround your home and the Sound. CarvingRivers Youcancreateyourownriver landscapeto observe 7.Other Tricks - You can simulatetoxic wastes in erosion. your landscape. Insert a Q-tip soaked in food coloring(try orange)into the DE and see how fast 1.Mixingthe DE - Mix equal parts diatomaceous the “toxic waste” pollutes the ground and water. earth (DE) and water in the tray (DE is messybut Spraythe tray with a water misterto simulaterain. non-toxic).15-20cupsDE is a goodamount.It will Bridges can be built with toothpicks. And small feel like plaster of Paris. You can vary the amount “monopoly”housescanbe placedon the shores. If of waterfor differenterosionpatterns (drier mixes yourockthetray, youcansimulatewaveerosionon erode more slowly). the shoreline.

2.PreparingLandscape- Propup oneendof thetray 8.Cleanup - Althoughthe DE will be blue after about6-9”. Push andjiggle the DE to the lowerend wards, it can be cleanedand reused. Fill the tray to makea slopedsurface. Part of tray will be bare. withwater,mixandlet itsetfor 30minutes.TheDE Leavesome lumps in place. Let set a few minutes. will settle out and the water can be poured off. Lower the tray. Repeat.DripsofDE arebestsweptuponcetheyare dry. A smallamountof DE cango downthe drain. 3.The Water Source - Fill the cup with blue-tinted water.Putthe cupon ablocknextto thetray, sothat This experiment is never the same twice. Try it its top is severalinchesabovethe tray’stop. Create againusing a differentconsistencyof DE, or vary a siphontub by gentlyheatinga strawover a match the contoursof the land. You will be amazedat the or other heat bendingit into a U-shape. varietyof patternsthe water can shape.

4.Startingthe Siphon - Start the siphonby ixnmers Funfacts: ing the tub underwater, shaking Out the bubbles, In cities and suburbs where much of the land is holdingone endclosedwithyourfingerraisingthat pavedor impermiable,rainwaterruns off as much closedend out of the water and over the tray. Keep as 10times faster than from unpavedland. the other end underwater. When you release your finger,the watershouldflowout of cup. Bepatient- this is the hardestpart. Adjustthe flow rate so that water drips out (2-3 drops per second).Tip up the siphon to slow the water. The tube can be held in placewitha bentpaperclip.Makesure youkeepthe cup full of water.

l11usiraton by Sandra Koch LONG FACTSHEE \ Hypoxiain ISLAND Island SOUND Long Sound STUDY

-. What is Hypoxia? face waters heat up depletion of oxygen Hypoxia is the sci and form a distinct levels so severe that entific term for low layeriloating” overthe there appears to be dissolved oxygen lev bottom waters, which causefor concern. elsinthe water.Justas are moredensedue to peopleneedoxygento greater salinity and The Surprising breathe,marineorgan cooler temperature. Summer of 1987 isms require oxygen The resultis the forma In late July and dissolvedin the water tion of a sharpdensity August of 1987, LISS (D.O.). Biologistsgeri gradient called a pyc researchersled by Dr. erallyconsider3 parts nocline (pick-no-kline), BarbaraWelsh of the per miHion(ppm)to be which restricts mixing University of Conn the minimumdissolved between the two ecticut’s Marine Sci oxygenconcentrations layers. Oxygenadded Institutefound needed for sustained the ences to surface waters extremelylow oxygen health of marine life. by wave mixing and levelsin the watersof WhenD.O.falls below photosynthesisof ma thewesternSoundbe this level, hypoxia rine plantsis thus pre tween Throg’s Neck Il exists. Duringhypoxic ventedfrommixinginto andGreenwich,Conn episodes, stressed the depths,where it is ecticut.Atthemouthof marineorganismsmay neededto replaceoxy HempsteadHarboron becomeill, die or move gen consumedby ma thenorthshoreofLong to more oxygen-rich rine life and the de Island,therewasliter waters. The harmful compositionof organic effects of ally no oxygenin the bottom-dwellinginver severe material. Hypoxia is bottomwaters,andal tebrates(suchas star hypoxia on the biota the result. most none at the fish and crabs)wer€ of an estuary, as In the fall, cooling surface (see map). dead!Duringthesam€ evidenced in the water temperatures Fish samplingin this timeperiod,therewer€ Chesapeake Bay, andstrongwindscom regionwasconducted reportsby lobstermer were the reasonthat bine to dissipatethe byLISSscientistsfrom in the area.that deac the Long IslandSound pycnoclineandrestore the Marine Fisheries lobsters had beer Study (LISS)decided oxygen exchange Programof the Conn brought up in thei to conduct a study of throughoutthe water ecticut Department pots.Unlike the fish this phenomenon. column. Althoughsci of Environmental the trapped Iobster enlists have known How Does Protectionsoon after hadbeenunabletoes Hypoxia about hypoxia for the initialdiscoveryof cape the low oxyger Happen? manyyears,it is diffi hypoxia. The results areaandhadsuffocat Hypoxiacan occur cult to distinguisha graphicallyillustrated ed. Thehypoxialastec naturallyin the deeper natural hypoxicepi the impactof such a wellintOAugust,even areasof coastalwater sode fromone that is severehypoxicevent tuallyextendingasfa bodieslikeLongIsland significantlyexacerbat on marinelife -- not as Bridgeport, anc Soundin thesummer. ed by man’sactivities. onefish was foundin healthy DO. level During the warm, However,recentLISS any of the sample werenotrestoredurtt stableweatherthesur research has found trawis,and80%of the mid-September. sink What’s Happening? longedblooms to The Dynamicsof HypoxiaIn LongIsla: Althoughresearchis the bottomwatersand continuing, LISS sci decompose.Thisuses entists believe that up oxygen,increasing - the evidencepointsto theintensityandextent - nutrient input from of the naturalsummer stormwaterrunoff and hypoxia(seediagram). L didby sewage treatment Are •.a plantsas a majorfac Things getting —.—%- pp tor in hypoxia. The Worse? 02 hypóxicevent of 1987 Historicaldatais too I sS’a.rp arsity coincided with • Q?$dlintIsoiata an in sketchyto be able to ‘ thi $uraca an tense bloomM of tiny statewith that bloom ‘plaflkton,: ‘ boomwe certainty ,bloornfj marine algae called summer hypoxia in prclonqsd \ 02 phytop(ankton, which Long Island Sound wereso numerousthat is getting worse, al pytoni theyturnedthe surface though there are no waters in the area a recordsof .suchan ex dud p(sstktor liii uve hypoxie_w*1.r deep red-browncolor. tensive hypoxicevent YSI duttflQ Such a growth explo as occuredin 1987.It dacomposition r sioncan occurnatural be that number 02 vs st., us may a ufllbài to lie_api ly, butasthealgaeuse of naturalfactorscorrr w oxygenACiUon.s up the nutrientsin the bined to make 1987 the water, growth suchan unusualyear. ‘ 4,4. p...5 slows down and the Whateverthereason,if UwnoOii.bottomdulls , bloomends. However, hypoxiacontinues in a billion gallons of thisseverity,futuread treated sewage are verse impactson the BottomWaterDissolvedOxygen(ppm) discharged into the fisheriesandshellfish August1987 watersof the Sound eriesof theSoundcan — every day, and be expected. Firmly G.lpOm 1-m 2 nutrientssuchas phos establishing the phorous and nitrogen causesof i.ypoxia, and \ that are containedin assessingthe potential this dischargeappear impacts to the living to be fuelingthe algal marine resources of blooms for much the Sound, will be an longer durationsthan importantchallengefor wouldnormallyoccur. LISS participantsand The millions of a key elementto future plants that die each managementplans for • 10 =ftJVI. dayduringthesepro- LongIslandSound. o io

The LongIslandSoundStudy TheLongIslandSoundStudy(LISS)isafiveyearfederally-fundedresearchandmanagementinitiativethatbeganin 1985aspailoftheNationalEstuaryProgram.a recentadditiontothefederalCleanWaterftct createdtoprotectestuaries ofnationalimportance.TheLISSis acooperativebi-stateeffortinvolvingfederal, state,interstate,andlocalagencies wellasresearchinstitutions,educationalorganizations,andenvironmentalgroups.ConcernedIndividualsororga I tionsinterestedingettinginvolvedwiththeStudycandosothroughtheCitizen’sAdvisoryCommittee(CAC).For informationontheCAC,oronthepubliceducationactivitiesoftheStudyofwhichthisfactsheetisa past,contactthe ConnecticutSeaGrantMarineAdvisoryProgram,UCONNatAveryPoint.CT.06340.(203)445-6664. This faa shut was pioducd by hi Univ.rsily ol Corsn.cfscutS.a Giant Uann• p lPa,p ANT AdvizavyPmgram,an aim at S.a G,an:an th Cxp.talivi Ert.nsóanar*n, wø,sup on pi.a by aop.ra:iVi ag’uni.nt wiSh Thi Envvanff*n:aiP’øtictaøn Ag•ncy. OøIcsofWas.r Wen Chaa.r L.Aino by NationalEstuary LJ _____ CTSG88-02S.condEdition FACT LONG SHEET #. ISLAND Modeling SOUND LongIslandSound STUDY 1

The spring 011988 markedthe beginningof a majornewlocus for theLongislandSoundStudy (LISS). For the next two years, scientistsand environmental engineerswill work together to developa computermodelof the Sound. The modelwill help answer questionsabout the waterquality problemsof the Sound,particu larly why towoxygen conditions, or hypoxia,occur during the summer(see fact sheet #1). With this powerful tool, the man However,if therearecurrents quality and water circulation. LISS agersof the LongIslandSound andthesandgrain is an irregular researcherswill then be able to Studywill be better equippedto shape,thecalculationbecomes directly relate the Sound’swater evaluateoptionsfor LongIsland moredifficult,andthetimeof quality problemsto the pollutant Sound’sfuturemanagementand Impactbecomesmuchharderto loadings,the typeandamountsof protection. predict. Considerthe challenge, materialbeingaddedto the Sound. then,of modelingan estuaryas Thiswill provideanswersabout vastand as the of — in Modelsand What They Do complicated Long causes hypoxia par IslandSound! ticular, how muchof the problem Anoceanographicmodelis created is man-madeandhowmuchisdue to describe the manycomplex The Long Island Sound Model to naturalconditions. interactionsthat occur in a body of water. In the past, modelersdid Initially, there will be two sepa BuIlding the Model this by building scaled-down rate LIS models. The first, being replicas of a particular harbor or developedbyscientistsfromthe Thebasicversionsofthehydrody bay, completewith flowing water NationalOceanicandAtmospheric namicandwaterqualitymodels drivenby pumps. Today,most Administration(NOAA),is a alreadyexist from studiesof other modelingis done mathematically, hydrodynamicmodel that will waterbodies,but they mustbe usinga networkof equationsto utilizetide andcurrentmeasure carefullytailoredto theunique approximatethe biological, physi mentsto analyzetheSound’s systemof LongIslandSound.Todo cal, andchemicalprocessesof a circulation.Thesecondisa water this, LISSparticipantsare engaged waterbody. Computershave qualitymodelbeingdevelopedby in Intensivesamplegatheringand becomeessentialin handlingall engineersfromHydroOuai,Inc.,a dataanalysis.Thedatawillbeused the calculationsneededto run firmthathasdonesimilarmodels to finetune,or calibrate,the com thesemodels. inChesapeakeBayandtheGreat binedmodelduring1989.The Lakes.Thismodelwilldescribethe nextstepwillbetOcheckthe model Themorecomplexa systemis,the pathwaysandvariations—whatsci for accuracybyusingItto recreate morecomplexaretheequations •ntists call asources andsinkr— pastconditionsthatareknown neededto describeit. Forex of importantparameterssuchas throughhistoricaldatasets(for ample,a simpleequationwill dissolvedoxygen,nutrients,and example,thedissolvedoxygendis predictthetimeIt takesfor a algalpopulations. tribution in the summerof 1955). grainof sandto sinkto thebottom Atthispoint,importantquestions ofabodyofwater— Ifyouassume AfterInitialtestingthetwomodels canbeansweredaboutwhether that the grain is perfectlyspheri will be combined,linkingthe hypoxicconditionsare improving cal andthewaterperfectlystill. mathematicaldescriptionsof water or worsening. nce the modelersandscientists ModelingTimetable e convincedthatthe modeldoesa oodjob of describingthe workings 987 I LongIslandSound,It will be . 988 . igeg umefor the final step—theevalu ationof managementoptions. Dur 955 rgee ingthis step, scheduledto occur in •OOIcA1’EIIlm - 1990,the modelwill be used to predictwhat effects different remedialactionswill have on the Sound’swater quality. For ex ample,the modelmightbe usedto Pb evaluatethe level of nutrient re movalat sewagetreatmentplants that is neededto reducethe sever ity of a summerhypoxicevent such AAAA A seer.,d £,c. 4 $ asthe one that occurredin 1987. ss,I Ift, t . I.—.-.— -- a r Modeling and Management

Armedwith a morecomplete understandingof LongIslandSound (CCMP), due in 1991, will serve complicatedandexpensivetasksit providedby the model,LISS scien as a blueprintto guidefuture Is certain to call for. tists and managerswill be better effortsof the agenciesandorgani ableto mapout a strategyfor the zationschargedwith managingthe Concernedcitizens,ratherthan Sound’sprotection and improve Sound.However,the CCMPwill be computersor Scientists,will be ment. TheComprehensiveConser of little use without strong public therealkeytosavingLongIsland vationandManagementPlan and political supportfor the Sound! Field SamplingIn US

woter btle iscrrlers soIved II

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The Long Island Sound Study rh. Longisland SoundStudy(LISS)isa six-yearresearchandmanagementprolectthatbeganin 1915 u partoftheNationalEstuary Program,a recentadditionto th. federalCleanWaterActa’eatedtoprotectestuariosofnationalimportance.TheLISSisa000p.ratlve bi-slateeffort involving researchinstItutions,regulatory agencies,maiTheusergroups,and otherconcernedorganizations individuals.Togetinvolvedwith hi Study,orfor mereinformation,contact:theConnecticutSeaGiantP.larlneAdvisoryProgram MerneStreet,Hamden,CT 06514,Tel. (203) 799-7915;or the NewYork$sa GrantExtensionProgram,DutchessHall, SUNY,Sten Brook,NY 11794, Tel.(516) 632-5737. ThISfactsh1 waspreiced by th• UConnSa GrantMann. AdvisoryProgram andlb. N•w YorkS.. GrantExtensionProgram,withsupportprovidedby a cooplral,veagneem.ntwiththe U.S. Enwnonm•ntalProtectionAg.ncy. Writtenby ChesterL. Arnold II ir tinnalEstuarfProi’prim 89.51 LONG FACTSNEET [‘ ISLAND WastewaterTreatment /1 ‘SOUND STUDY

Whatis Wastewater? There is no question that the natural resource most critical to our everyday activities is water. We use water freely in our homes, yet give little thought to what happens to it after it goes down the drain. In fact, each of us poursor flushes an average 100 gallons of water per day down house hold drains. This water, plus water life (bathroomcleaner, for instance) discharged to sewers by commercial introduce toxic contaminants to the and industrial enterprises, is called wastewater. Also, more natural wastewater. In areas servicedby substancessuchas bacteria andnu sewers, wastewater flows to a local trients enter wastewater from human treatment facility, or sewage treat wastes. Improperly treated wastes mentplant (STP). Currently 44 such pose risks both to the health of Long facilities discharge over I billion IslandSoundandto the peoplewho gallons of treated effluent into Long enjoy its resources. Contaminants Island Soundevery day. While mostof can threaten the health of the Sound’s us prefer not to dwell on the subject fish and shellfish, affect the health of sewage, what happensto waste- of people who swim in its waters, and water should greatly concern all of us. pose a threat to peoplewho eat sea food. Excessnutrients posea special threat to Long Island Soundby stimu Why ShouldWeBeConcerned blooms that dis AboutWastewater? lating algal deplete solvedoxygenafter they die anddecay Although typical wastewater is over (see Fact Sheet#1). Forthese rea 99%water, the remaining 1%may sons, the quality of the Sound’swater contain substancesthat are poten is closely tied to the location, vol tially harmful to aquatic life and to us. ume, and treatment lvil of the efflu Manyproductswe use in our everyday ent beingdischargedby SIPs. Hw Is ‘Nastewater ‘•o. Treated’ ‘0• Z 1 ‘20 efore our coastal areas So IC becameso heavily populated, 20 r,fl ii - much of the wastewater we t 3 6 9 10 producedwas piped directly to Ourrivers, streams, and bays without undergoing treatment. Nature provided the necessary purification. As population density in creased, the aquatic systems could no longer absorbthe large volumes of wastewater without environmental dam age and humanhealth risk. Mam .c.u,,.s found • £SQ 0..”, I’s. People that waste- %00 water neededto be treated I • v..g. Oar, lb. ‘0 iGO before its release into the environment. The three lev I els of sewage treatment 2 4 5 (primary, secondary, and advanced ANNUAl..WASTETER TREAThEP4TPLANr OISCI4ARGES or tertiary) vary in (From No?ó,ai Ocac d AImoØ1ic 4’n,n,stror,e#) their ability to remove harm ful componentssuch as organic matter, nutrients, and toxins. organic matter in the wastewater is Primary Treatment not removed. If the organic content of the dischargedeffluent is high enough. its natural breakdown by bacteria Primary treatment involves a process after can severely deplete the oxygen which removes heavy solids by mim in the water. icking the natural downward settling SecondaryTreatment of particles that occurs in a pond. The wastewater flows through a screen that removes large debris, and then Secondarytreatment involves moving passes through a grit chamberto re the location of the natural bacterial movegrit, sand, and gravel. Next, breakdownof organics from the wa wastewater travels through a settling ters of the Soundto the vats of the tank where, as in a pond, the slow treatment plant. The secondarytreat flow allows fine materials to settle mentprocesscan be comparedto the out. The effluent may be disinfected natural purifying action of a stream, (usually with chlorine) to kill patho where the turbulent mixing of the gens- disease causing organisms water accelerates th. breakdownof anddischarged. organic matter. In the treatment I plant, these natural processesare Primary treatment is rnadequate for simulatedand enhancedby oxygenating the Soundbecauseoxygen-absorbing the wastewater. The Journey of Wastewater to Long Island Sound

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— SEWAGETREATMENTPLANT PRIMARY TREATMENT

I I GritChamb.r I —‘u----. .‘..—..

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SECONOARY • Aircton TREATMENT Tk -r-: • .—.—‘—.———- .f •• I ______• p_ - _

C The Island Sound Secondary treatment can remove to Long Study, up Wastes, and You 90% of the organic material in sewage. This is mportant because the decom position of organic matter depletes The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) is the water of dissolved oxygen. It is currently assessing the impact of crucial to reduce this oxygen demand sewage treatment plant discharges on in the effluent, because the health of Long Island Sound. A computer model any body of water depends on its abil is being developed that will link these ity.to maintain a certain amount of discharges to the water quality, help dissolved oxygen ing LISS managers to devise a strategy Advanced or Terliary Treatment to protect the Sound (see Fact Sheet #2) . It may be that advanced treat ment will be needed at some plants. In some cases, secondary treatment is Dealing with the effects of STP efflu not enough to protect the environment. ent will be a major part of the Study’s Secondary treatment breaks down managementplan for the Sound. most of the organic material, but it does not remove nutrients produced in Means of improving the health of the the process or any toxic materials Sound can and must be implemented by added to the wastewater stream en everyone living around it. Simple tering the STP. Thus, the plant’s tasks practiced in the home (such as effluent may still cause oxygen deple judicious use of lawn fertilizer) can tion or contain substances that can reduce input of contaminants and alter the environmental balance of the nutrients into the Sound. (Contact the receiving water. If this balance is NY and CT Sea Grant Programsfor upset, a more advanced level of treat more information). Without a coordi ment, sometimes called tertiary, may nated effort to reduce the input of be needed to remove the causative wastes to the Sound, it will continue agents. The type of advanced treat to suffer from environmental degrada ment needed depends on the specific tion that, if continued for art extended material(s) to be removed. period, may become irreversLbfe.______

TheLongIslandSoundStudy

SIA GRANT This(actsheetwasproducedbytheNewYorkSeaGrant I ExtensionProgramandtheConnecticutSeaGrantMarine Written MelissaBeristain. ______AdvisoryProgram. by

Fundmgprovd•d by hi Long Island - SoundStudy. Coopsratingsgsncsss: ______C _,_ . .. “is L3IN3 FACTSHEET#4 ISLAND SOUND APffleJ STUDY

WHAT ISTHE LONG ISLAND SOUND STUDY? The LongIslandSoundStudy(LISS)is an ongoing assessmentof the threats to the water quality of Long Island Sound. The project beganin 1985 whenCongressaskedthe U.S. Envi ronmental Protection Agency, in cooperation with the states of Con WV necticut and NewYork, to sponsora study of the environmentally threat ened estuary often called the Urban Sea. Results of the LISS will be in corporated into a Comprehensive Conservationand ManagementPlan (CCMP)that will serve as a guide for ______continuing federal and state efforts Th.drainag.baai’ of Long1sind Sound to protect the Sound. iickjd•s 15,820squw. mis.

WHATiS THEGOALOFTHELONGISLANDSOUNDSTUDY?

The LISS’sgoal is a Long Island Soundin which peoplecan fish andswim.This goal translates into th. protection and improvementof the health of the Sound’s resourcesarid of the water quality on which they depend. In order to accomplish this goal, the conflicts amongthe many uses to which theSoundis put must be resolved. Those of us who live near or visit the SounduseIt for manythings: making a living, playing, diluting our wastes, or just enjoying Its life and beauty.We could chooseto promot. one use to the exclusionof alltheothers; however,In order to provide as manypeople as possiblewith accessto the Sound,somecompromiseis necessary.The managersof theSoundwhoare coop. erating in theLISS aim to produce a master plan for theSoundwhich will keep it a placewhere the native plants and animals are healthyand abundantand whereall who dependon theSoundcan continueto live In harmony. HOW ISTHELISSCOORDINATED?

PolicyCommm,. Ov.rs..s theLISS

Mariag.m.rlt Committee Div&opsQols, pçove. wofipLans andovsrsissp4osøs Techrcal Citizens’ Advtsory Advisory Prvid. inforrnatcriandadvice t Cornrnne. Committe. th• Manag.rn.ntCornrnrne. (expertscientists (citizensarid andmanagers) usirs ofLIS) / P.ssarct.rs L.ocal Pubc Government

HOW ISTHELISSFUNDED? WHAT ARE THEPRIORITY PROBLEMS INLONG ISLAND SOUND?

CTwNY I .5 •EPA 0 The urgentenvironmentalproblems 0 beingexaminedbythe LISSincludelow I levelsof oxygenin the water,contami nationof the Soundbytoxicmaterials andthe healthof the fishandshellfish. teaSteamsalicesieeeiemo HI Years WHATARE SOME LISS Low oxygen MILESTONES? concentrations 1985 ‘Studybegins •Pñorityproblemsidentiiied • Bottomwater in the westernhalf of 1986 ‘Wazerqualitysamplingbegins LongIslandSoundhadverylow ‘Fishand shellfishsamplingbegins levelsof dissolvedoxygen(hypoxia) 1987 ‘Severesummerhypozicevent in the summerof 1987 (seeLISS ‘Shellfishsamplingends fact sheet Areas withthe low 198* •FornalLISSDesignationtoNational #1). PctuaryProgram estoxygenhadvery fewfishand ‘Workbeginsoncomputermodel sheIUish. 19*9 •Demcnszrazionprojectsbeginin BlackRockandMainaroneckHarbor • Historicdata suggestthat hypoxiais ‘Tesangofcomputermodel extensivenowthaninthepast. 1990 ‘Computermodelusedtotestman more agementopAonz •mplementateonmonitoringplandee • Nutrientsfromsewagetreatment 1991 ‘Comprehensiveconservationand plantsandrunoffof rainwaterfrom managementp1wdue landmaycontributeto hypoxiain ‘A hah*isr Loaglsls.d Soa4! LongIslandSound. • A computer model of the water • The harmful effects Oftoxic Chem. and quality hydrodynamicsof the icalsandlewdissolvedoxygenon Soundis being developedto identify the fish and shellfish of the Sound solutions to the hypoxia problem. are beingassessed. • A modelprojectin Mamaroneck Toxic Harbor,NewYork is studyingthe sources of the high bacteria count Contaminants that have closed shellfish beds as well as beaches.

• Sources of toxic materials to the Soundhavebeenidentifiedand inventoried. HOWIS THELISSDIFFERENT • The levels of toxic contamination FROMOTHERSTUDIES? in,water, sediments, fish and shell fish havebeenmeasured. the • mosturge,pobIemsoftheSoundby Comparisonsof recent and historic sayIngsefentfficgrouhdworkfor(hi im data show that the levels of some p.mentatlon.of theOCUP. contaminantsin the Soundare de clining. For example, metal levels • The(JSSIsa bi-ststehiatt involvin; in oysters to be lower I.deral1 stat.. Interstat,andlocalaaen appear now desaswellasresearchinstttutions, than they werea decadeago. educatona1 orgsniza1lons aridcItizens’ groups • A model project in Black Rock Harbor, Connecticut will demon • Peopiewhouseandcareabout(tie strate Soundareivctved n themanagementof techniques to reduce theStudytPwoughtheC4tlzana’Adveory toxic inputs. CommIttee(CAC)andarekeptfriformed oftheStudy’sprogressby(hePublic PartlctpatlonProgram.. Fish ____ - andShellfish

HOW001 GETINVOLVED? • The distribution and abundanceof fish and shellfish are being For measuredin orderto determine moreinformationabout the Sound whichresourcesare improvingand LongIsland whichare declining.Mostcom Study,contact: merciallyimportantspecieshave increasedin numberssincethe • KathyRhodes,ConnecticutSeaGrant early 1960’s,butare lessabundant (203) 789-7865 thantheywereduringthe earlypart • MelissaBeristain,NewYorkSea Grant of the century. (516) 632-8737 WHATARESOMECHARACTERISTICSOF LONGISLANDSOUND? Physical ‘Anestuarywherefreshandsaltwatermeetandmix • 90%ofitsfreshwaterfromtheC.onnectiajt,Thamesand “lousatorucRivers • 110mileslong;600milesofcoastline • 21milesatitswidestnorth-southdimension ‘1,300squaremiles(787000acres);0.04%oftheworld’scoastalocean • surfacetemperatures32°Fto730F • salinityrangesfrom23potto35ppt;saier totheeast • currentsstrongestateasternend • tidesgreatestatwesternend;twohighandtwolowtideseachday PolitIcalandSocial • Fivemillionpeoplelivingwithin fifteenmilesofitscoast • 14.6millionpeoplewithinitsdrainagebasin • TwostatesborvienngtheSound • FivestatescontributingtotheSound’swatershed(CT,MA,NH,NY,VT) • TworegionsoftheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandtwodivisions oftheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers •ThreeNewYork countiesand24ConnecticultownswithcoastlinesontheSound RecreatIonalandCommercial • 4.4sewagetreatmentplantsdischarQingdirety intotheSound • 248milesofbeaches,95milespubliclyowned •200,000boatsregisteredSound-wide • manyimportantanimalsspendpartoftheirlivesin LIS • sportfisheriesworth$70to$130milliontoeconomyin1987 • 6millionpeoplevisitedstate-ownedbeachesin1988 • commerdalfisheriesworth$36to$40milliontoeconomyin 1987 I ‘750,000recreationalfishermen I • 20,000boatslips

—S. ...I.

TheLongIslandSoundStudy

The(g (sLa’idSoundS*idy (USS)is a sx-y.w ru.vth sid msi.gsmentpro 0atbsgai mISIS pst ofO NalorisiEaawy Progrvn. arent addiocri diersi CW War A orsoadtooie ssiss ofnaori TheU isasrU.s bs-sie ilI iflvOWig rosewc?ir$tISjDons,r.g4atovy agencies, matinsusergroups.s’id odierncarvied orgaEudons ‘ididvils. TogetMd 010 0i Study orformoreriformnaior.n: 0*5.. Grvt MeiVieAdvisoryProgrw. 43MerneSiiest HWIddn. CI 01114,If. (201)710-iSIS;or0* New YomSeaGrsitEstsnsionProqrw. Outd*u Nd, SUNY,Sby BrookNYI 1794, If. (51$)$324737. ThisfactsheetwasproduCedby hi ConnicticutSeeGrantMann. AdvisoryProgrimandtfti P4•w YomS.. GrantEzr.nsienProgram.Firndvg provididby0. LongislandSoundStudy.CoOraonp ag•neies:Thi Unutid Statia EnvironmentalProtectionAgency, ConnecticutDept.of Environ mentalProtection,Niw ‘or* Dept.ofEnvironmentalCOns•rvitien.Writtenby KathIiin Rhodis: editedand diaign.d by Peg VanPanen. CT-SG.89.03 L1 or.Itp#,1c::j FACTSHEET#5 • Supportingthe Sound STUDY p,. HowCan I HelpThe Sound? ______CleahingupandprotectingLongIslandSound(LIS)isa complicatedandexpensiveprocess,invoMngscientists, poflticians,regulators,andeducators,andothers— butwheredocitizensfit in Theansweris: almost everywhere! The truthisthatwithoutpublicinvolvementandsupport,thepollutionoftheSoundwillcontinue.ThebattleforUS isbetng foughtonmartyfronts,andtherearemanywaysthatyou,asaconcernedcitizen,canhelp. Thisfactsheetdescribesthreeways:stayinginformed,pininga marineusergrouporcitizenactiongroup,and comrrsinicatingwith electedofficials.Thelistsbelowarenotexhaustive,buttheyshouldgiveYOUanideaofhowaridwhere togetstarted.AsyoucontactsomeofthepeopleworkingfortheSound,youlllikelydiscoverotheroptionsinyourarea. Howeveryouchoosetobecomeinvolved,it’simportantthatyou mak. yourvolc heard!

Become Informed EveryoneconcernedabouttheSoundshouldbecomeinformedottthe subiect,beginningbyfollowingLISstoriesin thenewspapersandothermedia.Bybecomingmoreknowledgeable,youwillbeamoreconvincingadvocatefortheSound inyourconversationswithfriendsandneighbors.Inadditiortyouwillbeabletoidentifyorganizations,programs,and electedofficialsthatshareyourconcerns.DetailedinformationontheSoundisavailablefroma numberofeducational organizationsintheLISarea.Contactthegroupsbelowtoseewhattheyhavetooffer.

‘fl-fELONGISLANDsouNDSTUDY TheLongIslandSoundStudy(USS)isa six-yearresearchandmanagementprotectthat beganii 1985u pertoftie NationalEstuary Program,arecentadduontothefederalClanWaterActorutsd toprott estuariesofnationalimponcs. TheUSSisacooperativeshort involvingresearchin*ftstions. regulatoryagencies,mainsusr groups.rid otherconosm.dorganizationsrid individuals.Thepurpose of tie Studyisto produce• planto deanup rid protecttie Soundthatedtbe edministeredby thedyesmcr LISSparo’iers, tie Ennronmental ProtecDonAgencyaridthesatesof ConnscticutaridNewYorli.TheSeaGrantProgramsof Conneccut andNewYor$c cooidriatetie publiceducationandpardcipaDonsctviD.softie LISS,indudngtactshies, lectures,andworluhcps.Formoreinformation ontheStudyor USSpubliceducationactivities,contact: • MelissaBersta,n. NewYorkSeaGrantExtensionProgram.DvtchessHat,SUNY,ar &oc& NY 11794.Tel.(516)632-8737. • Kathy,edes, Conrmc5a.jf SeaGrantMannaAsor, Program,43 Mam Street. Handen.CT06574,Tel.(203)789-7865. Shouldyouwantduct inputtotie threemajorparsieragencies,contact: • U.S.En*onnien ProracbonAgency:.isa 8eede(617)5653578 • N.w YorkOeptwrrnsf7rofEnb*orvrientelConsar”aDon:SophieMama(516)7S1-7 .xt 215 • Cevviecbaa Oparv,ienf of Envirvnm,n Procn: Wwde Rickarby(203)566-2110

LONGISLANDSOUNDRESOURCECENTER OCEANCLASSROOM TheCsn*risa r,nt oooperati, effortoftie UCONNMaineScisnoss an ClauroornisanonprofIta riizitiori inBridgeport.CTofferingin instit andCTDEP andmantWallsdion ofUSptcDons schooland 4is-Ifeld mains educational.vocaDonal,andrsorsatioraI andda* thatw beivailabistoreswthirs, manag.ra,eduratorsand programsforii ages.ValerieCournoysr,Directr,(203)3334744. tie puc. RalphLewis.(203)445.3473. e PROJECTOCEANOLOGY LONGISLANDSOUNDTASXFORCE Prpjsu‘O sa nonprofitmaine.ducadoncenterthatocnductepograrns LISTis$ regionaldapw ofdiewiic SocietyinStamford.CTwtch forsofioolldran rid adultsarCosrd o boatsandinitswsted,ont pro’4urei tie USSnswsletWaid condua osurtes,sirrenart,andfield lb ii Groton,CT.. MIciy Ess, DEir, (203)4459007. sipsbousing tie Sound. RioMSdir.iner.Dirctor (203)327-9786. SCHOONER,INC. ThEMARITIMECENTER Schoonerisamermeeducabonorgirinlon locatedinNewHirer, CT 11* Centers a xmbinabonmusiran,theater,aquanum.rid mains oflsflrig daues for sdiosi groupsandtie publicfeaftirwigtis saing ójosboncenterin Norwalk.CT,ofbvingUSorientedschoolandedit vesselJ.N.Carte’. PamelaWusith,FitsouriveDector. (203)8651737. pregranis.Sk Crane,EducadonDUsctor. (203)838-1488. SEAGRANT MYSTICMARINEUFE AQUARIUM in deiDontoorganizingtis publicouesschscdDes oftheUSS, tie Sea Theam isa nonproltorgansson in Mysdc,CTofferingethte GrantProgramsofferinformation advisorysaviossona mamberof and ooróatdrç geldvçs andpregranusfor bothschoold’i1.n aid mainstopica.inCT:tieMainsAdvisoryProgram.(203)4454664.In adulte.Krinsth P.Sherwood..fr.,OfictorofEdUn, (203)536.4208. NY:tieSeaGrantExtensionProgram.(516)6324730. • Join MarineUser& Citizens Groups IfyouuseLIStoswim,fish,saibadive,orboat,thereisprobablya usergroup myourareathatrepresentspeopi whoshareyourparliQJlarinterestintheSound.Theseorganizatns oftenhaveaLISagendaofsomekind,andmay activeinfund-raisingorlobbyingefforts.Therearetoomanytolisthere,butyoucanaskaroundatyourlocalmarina,bait shop,diveshop,orbeach. Crttzen’sgroupsareforthosewhowishtotakeanactiveroleinissuesthataffectLIS,onalocal,regional,ornational levelJoiningacitizen’sgrouptypicallyinvolvesgoingtomeetingsandsupportingstaffpeoplewhoserveasenvironmental watchdogs,lobbyingforparticularprogramsortakinglegalactiononbeha ofthegroup.Belowareafeworganizatns thatconcentratemuchoftheirsnortsontheSoundandrelatedmarineenvironmentalissues.

‘/ ACTIONFORTHE PRESERVATIONOF THE NORTHSHORE V LONGISLANDSOUNDKEEPERFUND ACTIONis cencernedaboutenvironmentalissuesaf$ecing the North TheSoundi.eeperFundmaintainsa shorewatchprogramandother Shore of Long Island,inclurç the problemsof US. Nina rden, watchdogactivrnesfocusingor LISwaterqualifyandcoastalhabitat (516) 2714029. preservation.TerryBacker.Soundkeeper,(203)854-5330 V CONNECTICUTFUNDFORTHE ENVIRONMENT V THESOUNDSCONSERVANCY CFE environmentallawenforment ii Corineccut promotes through ‘TSCisdedicatedto andrestoflngtheriaral resourcesof action.SCienØfIC and só.cavon. N.w Haven: protecting legal investigation, th. marine ofsouthernNewEngland Basedin Essex.CT,TSC SuzanneMartei,Esq, 787-0646.Hartford:KatharneRobnson, region (203) alsoprovidesgrantsforsmallresearchprojectsthatenhanceIsgoals Esq.(203)524-1639. ChristopherPercy,President.(203)767-1933. V FEEAE CNSEVATNISTS OFWESTCHESTERCOLpiry FCWCis a aktion of organizaons andindividualsbased in Pur V SOUNOWATCH chase,NYdedicatedto preservingWestchester’s naraI resources. Soimdwatcti,basedinCityIsland,NY,isacoaon of advocacyand FCWCrunswatchdogaciDes, tekeslegalaction,andsponsorsedu caon groupsfocusingon waterqualityin the westernSound. cationalforums.DianaBlajr,ExecutiveDwedor.(914)253-8046. SusanBeflinsøri,President,(212)885-2566.

• Contact Elected Officials VoiceyourconcernsaboutLIStoelectedofficialsdirectly.ListedbelowaregroupsthatspecificallyaddressLISissue Ofcourse,anelectedofficial(atanylevelofgovernment)neednotbeamenter ofaformalLISgrouptohearyourconcern Findoutwhoyourlocal,state,andfederalgovernmentrepresentativesareandletthemknowthattheSoundisimportant toyou.BecausemanydecisionsaffectingtheSoundaremadeatthelocallevel,you can personallymakeanimpactby interactingwithmunicipalcommissions.Yourinputreallydoesmakea difference!

GPUPS THAT SPECIFICALLYADOPESSUS iSSUES: BISTATEUSMARINERESOURCESCOMMITTEE Composedof enwonmentaiofldalsandstatelegislatorsfrom both L US CONGRESSIONALCAUCUS states,PieCommitteewascreatedintheI of 1968byparallelbills TheLISCaucusisa ocahon 10 passedby theCT and NY4gislaUres. ThaCommitteewVlhelpto bpartison cempos.dof Congressional Sound. A listof Repreerrtativ.s in N•w C and RhodeIslandwhose identifyandcoordinatebistaleactionsaffectingthe York, nncticut, from StatsSenatorAtiuin distncrsabuttheSound.Formedinthe of1987.theCaucuswodu memberscanbeobtained tie officesofCT spring PlYStateSenator bcaWyand in Washingtonto supportLISdean-upprograms.The (203)240-0480or Johnson(516)6699200. Caucusmemberswe: Sdinelder(RI);Gijdenson,Morrison,Shays L SUBCOMMITTEE (CT); Eng.4,Garaa. Hochbrueckner,Lsy, hazelt, Scheuer(NY). NYSSENATE Theycanbe reachedthroughtheirdisPictoffIces.Istedintheblue ONTHELONGISLANDMARINEDISTRICT pages(governmentaldrery) of thephoflsbook. TheSubccnwis invodacesandreviewslegislationpertainingtothe statesmarinewd coastaldisei ItwIneissuesinvestigatedinclude L STATESENATEUSCAUCUS polution.Ishariesmanagementandboating.Sate Senatoren Chairman, 669-9200. Consistingof stet senatorsfromCTandNYlipresentingdisPi Johnson, (516) around theCaucusseeks PieSounds theSound, pubICopirvonon a NYSASSEMBLYTASKFORCEONLIS condtion,arid promotesinterstateceoperationin dealmgwIth ita envvonmentals. ContactPieofficesof: CTStaleSenatorJohnAtiin Composedof NYSateAssemblymencooemed withtils Sounds (203)240.0480;NYSateSenatorwan JoPV’sscn(516)169-9200;NY health,tie Taaldorcaholdshearingsarid$$Jdie$legislationaflscting State SenatorSuziOppenheimer(914)235-4710. US.AssemblymanThomasDiNappU.ChUman,(518)455-5192.

Thisfactshearwaspric.d byPie ConnecticutS.. GiantMaui Athsory Pfugram andUii New Ycil Sa GrantExtensói Pmprwi. ten byCNesw1..Arnold’and I editedby Pep VanPaiten.

Fundedby theLongielandSoundStudy.Coop.ratingagencies:UnwedStatesEnvironmentalProt.ctionAgency,OfhceofWater; ConnecticutDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection;NewYorkState D.partmentofEnvironmentalConservation. LONG FACT SHEET #7 ISLAND NONPOTh ‘CE POLLUTION TND IN LONG iSLAND SOUND STUDY

What Nonpoint SourcePollution?

\toci. ple think of a nistv ptpe spewingsewagewhen pollution is mentioned,but thereare manyunseensources well. For it a example. every time rains or snows. 440 pollutants added l’Iand Sound. As the rain are to Long 00’ form’ and (ails. it picks up pollutantsfrom the atmcsphere during its journey to the Eirth and deposits hemon the surface, a processcalled atmosphericdeposition. After reaching the ground, excess rainwater wtiich is not ahs,rtied washessoil and contamlnanLtfrom the landinto streams.lakes. rivers, and storm drains on the way to it.s final decination — Long Island Sound. This processis called .ctormwaler runoff. Atmosphertc deposition and stormwaer runoff are two processescontributing to n’npoint source polluiiirn. a term used to describe pollution hat.oriin3tes overa very largeareaandflowsto 42° the Sound. Other examples include Contaminated 00’ groundwater. failing septic systems. and marinas and recreationtl boats.

Pollutantsentering the Sound can be divided into two categories:point and nonpoint sourcesof pollution. In the caseof point sources.wecan see thepollutantscoming from a discharge pip.. sewagetreatment plant. or industnalfacility.Nonpointsourcepollution ismuchmore difficult to identify and regulatebecauseItsorigins areso diffuse, Nonpoint source pollution mien Long Island Sound from sources throughout Its drainage basin or Ths Dramag• os,n o, LongIs/and Sovind wrnershcd. As can be seenon the map, the Sound’s drainagebasinextendsfromsouthern Canada to Long 2). Largeamountsof sedimentin the runoff canbury fith Islandand includesallofthestreamsand rivers that carry andshellfishhabitats,(III in drainagesystems,andincrease waterto it. lecause this systemIs largeand runoff is the need(or dredgingand disposal.Petroleumproducts contaminated.the contribution of pollutionfromnonpoint spilld or dumpedintoLongIslandSoundremainforlong sourcesis significantand of serlowconcern. period’of time, canaccumulatein the tissuesof fishand shellfish,and maybe carcinogenic. The Effectsof Nonpoint SourcePollution Sourcesof NonpointPoUution Nonpoint source pollution causes many of the same 1)AtmospherIcDeposition problemsaspoint source pollution. Nonposnipollution addsbacteria. sedimetits,nutrients, and toxic material to Pollutantsar. addedto the Sounddirectlywhenit rainsor LongIslandSound. Whn too manybacteriaareaddedto snows. Airborne poIluz.arn suchas sulfur, lead. and he Sound. shellfish areas or bathingbeachesmuM be nitrogen— emittedfrom car exhaustpipes arid building closedfor public healthreasofti.Heavymetals.pesticides. smokestacks— attachor adsorbtomoistureandparticle’in and othertoxicchemicalswashedoff streets.farms,and theatmosphere. Whenenoughmoistureis presentin the lawnscan harm marine life while nutrientsfrom these air, it rainsor snows.carrring thesepollutantshack to the sourcescan over—fertilizethe Sound.leadingto lower landandwater. Estimates(or nitrogenenteringthe Sound oxygen concentrationsin the water(seeFactSheetsI and from atmosphericdeposition run ashigh as23 of th toi.iI r,iiroen mad In additii,n. thesepolh..itarttparticles 3) Marinas and Recreational Boating canhuild up in he atmosphere When hey weighenc,uh. tli fall hack to land in a processknownasdry deposiuon. Recreational use of our waterways also con e nonpoint sourcepollutantsto the Sound. Boatsad 2) Runoff amountof petroleumproductsdischargedinto the SOt. The of discharge untreatedbilgeand sanitaryboat astes canele The major source of flortpoint pollution. Stormwater atebacterial,nutrient, andorganicmatterle’,elcr, the rurtoIf, acid’ a complexmixture of materialstO the Sound. water. Antifouling paint’ alsoleachtoxicanu trttothe Rainwashessoil. contaminants,and litter from the ground water and may poison marinelife in areasof high boat into streams.rivers, and bays. An analogywould he a concentratIons.The dischargeof sanitarywastefromboats cnowhallcollecting snow and dirt as it rolls down a hill. is considereda point source of pollution by someand Wateractsin much thesameway.collectingpollutantsand nonpointby others. Regardlessof the categoryit fallsinto. contaminantsas it runs over land into the Sound. it can be a contributor to water quality degradationin enclosedharborsor bays. Publiceducationof boatersit1 The contaminantspresent in stormwaterrunoff vary with be neededto addressthis problem. the land use in a particular area. For example. in the northern areasof the Sound’sdrainagebasin, farmingand 4) Rivers forestryare the primary land usesand runoff can contain a lot of sediment. Some farming practicesmay also add Ri’.ersare also considerednonpoint sourcesbecausethe pesticidesandnuuient.s— from fertilizersand animalwastes conditionsof their watervaries,reflectingthe actiiues thai - to runoff. occur alongthe lengthof the watershed Nine riserscarry In urban areaswhere most of the land is developed, pollutants to the Soundfrom the entire drainagehacto. imperviousmaterialslike asphalt,concrete,and buildings The Connecticut River account.tfor roughly 7O0 of the freshwater cover large areas.preventingrainwater from soakinginto flowing to the Soundeachyear. This amounts the ground. Instead, it is collected in storm drains and to almost 4 trilli3n gallons. Although the contaminant levels transporied via drainage systemsto nearby streamsand arerelatively low in this river, the largevolumeof rt.ers or directly to the Sound. As more land isdeveloped. waterdischargedoverthe courseof a year resultsi h the amount of runoff increasesbecauseless ground is cumulativepollutant input. aatiahle to absorbor act asa filter for rainwater. Nonpoint Pollution and The LongIsland Lrbaniation alsobrings more people to the area which Sound Study adds more cars. highways. parking lots, and pollution The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) examined the sources, further increasing the pollutants added to the contribution of nonpoint sourcesof pollution to theSound Sound every day. Cars drip oil, grease.and lead onto and found that runoff in the drainagebasin is the largest road&ays. Thesepollutants are picked up by and travel sourceof waterbornelead. iron and suspendedsediments with runoff to the Sound. After a rainstorm, oil slicks. and is a major source of nutnenu, heavy metals. arid identified by the rainbowsyou can seeon the wateror in pesticides. puddles.are found in quiet watersorthe Sound. 114of a teaspoonof oil dropped in water will form a film over Nonpoirtt sourcesarea very important determinantof the about 2t)OOsquarefeet of the surfaceof the water. The quality of Long Island Sound’s water. Stepsare being mijor sourceof lead round in Long IslandSoundis urban nken to reducethe input of pollutants from nonpoinc runoff. Fortunately, asa result of the switchto unleaded sources. New York and Connecticutare deeloping a5Oline. this input is decreasing. Litter, often madeup of nonpoint sourcepollution managementplanswhich will fioaiahle materials, also washes from streetsinto the detail methodsto reducenonpointsourcepollution. The Sound.contributing to marinedebris. methodsmay includebestmanagemcnvpracticcs(Bf Ps) which are ‘onservationpracticesthat will nut only reduce Three additional sourcesof contaminantsin urban runoff the volume and pollutant contentof runoff, but will include lawn ferlili7er, animal wastes,and overflowsfrom maintain the productivity of the land. Many BMPsare 1atIint septicsstems. Often, morefertilizer is applied to currentlyin placeforlandusedforagriculturalandforestry lawnsthan is neededand someof the excesswashesoff purposes and landunderconstruction. and flowsto the nearestdrain. Thesewastesaddnutrients and other pollutantsw Long IslandSotand. Urban centers Anothersteptowardsreducingnonpoint sourcepntIuti. also generatewastethat is stored in landfills. When it through a LISS project in MamaroneckHarbor. New rains,somecontaminantsmay leak or leachout of the York. This project Is evaluatingmethodsto cleanup or containmentfacility into the groundwaterand then to reduce the volume of v.ormwater runoff, thereby nearbysurfacewaters. decreasingthe amount of materials dischargedto the Sound The gnMof this effort is to allow the beachestn The .Mamaroneck Harbor project i Onlya lart. What thai area to remain open for w,mming. The informauon needed Is zs support From people living in the entre pined from this project can be appliedthroughout the watershed. Nonpoint source pollution can be greatl Sound’swatershed. reducedif everyonecooperite,. Speciflcstepsthatcart1,e takenarebeing developednowandwillbeoutlinedin ilte managementplan being producedForthe Study.

LeodLoadstoLoriqlsiaid SoLrd Disd’o’qestoLorç1Si3’tdSaid By Source (6,597BlhonGallons/yea’) (159 Tons/Yea’) 4O(.T!V 0.7%- SEWAGETRATMEp41 Pt_Awl’s5.5% 8AN 71.7% NONPOP4? t.PCZS 6 3%

SEWAGETREATNT Pt_AM?24.5% ‘UPSTAM (RIVERINE)67 3%

PDuSTWv 31%

NONPOINT SOURCES RAINCLOUD CLOUDFORMATION OF POLLUTION

RAIN, ‘ •‘ • II a! II • l ‘i. ‘INO I, ‘. • I EVAPORATION

_____ • I • I, • g S NUTRIENTS ______PESTICIDES . ‘1IIXII U. . U.. .LJ..L1 .L.L.. SEDIMENT

a S ANIMALWK SEDIMENT OILS

______GREASE lMI. I LITTER .4. lI I. I ‘OX)CS.OPGAMCS,

INOUSEI’4OLD

ORGANICS — LONGISLANDSOUND..— — Nonpoint Pollution and You iou can help reduceflonpoint sourcepollution of the Sound. Here are somestepschatcan be taken fl ih h STEPS EFFECT

I Planting treec and chrubc Retainmore rainwateron property Replenishgroundwater

. AI.a.c test nur soil before fertilizing Reducefertilizer applications

. Neer pour chemicals down the drain Reducepollutantsflowing to LIS

. Ha your cepucsscem checked Reducemalfunctions reu Iariy Reducepollutantsflowing to US

5. Rec.cIe usedmotor oil. Gas stations Reduceoil dischargedinto LIS that change oil are required by law to acceptusedmotor oil in New York.

You can mike a difference! FOR MORE INFORMATION CALL:

New York State Department of EnvironmentalCons.rvauon (518) 437—6781 Bureauof WaterQuality Management

Connecticut Department of EnvironmentalProtection (203) 566—2588 Vacer ComplianceUnit

Crnnecticut Soil ConservationService (203) 487—4028

New York Soil ConservationService (914) 343—0317

The Long Island Sound Study

The Long Island SoundStudy (LISS) is a six—yearresearchand managementproject that beganin IQS a’ part of the Naiicn,al Estuary Program,a recent addition to the federalClean Water Act createdto protectestuariesof natiurl importance. Tl’ie LISS is a cooperativeeffort involvingresearchinstitutions,regulatoryagencies.marineuserroup. anti other concerned organizationsand individuals. The purposeof theStudyis to producea managementplanfor the Sound that will he administered by the three major LISS paners. the Environmental Protection Agency. and the ciacec01 Connecticutand New York. To getinvolved with the Study. or for more information, contact: he NewYork SeaUrant ExtensionProrarn. DutchessHall. SUNY. StonyBrook. NY. 11794.Tel (316) 632—8737;or theConnecticutSeaGrant Marine Advisory Program.43 Marne Street, Hamden. T. 063[4. Tel. (203) 789—7865.

Thisfact sheet wasproducedby the New YorkSa Grant E.uensksnProgramand the ______ConnecticutSea Grant Marine Adtisory Program. Written by Melissa Beriswin.

rtndh pcovldedPy 9w Lone tlsnd %oundIudy. Coup.rsiIn Aenclu: © C LONG FACTSHEET#8 ISLAND FloatableDebris SOUND aSIP, iscalledacombinedsewersystem,andis commoninNewYorkCityaridmanyoftheolderurban STUDY areasalongtheSoundsuchasNorwalk,Bridgeport,and NewHaven.Withacombinedsystem,thefloodofwater fromanysubstantialrairdaD(usuallyover0.04inchper Inthesummerof1988,debriswashingupon hour)overloadsthecapacityoftheSIP, andeverything Northeasternshoresmarredthebeautyofourbeaches inthesystem,inckidingsewageandfloatabledebris,is andraisedthespecterofthreatstopublicheatthcaused allowedtopassunscreenedanduntreatedintothe bypoIkitn. Inthewakeofthesewashups,thepublicin water.Thisr5wadischargeIscalledacombinedsewer theLongIslandSoundareabeganaskingquestions: overflow(CSO).CSOsareprobablythesinglegreatest whatisthisdebris,wheredoesitcomefrom,aridwhat sourceoffloatablesintheNortheast,andtheprimary arethehealthrisksinvolved?Asalways,factmustbe reasonwhyslicksinthewesternSoundduring1988 carefullysortedfromftion. werecharacterizedbysewagewastecorrtned with WhatIs It, and Where OoesIt ComeFrom? plasticfloatables. SewageTreatmentPlants Materialthatwashesuponthebeachiscalled floatablemarinedebris,orsirTly lloatables’.Float Duringthesummerof1988beachesinStamford, ablesareuniqueinthattheyareanaspectofwater Huntington,BridgeportaridothertownsalongUSwere poIlulcnthatisreadilyvisle toeventheuntrainedeye. closedbyhighcoliforrnbacteriacountsresultingfrom ThistypeofpoIktn hasbeenwithussincethefirst thepresenceofsewage.AihoughCSOdischargescan castawaysentamessageina bottle,butonlyrecently accountformuchofthis,therewerealsoinstancesof hasitgainedattentn asaseriouswaterqualityprob SIPs beingdisabledbypoweroutagesorequipment lem.Thesedays,bottlesarepinedbypaper,wood, lailurs.Insuchcases,untreatedwastewatercarrying sewage,garbageandstreetlitter,aswellasthehighly bothsewageandfloatablescanbedischargeddirectly publicizedplasticandmedcally-relateditems. lrflotheSound. Contrarytowhatyoumightthink,therewasno OffshoreSources suddenoutbreakof durnping’activity-legalorother wisebeUnd thewashups.Mhoughfrequentlymen Ahugevk.imeofwastematerial,muchofitfloat tionedtogetherinthepress,beachdebrisisunrelatedto abletrashandplastic,hasbeendijrrçeddailyintothe eithersewagesh.dge ordredgespoildisposal.In oceansbythenaval,commercialshippingandfishing addition,nomunicipalgarbagehasbeenlegallydis fleetsoftheworld.Thiswaste consideredsucha posedofinNortheastcoastalwatersforover50years, threattoawdevarietyofmarineWethataninternational norisillegaldisposalcommonenoughtoaccountfor agreementtocontroloffshoredisposalwasputinto muchoftheproblem.Thesows oftbatablesare effectintheUnitedStatesin1989.Aithoughthis morepervasiveandcomplexthanillegaldiarrçirig.Most materialisnotamajorsourceofbeachdebrisinthe ofthisdebrisstartedoutonourstreetsascommonlitter, Northeast,someofI mayfindIswayinshore. In or ourhomesashouseholdwaste.Théslnckdes the ManrieTran’er andLandfills rnedca(waste,predominantlymedIcally-related householditemssuchasinsulinsyringes,thatwere Floatabledebriscan.rier thewaterthroughmis fkisheddowntoilets.Th.mostinoi1ar1 sourcesof handlingofsolidwastethatisbeingloadedonbarges Iloatablesaredescrbsdbelow(seealsoFigure1). fortransporttoalandfill.Despiteonsiteprecautionslike material Stom,DrainsandCo,rinsd SewerQve,fbwe collectionbooneandskimmersystems, can also.scepefromthelandfillitsel,paflicularlyduringthe WhenItrains,litterwashedoffthestreetsIscarried •lth.rdirectlyintothewater,ormorecommonlyinto stormsewers.ManystormsewersfeeddirectlyIntoUS oratrb.stary.dischargingfloatablesaridotherpolkjtants aftereveryrainstorm.Inotherareas,thestormsewers areconnectedtothesanitarysewersusedtocarry householdwastewaterandhumanwastetothelocal Sewag,treatmentplant(SIP).Thistypeofsysism, whersbothstormwalerandsewagearepassedthiough offloadingofgarbagefrombarges.Althoughmarine thetwo,sewagecoritarmnationposesbyfarthegreater transferoperationsareCOflSered tobea Signicar1 threattohumanhealth.Coliformbacteria,usedasa sourceofIloatablesintheNewYorkjNewJerseyHarbor testforthepresenceofsewage,arenotadanger,but area,theyarenota mar sourceoffloatablestoLIS, indicatethepotentialpresenceofothermicroorganisms becauseonlyinthefarwesternSounddoanywaterS whichcanbeharmfulinhighconcerirahons.Swimming bornegarbageoperationsoccur. insewage.contaminatedwatercanleadtobacterialand OtherSources viralinfections,mostoftengastrointestinal.Incontrast, floatabledebris,whennotcortined withsewage,isnot Therearea numberofsmaller,yetsignificant, particularlydangeroustohumans.Whileunsightlyand sourcesofbeachdebris.Inadditiontotheonshore sometimesdownrightdisgusting,mostofthismaterialis fleets,fishingaridrecreatnal vesselsusingourcoastal commontrash. àorvtrtute waters someoverboardtrashandsanitary WhatAboutMdIca/ Waste? waste.Rivers,especaffy duringhçhflowperiodsinthe spring,alsoaddtotheirifkjxoffloatables.Finally, Theamountofrealmedicalwastefoundonbeaches beachgoersthemselvesaddtotheproblembylittering. in1988wasverysmall.Muchofthematerialtermed Infact,manyofthesyringesonConnecticutbeaches medicalwaste’waseithermisidentifiedtrashormedi werefoundabovethehighwatermark,indicatingthat cally-relatedhouseholditems- frequentlyinsulin theyhadnotcomefromtheseabutfromdrugusersat syringesusedbydiabetics.Theseitems,flusheddown thebeach. thetoilet,caneasilyendupintheSoundduringCSO Whywas1988SoBad? dischargesorSTPfailures.Environmentaloflcialshave concludedthatintravenousdrugusersfrequentingthe IntermsofthepollutionofLongIslandSoundand shorewerealsoasignificantsourceofsyringes.Al surroundingwaters,Summer1988wasprettymuch thoughnomaterialdiscoveredonLISbeacheswas businessasusual. Why,then,wastherea marked foundtooriginateinadoctorsofficeormedicalfacility, increaseinbeachdebris?Themajorreasonwasthe someisolatedincidencesofmedicalwastefoundinthe weather.Thespringof‘88wasverydry,causingan NewYork,NewJerseyHarborareaalmostsurety accumulatri ofdebrisonstreetsandinstormsewersof resultedfromillegaldisposal. theregcn.Thedryperiodwasfollowedinmid-summer Properdisposalofmedicalwasteisaseriousheafth byaseriesoftorrentialrainswhichsweptthestreets concernnotlimitedtothebeachalone.However,it’s clean,overloadedcombinedsewers,andflushedlarge importanttoemphasizethatthechancesofgettingAIDS amountsofdebrisintonearshorewaters. orotherinfectiousdiseasesfrombeachdebrisofany Onceinthewater,themovementoffloatablesis kindispracticallynon-existent.Here’swhy: dictatedprimarilybywindconditions,whidivaryfrom ‘Thechanceofanydebrisbeingrealmedicalwaste yeartoyear.Duringmostyears,offshoresummerwinds isSlight(onNewYorkbeachesin1988,onty1%ofthe helptodisperserri.ichofthefloatablematerial.In1988, beachdebriswasmedicallyrelated). however,persistentSouth-SouthwestwindsinJuly ‘Thechanceofanymedicalwastebeinginfectious collectedfloatablesintolargeslds andthenpushed isslight- abouta 10%nationwide,accordingtoEPA. themonshore,bringinghometous- quIteUterally- an •TheAIDSvirusisfragileandunabletosurvivefor awarenessofwhatwehavebeenputtingEdoour longinthestressfulchemicalandphysicalenvironment coastalwatersforyears. oftheocean(I cant surviveinfish,either). Thegoodnewsisthatthisweatherpatternis ‘Tremendousdilutionalsooccursintheocean, unlikelytooccureveryyear-infact,thelasttimewasin furtherdecreasingthevirulenceofanypathogens. 1976,whenbeachesonLongIslandwerealsoclosed Despitetheminimalhealthristisinvolved,beachgo becauseofwashups.Th. badnewsisthatwhetheror ersshouldapproachsuspicious-lookingdebriswith notitwashesonshore,thewasteisoutthereeveryyear, caution.Althoughsyringesposelittlethreat,bloodvials anditsvolumemaybeincreasing.LongIslandSound couldconceivablybeahazardifsteppedon(breaking andItsneçor tothesouth,NewYork/NewJersey theskin).Certainly.anyihingthatlooksIkemedical Harbor,aresurroundedbysomeofthemostheavily wasteshouldbeleftaloneandreportedimmediatelyto populatedareasinthecountry.Asthepopulationliving beachauthorities.Basedontheexperiencesofthelast inawatershedcontinuestogrow,sodoestheamountof twosummers,beachmanagershavebeendevising householdwaste,sewage,andstreetlitter.Another guidelinesandstrictprocedurestodealwithfuture factoristhatouruseofplasticshastripledsince1970, washups. increasingthepercentageoffloatablewaste. TheHeadlInesof 1988 HowSafeIs theBeach? Thesummerof‘88wasurçrecdentedbothhithe Thebeachclosures011988werecausedbyhigh mediacoverageofthebeachclosingsandinth. effect bacterialcounts(indicatingsewage),concernsaboutthe thatthesestOriSShadonpeople’sbehavior.Although healthhazardsofmedically-relateddebris,orboth.01 muchmediacoveragewasaccurate,there’snodoubt SOURCESC LOATABLEMARINEDEB I —-- OVERBOARD DISPOSAL BY OFFSHORE VESSELS

- ;‘, FLOATABLES SLICK ,—‘—‘ ,_ .. • - _... —‘--.. —‘————-— -- WINDANDCURRENTS

DIRECT DISCHARGE ESCAPE FROM DUE TO STP FAILURES LANDFILLS

OVERBOARD LITTERING

—‘

(J1’RtVLR thatpubic fearsballoonedoutofproportioninresponseways,dischargingsewage,toxccontaminantsand tosensationalheadlines.Justifiablepublicconcerns excessnutrientstotheSound(seeLISStactsheetsci, overwaterpollutionoftenescalatedtonear-frenzypitch #2,13). Theredesignandrestructuringofthesesys asirrationalfearsoverwhelmedcommonsense.For temsaremajorpubicworksprotects,invoMngmassive instance,attheheightofthesummerfurorthingslike dosesofmoney,longperiodsoftime,andinconvenient dishwashinggloves,drownedsewerrats,andfishparts disruiori ofser’ices. Forinstance,thecostofseparat. weremisernitied asSurgicalgloves,shavedlaboratory WigcorTEned sewersorabatingtheireffectsisesti rats.andhumankings! matedtobeabout1P2billiondollarsinConnecticutand Asaresult,peopledesertedthebeachesindroves $1.5billioninNewYorkCity.Nonetheless,thestatesof forbaclyardswimmingpoolsaridmountainresorts.For NewYorkandConnectajt andtheCityofNewYorkare instance,despitethefactthatbeachclosuresonthe allundertakingsuchprolects,andarelookingatwaysto southshOreofLongIslandcouldbemeasuredinhours corrat runoff-caused,ornonpointsource,pollution(see ratherthandaysorweeks,attendanceatstatepark factsheet#7). Inadditiontoupgradingsewagetreat. beachesinthatareadroppedby5.6million1rom1987to meritplants,betteroperationofSIPs andstricter 1988.Seafoodretailersandrestaurantsthroughoutthe enforcementoflawsregulatingtheirdischargearebeing Northeastsawbusinessdropoft,aspublicconcernover calledfor.AnewfederallawcallslotNewYork,Con• beachsafetyspilledoverintoworriesaboutthehealth nectCjt,andNewJerseytobegina pilotprogramto eflectsofseafoodconsumption.Estimatesofthelossto trad medicalwastedisposalinJune1989. LongIslandeconomyaloneduringthesummerof1988 Moreimmediateattemptsatcontrollingfloatables areashighasl-2billiondollars’Whetherwarrantedor involvedebriscollection,eitherinthewaterorafterit not,thebottomlineisthatthereweredrastic- forsome, haswasheduponbeaches.Anexampleoftheformeris disastrous-socialandeconomicconsequencesresult theeffortbeingundertakeninNewYork/NewJersey ingfromthefloatablesproblem. Hartorbyaconsortlumoffederal,state,aridlocal WhatCan BeDoneAboutFloatableDebris? agencies;anexampleofthelatterisOperationBeach- watchinConnecticut,whichhassetbeachtestingand Theonegoodthingaboutfloatabledebrisisthatthe cleanupguidelinesforlocalcoastalauthorities.Officials sourcesoftheproblemaregenerallyunderstood,and feelthatalthoughtheydonotattackfloatablesatthew therearefewitanyscierdifc mysteriestobedecipheredsources,programstokeepdebrisoffbeachesmay beforeactioncanbetaken.Encouragingasthismay restoretothepubicsomeoftheconfidenceitlostdunng be,itdoesn’tmaketheproblemanylessdifficultto thelasttwosummers. solve.Unfortunately,floatableswilibewithusinvarying Lastly,theLongIslandSoundStudy(LISS)plansto degreesforsometimetocome. incorporatethecontrolofflostablesintois management TheIloatablesproblemiswherethetwomajor plan.Thisplan,thesumof6 yearsofresearchand environmentalconcernsofwaterpollutionandsolid planningbytheStudy.willbeablueprinttoguidethe wastedisposalmeet.Stoppingfloatablesattheir federalgovernmentandthestatesofConnecticutand sourcesourhouseholdsandstreetswillbetiedto NewYorkintheprotectionandcleanupofLongIsland suchincreasinglyfamiliarissuesaslittercontrol,recy Sound.Becausesourcesoffloatablesoftencoincide cling,andenforcementofexistinglaws. withsourcesofotherpollutants,theStudyhasalready Atthenextleveloftheproblem,theunderground givenmuchconsiderationtopossiblesolutions.When infrastructuresystemsinourtownsandc**s mustbe theLISSmanagementplanisnplemented,thi persis changed.StormandcorTtinedsewers,amajorsource tentproblemoffloatabledebrishopefullywillbeon offloatabledebris,alsodegradewateraJlty inother againreducedtoanoccasionalmessageinabottle.

TheLongIslandSoundStudy TheLongIslandSoundStudy(USS)sasuyw march andmanagementpro thatbeganii 1985aspartoftheNationalEstua Program.rscr additiontoth.federalCleanWaterActoreai.dtoprotectestuariesofnationalimportance.meUSSI aop.raiive bi-ats snortmvoMrigresearchinat**cns, regulatoryagendas,marineusergroups.and otherncemed organizationsand individuals.ThepurposeoftheStudyi toproduceamanag.m.ntplanforth. Soundthatwi beimplem.nt.dbythithree major LISSpartners,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandthestatesofConnecticutandNewYork.TogatinvolvedwiththeStudy,or formoreinformation.nt.sct: theNewYorkSeaGrantExtensionProgram.DutchessHaU,SUllY.StonyBrook,NY.11794.1.1.(516) 632-8137;ortheConnectiat SeaGrantMarineAdvory Program.43MainsStreet,Matnden,CT06514,Tel.(203)7897865.

This fa sheetwasprodi byth Corvi4 SeaGrant HA GIANT I MarineAdvisoi’yProgramandtheNewYorkSeaGrara’ ExtensionPrram. WrktanbyCh.siw L.AmoW,Jr. Lajvutandidling byPg VanPann. P4abonhi Fung iro4id bytie t.orçslss Soi.rdS. Cooier.Vig a.naes: Urvd Ss £nw1nmlfl Poieon Agency,Ofic.ofWmV. EssagProwv Ccnnac1a Ospwrn ofEn*onmsriieiPen, P41wYoi Sw Dseew ofEnWorwnanislConserva• LONG ISLAND FACt SHEET09 /1 SOUND Seafood Isues STUDY ShouldI ContinuetoEatSeafood? Yes! If you select a varietyof products from reputable establishments or use recreationallyharvestedfish inways consistent with the health advisoriesarid handle them properly,you can feel confident that potential and storingfish associated with this illness safety concerns associated with seafood are (nina,bonito,bluefishand minimized. mahi-mahi). Seafood can be contaminated Consumers have been receiving mixed throughcontactwithotherfood,equipmentor messages about the quality of seafood. in theindividualshandlingit. Goodhygieneand responseto the concerns raised,the Food and foodhandlingpractices(suchascleanutensils, DrugAdministration(FDA) reviewed seafood countertopsand hands) will help quality issues in 1989 and concluded that prevent bacterialcontaminationof theseafood American be confidentthattheir youare shopperscan preparing. seafood selections are safe and wholesome. Seafoodisatastyandnutritiouspartofa healthy diet, but as withother foods thereare Cboo.ng SeItoo:: things consumers need to know. Potential • Purch. fra ab seafoodqualityproblemsresultpnmarilyfrom tu have improper handling, preparation or storage equipviw (cedar ) oea. to which can taint the product, consequently - making people ill. Other potential safety • Lo& md seoed3 concernsrelaxedto natural maxinetoxins or - iefl environmental contaminants are uniquely m— Will associated with specific types of fish or shellfish particular growingareas. ar hóiik øi’l! -: istheBest ‘— .,. ProperHandling Defense — P!niclesiesh Proper cooling or refrigeration is essentialtopreservethequalityof seafood.The odee biS.rsd U.S. General Accounting Office reportedthat —. one of the major causes of seafood-borne fll illness is mishandlingand impropercooking. i rapa eyes Seafoodshouldbe kept close to 32°F at all otru away times to prevent spoilage. Scombroid fromhau1 ie poisoning,whichresultsinanallergicreaction, • can be preventedsimplyby properlycooling HandlingandPreparation • Keep raw atKlcooked seafood cold, 32°-38°Fat all tines. Flakedorcrushed I. ice will maiimize cooling. Finfish • Storewholefishoncrushediceinacool. Fish, like other foods, may contain erorrefrigerator. parasitesin theirflesh, some of whichcould infect humans when • - Refrigeratelive shellfish(clams,oysters ingested. Historically, andmussels),butdon’tallowd tothy parasiticinfectionshavebeen mostfrequently associated out. Drastictemperaturechanges,fresh withfreshwaterfish.Theseparasites waterand airtightcontamerscan killlive can infect humans only if the fish eaten is shellfish. inadequatelycooked. I Don’tstorefilletsor shuckedshellfishdi Rawor NrtIsCoael Flnfbh recily on ice Pisttheni m a watuf Ffor containerthat canbe buriedin e or se • raw frigerved

4’p IL ___ S.rw, raw seafood ft oked aid — seafood ieper an — hmg,

Baa fish10 periih neesto r çaiflire 145’P S Ssoref,uw suod at fre.eringitmát1, woafcmh.. 2. Shellfish

Because bivalve shellfish - clams, I 1w d dow oystersandmussels - feed by filteringfood at us cold gmh ,se r4aw from thewatersthey live in, they accumulate lng.NEV thie at at microorganimis and other anall particles. IQUthtj’rr Q4ai ba When people eat raw shellfish, any kedww microorganiamsthat were filtered from the directicu usat oc t. water are also ingested.If shellfishharvested illegallyfrom waterscontainingunacceptable levels of pathogenic bacteria ate eaten raw, gastrointestinalor a more seriousillnesscould Raw or Partially CookedSeafood occur. Under the NationalShellfishSanitation Some seafood dishes are comonly Program,governmentandindustiyareworking eaten raw or lightly cooked. However,raw togethertqwardsensuringthatshellfishsoldin foods a higher risk for causing pose the marketplace don’t cause1urnan illness. gastrointestinal and related illnesses than This program sets standards and monitors cookedfoodsdo. waterqualityin harvesting areas. To ensure shellfishareharvestedfromapprovedareas,an 000 inspection arid tagging system has been established.Youcan ask theseafooddealerto ChemicalContaminants show you the tag that identifieswhere the Potentiallyharmful chemicals,such shellfishwereharvested. as polychiorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs),havebeen Consumersshoulduse commonsense foundinavarietyoffoodsincluding fresh wheneatingshellfish,especiallyiftheyplanto some and saltwater fish. Historically,chemical eatthemraw. contaminantshave been a concernmainlyin inlandwaters.ChemicalslikePCBspersistin the environmentand areoftenstoredin fatty tissues and may concentratein the internal organs of fish and shellfish that inhabit contaminatedwaters. Stateandfederal agenciesmonitorthe qualityof fish and wildlife andthewatersin which they live. When potentiallycontam Rawor Partially Cooked Sbe1lfls inatedfishareidentified,commercialproducts • Harvestsh1ih from wawi. are removed from the marketplace and • Wh before thn4irg, then e “‘- consumptionadvisoriesareissuedforpeople immediately. whocatchandeattheirown fish. Fish • Cookasthoroughly—p.ai11e R.. consumption advisories for mezid vary lt sporl..caught fish ate availablefrom the state and local health theflth be steamedfor4to10 --w departments,statefisheries and afterdiewt has ,(i.impd toaboil.Al agencies, publiceducationprogramssuch thoughVLLYC coc I de4 to as Sea Grant. Anglers and fish loversshould - know kill all iuii1.q b these advisories oftencontain specific recommendations who be kncJcu(,it ins, 1I Iough. for groups may dry. especiallysusceptibletotheeffectsofchemical pollutants,suchaspregnantwomen,womenof • High-na takeçedal childbearingage andchildrenwiderthe ageof precazth rn rntiLj 15. Since the advisorieschangefrom yearto year, they’re not included here. You should eatingsaw ãuI k Thi check existing advisoriesthatmay cover the hidUd peepk W category wafers fishin. liverdise (b,cl4” aid ha you Intheni-statearea,advisorieshave been nx,cnatoaX J1keI e, issued for only three saltwaterfish - sniped cfnn frky seasi, bass,eels and bluefish andthisis becauseof t ivala with lsd __kn. suspected elevated Levelsof PCBs. If you systenie(dse withc* suspect that the fish catch contains diaticoorchanothasapy d e you contaminants, should follow trinuning AIDS),orthor w aoid d you guidelineswhichrecommendremovingfatto or h1OfhydriL minimizecontaminantlevels. Fcrrunately, shellfish growing waters are Minimizing PotentialExposure to rc.tthely monitored for red tide, to Chemical Contaminants prevent toxin containing shellfish from teaching the • Eat a varietyof differentfish andshell- market. fish. What Role Does the Consumer Play? • Follow consumptionadvisories. As aconsumer,you have aresponsibility • Choose smaller individual fish within to become more familiar with seafood legal sizesince smalleronesareLikelyto products. Knowing proper handling and contain less contaminants than larger preparationtechniqueswillhelpensurethatthe Ones, seafood you and your family eat is safe and • Avoideatinginternalorganssuchas fish wholesome. livers, lobster tomalleysand crab mus tardsthat mayhive come fromcocaami natedwatersas coi anunatns For More Information On Sea- cumulatein these organs. food Quality and Safety Contact: • Allow fats tothanawayw cooking NewYork (bakeorbroil a ra) and dicard any Of Health (800)458-1158 cookingliquids. Desxwent ofEuneotaJ Coervioo (516)751—7900 ______SeaGrn Exteroc Program (516)632—8730 Naturall%Occurring Toxins COCI$ICtICVt Toxins produced by marine DepsrenenrofHealthServices (203)566-8167 phytoplanktonhavealsobeenassociated with ofEavirotineil humanillness. One type of toxin called Prosecu (203)443-0166 Depsruneniof (203)874-0696 is associated with from Ap*ultwe “ciguatera” only fish SeaGrantMari Advisory tropical areas of thewor’d.Locally, plankton pt (203)445-4664 that causes redtide cancauseillness if oneears shellfish that have accumulatedits toxin.

TheLongIslandSoundStudy TheLooglalaralSoundSindy(LISS)I ax-yesr rarcb magun proje th beg In1985 pwl of tbeN*ÜOCIIEstuaryProm, a .ec cm tothefederalOew Wa*t A aeed to ‘ote eties of oooal imponince.TbeLISSisacocpemtheeffoetmvotvingieseazditudo, iegu1ay agelLImmi u vqs und otherconmed andiv¼al TbepurposeofibeStudyIto sodue amaosgemeu planfortbeSound ibet will be admAnistetedby ibe tInes major USS pn. the Eovüeesal Proectios Agency the swes of Coenecut andNewYo& Togetinvolvedwiththe Seedy,orformoteoimaon ciuaa: NewYo SeaGras Exteiioo Program,DutcheesHall.SUNY.SionyBrook.NY11794,TeL(516)632-8737;orthe Coeneicut SeaGrant Matint AdvisoryProgram.43 MmneSieet. Hamden,CT06514,Il. (203)719—7865.

Thisfootsheerwaspruducedby theNewYorkSea Grant Extension $16 GIANT ProgramardtieConnecticia Sea Gras:Ma AdvisoryProgram. 1 j (1 Wrutenby MeIiss’iBerwajn and ken Gail.artworkby CatherineWaLker. Fundingprovidedby the LongIslandSowidStudy.CooperatingAgencies:The US. £nWrotmwnwlProtection Agency.ConnecticutD.parnen: of EnnroronerotalProtection,NewYorkDepturotwiuofEir.rur.senwI Conservation. 2/90 ‘LONG FACT SHEET #10 niISLAND /“1SOUND _STUDY

Ofthe65000chemcalsinusetoday,manyare industrialized basins. Some PAHs are known poisonousortoxic.Theeffectoftoxiccontaminantson carcinogensandposeapotentialproblemwhereverthey thehealthofLongislandSound,andonthosewhouse arefound. it, is a majorconcernof the LongIslandSoundStudy What Are The Sources of Toxic (LISS). ContaminantsInLongIslandSound? What Is Being DoneAboutToxic Understandingtherelativecontributionsof the Contamination? varioussourcesoftoxicsubstancesisnecessaryin LISSinvestigatorsareevaluatinginformation Ordertodevelopeffectivestrategiesto protectthe thatidentifieswhichtoxicsubstancesareof concern, Sound.Bothactivesourcesor dischargesandany wheretheycomefrom,wheretheyendup,howthey environmentalContaminationresultingfromhistoric affecttheecosystem,andwhatthehealthrisksarefor activitiesrr*sstbeevaluated.Currently,activedischarges humanconsumersof seafoodproducts.Ultimately,the are regulatedunderthepollutiondischargeelimination LISSwillproducea ComprehensiveConservationand System(PDES)permits.Managementstrategiesare ManagementPlan(CCMP)thatwillincludea sectn on morecosteffectivewhentheyarepreventative,i.e. managementoftoxicsubstances.OnegoaloftheStudy developedforongoingactivitiesanddischarges..Once is to reduceinacts fromtoxiccontaminationonLong contaminationoccurs,cleanupisextremelycostlyand IslandSoundresources.AnotherIs to minimizehuman difficult. healthrisks. ToxicsubstancesentertheSound’swatersasa WhichToxicContaminantsShould resultof naturalprocessesandhumanactivities. WeBeConcernedAbout? Pollutionsourcesare categorizedas eitherpoint Landuse and the manufacture,use,and disposalof everydayproductsall contribute contaminantstothesystem.TheLISShasestablisheda listoftoxicpollutantsweshouldbeconcernedaboutin ourareathatreflectpastandpresentactivitiesinthe Soundsdrainagebasin(Table1).Althoughmetalsare naturallyfoundintheenvironment,theirlevelsareoften elevatedbyhumanactivities.Becausecopper,zinc, cadmium,andchrorYvumarecommonlyusedinindustry, theyarefoundonthe LISStargetlist.Othermetalson thelistsuchasleadhavealsobuiltupintheSoundasa resultofeverydayactivities,primarilyautomobileuse. TheLISSlistalsocontainsorganic(carbon based)pollutants.Manyof thesesubstancesare synthetic,thatis,theydonot occurnaturallyinthe environment.Polychiorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs)and mostofthepesticideslistedarenolongeringeneral productn; somearestillfoundintheSound,however, becausetheytakeyearstodisperseandbreakdown. Alsolistedarepolynucleararomatichydrocarbons (PAHs)whichareubgjitous corTçonentsofpetroleum products.Theyarealsoproducedduringthecombustion oforganicmaterialssuchasfossilfuels,trees,trash,and evencharcoalbarbecues.PAHsarewidelydistributed bytheatmosphere.LongIslandSoundis likelyto be contaminatedwithPAHsnear sourcessuchas petroleumterminals,urbanharbors,coalpiles,and sources. cr exarr;e. CSCrarge pipes,or flonpoint by tishandinverteb(ales‘5 controlledbyenvironmental sources,sucflas stormwatern,rnof’fandatmospheric Conditions,the characterof the substance,an the deposition(seeFactSheet#7).Wastewaterandrunoff Physiologyof theorganism.Generallythelevelof a havedifferenttypesandcorlcerllrations ofcontaminants. pollutantinanorganism’stissueisdeterminedbyfactors Forexample,in theLongIslandSoundarea,sewage suchasthelengthofexposure(concentrationover a treatmentplantsappeartobea majorsourceofcopper periodof time),howmuchfattissuetheorganismhas. po(tutn. whereasurbanrunoffcontributesmuchofthe andby its abilityto metabolizeand/orexcretethe leadcontamination.Recentresearchhas shown pollutant.Consideringthewiderangeofcontaminants, atrnosphencdepositionis animportantsourceof heavy physicalandchemai conditions,andmarineIde,l’sno metalssuchascopper,lead,mercury,andzinc.Another surprisingthatstraightforwardrelationshipsbetween pollutionsourcewhichcannotbeignored,is sediment exposureandpollutantconcentrationin livingtissues alreadyintheSound.Priortothe1970s,lad ofstringent, havenotbeendefined. dischargecontrolsledto locallycontaminatedsediment StudiesconductedfortheLISSaridtheNational that can releasepollutantswhen resuspended(see Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministrationsMussel Figure1). Thecontaminantsmayalsobe accumulated Watchindicatethatlevelsofsomemetalsandpesticides andredistributedbymanneorganismswheningestedor in LongIslandSoundshellfishtissueshavedeclined. physicallydisturbed. Figure4showsthelevelsofmetalsinoystermeatshave WhatHappensto ToxicSubstances declinedsincethe 1970s.Thisistheresultofnumerous OnceTheyEnterTheSound? factors,includingimprovedtreatmentof industrialarid Oncetoxicchemicalsare releasedintothe sewagetreatmentplantdischargesas requiredbythe Federal Clean environment,theymaymovebad andforthbetweenthe Water Act. Other factorsare the watercolumn,bottomsediment,andthe foodchain movementof industriesthat polluteawayfromthe times.Thiscycleendswhentheyareburieddeep Northeastandthephasingout of productsthatpollute many lead inthesedimentor,asforsometoxicorganicsubstances suchas leadedgasoline, paint,and persistent (DOTS),brokendownintoharmlesscompounds(Fçure pesticides. 2). The residencetime (averagelengthof time a Howdo ToxicSubstancesAffectThe contaminantremainsin a system)of a toxicorganic Ecosystem? substancedependsuponthe characteristicsof the Somesubstancesinhighconcentrationscankill substanceas well as the environmentin whichit is marinelife. Cher substanceshaveamoresubtleeffect found.Controllingfactorsincludethe compound’s onmarinelifein termsofbehavior,reproduction,orhow structure,themediumschemistry,andthe Presenceof theyimpactthe keycomponentsof intricatelybalanced otherchemicals.PCBsandchlorinatedhydrocarbons foodwebs.Thenet resultcouldbea reductionin suchas DOThavelongenvironmentalresidencetimes. productivityandanintalanceinmarinelifecommunities Theyareloreignto thenaturalenvironmentandnatural towards pollution tolerant species such as the metabohcprocesseshavenotevoivedthatquicklybreak opportunisticbertthicwormCaitelta. Thisfactorismore themdown. pertinenttotheconditionor ‘healthofmanneresource Althoughtoxic substancesare found in populationsratherthan to the healthof seafood organismsaridin thewaterof LongIslandSound,the consumers. majorityofthecontaminantsareattachedor boundto WhatAre TheHumanHealthRisks? sedimentparticles.SedimentfoundInurbanharbors Often,toxicsubstancesarefoundat higher oftencontainshçhconcentrationsofcontalTinarttssince levelsin organismsthanin the waterin whichthe theharborsare adjacenttopastorexistingpollutant organisms are found. This phenomenon. sources(Figure1). ft followsthatsdentaryandsome bioccumulatlon, hasspecialsignificanceforseafood. mobilemarinelife livingin areasthathavehighly Bioaccumulationoccurs when the amount of contaminatedsediment usually contain higher concentrationsof contaminantsthan thosefound In 800• cleanerareassuchastheopenSound(Fqjre3). and substances Theuptakeoforganic inorganic £ 600 ii 400 200

0 BP GP NH c1I_ , — Location ts.1o ,.— — .,e_!!, — — a Figure3.CopperinoystersfromLongIslandSound. Figure1.Distributionof Copperinsurfacesedimentsof Source:ConnecticutDepartmentofEnvironmental Long‘slandSound.Source:Greig,Stal.,1977. Protection,1986. Fçt.ire2. Fateof chern.calsn Lorç StanCSnd.

vojitilization dischargeirnotheSound

biochemacalstd photochenucai reactionsin surfacetTUcrOlayer (/ cojo oer

dilutioninwater

photochemjcajreaction I adsorptiontosethmentparticlesoralgae Settling )

I C uptakethroughskin gills changingbybactenal acuon 4 ingestionbyfilterfeeder, 4- eRpofl

ingestionbypradators I resuspensionbye’ai cwren organia

releasemfeces /

• ingesisocbypredators legsstàoabysedim sewn bwlaJbyaewsediment, legesOonbyflhatfeeders diemicalsherstionsin SedUltetUpore watersandsedimentwaterinterface contaminanttakenintotheorganismexceedsthe eatinglargeamountsofspecifictypesofseafood(see amountremovedorexcreted.Bioaccumulationcan FactSheet#9).InLongIslandSound.advisoriesfor causeorganismstohavehighlevelsoftozcsubstances saltwaterfishexistforonlystrted bass,bktetistt,and intheirtissues,andnseientty mayb aheafthriskto lobstertomalleys.NewYorkalsohasanadvisory for seafoodconsumers.Publichealthadvisoriesare Americaneels.Theseadvisoriesareall becauseof publishedto tformnsumsrsaboutpotentialrisksfrom elevatedlevelsof PCBs.Thestatehealthofficialsin Connecticutand NewYork involvedwrth the LISSare these limitswith biologicalmethods.Permits workingtoensi.Jrethathealthrisksareaddressedaspart some require dischar;ersto conducta bioassay,a test that oftheCCMP. exposessensitivefish Toxic and aquaticinvertebratesto its Managing Contaminantsin wastewaterdischarge.lithe testorganismsareimpair LongIslandSound? or die,thefacilityis requiredto determinethe the cause The LISS will provide information to help mortalityandmodifytheiroperationsto eliminateor environmental managers focus on reducing toxic neutralizethe toxicity.Althoughthe bioassaytestdoes contaminationin the Sound.TheLISSisattemptingto not evaluatethe cumulativeimpactsof the buildupof reducetoxiccontaminationin theSoundandeducate pollutants within the system, it does evaluatethe the LongIslandSoundcomrTinity aboutcontamination combinedeffectof all contaminantsin the discharge, issues. providingan addedlevelof protectionthat numerical Presently,NewYorkhaswaterqualitystandards kmnitsdonotoffer. for over20 chemcals.TheLISSmayalsorecommend The densely populated nature of the land additionalor revisedwaterqualitystandardsfor some surroundingthe Sound makes stormwaterrunoffa toxicsubstances.Currently,criteriafortoxicchemicalsin critical issue.Runoffcarriescontaminantspickedup the sedimentare not well definedbut they are being fromthe landto surfacewaters.Tacklingtheproblemof developedat the Federallevel.The LISSwdimonitor runoffas a sourceof contaminantsrequireseffective progressin the developmentof sedimentcriteriaand landusecontrolsandwetlandprotectn programs. other, guidelines for Seafood and make Untilthecontrolsbeingdevelopedforalltypesof recommendationsforcriteriausagewhenappropriate. dischargesand wastereductionbecomeeffectiveat Control of toxic contaminants from point reducingthe levelsof toxic substancesin the Sound, dischargesaroundLong IslandSoundis an ongoing health concernsare being identifiedand tre public process.The industrialpretreatmentprogramrequires informedof them.In the future,additionalcontrolover industriesto reducelevelsof toxicsubstancesin their the input from both point and nonpoint sourcesof effluentpriorto dischargingto sewagetreatmentplants. chemicalcontaminationshould be the result of the Conversely,any industriesthat dischargedirectlyto coordinatedeffortsof aninformedcommunityt citizens, surfacewatersare regulatedby the PDESpermitting environmental scientistsand managers,and elected program.The regulatoryapproachhas evolvedfrom governmentofficials. beingsoleybasedon effluentlimitsto a corrtinatsonof 1970s 1970, 120 1970, 30 5000 250 . ) 1970,

‘0 60 15 2500 ‘. I—i 125 S. 1980s 1980, ‘ 1980s 1960s

- ‘-I LJ - E 0 0 0 Cadmium Chromium Copper Nickel

Fçure 4. The meanandrangeof concentrations(mg/g dry WI)ofselectedheavymetalsinoysterscollectedat the mouth of the Housatonic River in the 1970$comparedtothosecollectedinthe 1980s.Source:1970 data,FengandRuddyand 1980data,CTDepartmentof EnvironmentalProtection.

TheLongIslandSound Study Tb. LongIslandSoundStudyCUSS)sa six-year reuarcPiandmanag.mentprojectthatb.gariin1985U panofthe NationalEstuaryProgram,a recentadditiontothefed.raJCleanWaterActcreatedtoprotectestuariesofnationalimportance.The LISSisa coop.rativeeffortinvolvingresearchinstitutions.r.gulatoryagencies,marineusergroupsandotherconcerned organizationsandindrviouais.Thepurposeoft?reStudymtoproducea msnagemer*planfortheSoundthatwl beadministered bythethreemajorLISSpartners,theEnvwonmentalProt.ctionAg.ncyandthestat.sof NewYorkandCOnnecticUt.To.t involvedwiththe Study,orformoreinformation,contact:theNswYorkSeaGrantExtensionProgram,125NassauHall,SUNY, StonyBrook,NY 11794,Tel.(515)632-8737;ortheConr.sctcutS.. GrantMarineAdvisoryProgram,43Mar”. Street,Hamd.n, CT06514.1.1.(203)789-7865.

Thisfactshfl’was pvodixed by th N ram See Grant.j.nsCn Programand the Conn.ctic&tSea GrantMa,ne Advory Program. WrttenbyPaulStaceyandMlissa Bnstam, amiov*by CatherineWa&r and Mii EmeL FundingprovWd by th. Long ftiand Sound Study Coop.ratAigAg.ncrns: Th. L/.S.Enwonmr4aI Proction Ag.ncy ConnecticutDepartmentofEnVDMIner41I PiDtecfó. New YamD.partm.nt of Envsunm.ntadCon..rvatn. 6/90 ‘LONG FACT S}T *11 ISLAND NutrientReduction:New SOUND Solutionsto OldProblems STUDY Using biological nutrientremoval (BNR) techniques. wastewaternesirneotexpertsbelievethatitmaybepossibleto titrient ReductionActionPlan Demonstration increasenutrientremovalfromexistingsewagetreatmentplants Projeds at reduced costs. The BNR process,shown in Figure I. transformsnitrogen,which the Over the three years. the Long IslandSound Study enters plantas ammonia,into past nitrogen thatis (LISS)has been invesgating the natureof the hypoxia (low gas released intothe atmosphere.BNR is a two-step utiimngnaturalreactions. dissolvedoxygen problemin Long Island Sound.There is a, process nitrification and denitrlf’katlon.Figure2 of growingconsensusamongresearchersthatexcessnutrientsare givesoneexample thesereactionsin nature.Toset BNR for the causeof the reducedoxygenlevelsobservedin the up wastewatertreatment,the aeration pnmary tankisaitered that Sound(seeFactSheet#1).Measuresto improvethiscoodiuon, so ananoxicoranaerobic(lowornooxygen zoneis createdat end andthe other suchascontrollingtheflowofnutriems.parcularfy nitrogen,to one secnonsremainaerated or aerobic. andbacteriafrom the Sound. are challenging and could be costly. Original Sewage secondarysettlingtanks axe mixed into the low zone. In the aerated estimatesattacheda price tag of severalbilliondollarsto the oxygen sections. ammonia(N}t’) is convened to nitrate(NO3-) in a reducDonof nutrientpollutionfrompoint sources — sewage two-stage reactioncallednitrificaxion. treanTlent and Denitnficauonrequireslowoxygen plants industry. condiüons. The Todeterminctheeffectivenessofseveral“low-cost”nutrient bacteriaextractoxygen fromnitrates,causing harmlessnitrogen be releasedinto reducoonmeaswcs,theLISSisfundingtwopilotprojectscalled gas (N2) to the atmosphere. Consequently, is reduced in AcuonPlanDemonstraon Projects.Eachwillinvestigatethe nitrogen the wastewalereffluent effecuvenessand of certain nutrient reduction (discharge). applicability These BNR technologiesin the Sound’swatershed. techniquesmayrequireonly minorchangesin operadon and control rather than utrient Removal process complete Biological Project reconstroctionof theplantwherethey canbeapplied. Cunently, wastewateris treated by two processes,called Two sewagetiesunent plantsthat dischargeinto the Long primary andsecondarytreatmentbeforebeingdischargedinto IslandSoundStudyarea,theStamfordWaterPolluDonControl theSound.Primarytreatmentremovessolidsandsomeorganic Facility in Stamford. CT and the Tailman IslandSewage matter. while secondary uses biolocal processes to treat TreatmentPlaziinQueens,NYareevaluatingtheBNRmethod. wastewaterto furtherreduceorganicwastesin theeffluent(see Their.goa1is tobiolopcallyremove80percentofthe nitrogen Fact Sheet #3). Coovent3onalwastewater tieatmeot plants fromtheeffluent.These’plantswereselectedbecauseof their removeonly small amounts of the ournents nitrogen and facilitydesi, pastrecordsof compliancewithpermitlimits. phosphorus.Typically,a primaryneaunentplantcanremove5 andplantoperatorskillssodcontrols.Additionally,neitherplant to 15percentofthetotalnitrogenandpbospborusfromthewaste is at or overacfty. stream.A secondaryplantwillremove an sdthtioosl 5 to 10 TheStamfordfacibrylmpkmeixedBNRonMarch1,1990. percentoftheseauthents. Thisplant,deigned toueat 20 milliongallcs perday(MOD)

Disinfection N03_. N Wastewater Screens Influant t_i —------LongIsland Sound Primary Settling Tank

D.nitr$fatton Nrdacation (Anurobicor (A.robc) Anoxtc)

Figure 1. Exampleof biological nutrientremovalprocess in an alteredaerationtank. hasanaveragedailyflowrateof 16MGDandis nowremoving Riverbasin,theLitchfieldCountySoilandWaterConservation morethan97percentoftheammonium-nitrogen(N}1) and65 District, the Conuecticut Council on Soil and Wat of the total in to 75percent nitrogen the effluent. Conservation,the USDA Soil Conservation Service and In June1990.work the TailmanIsland began at plant to Connecticut Cooperative Extension System have received asimilarwastewatertreatment ibis plantis implement process, funding from the USS and the ConnecticutDepartmentof much larger than the one in Stamford.Designedto ueat 80 EnvironmentalProtectionto conductan agriculturalflutnent MGD,it treatsan averageof 63 MGD.The BNR treatment managementdemonstration project. The objective of this willbeevaluatedinonequarteroftheplant(affecting16 process projectis to demonstratethe feasibilityof MGDof the flowthroughthe plant)andthe effluentqualityof usingcustomized agriculturalnutrient plansto decrease boththeNR and old treatmentprocesseswill be monitored management nutrient closely. runofftoLongIslandSound. Present The $105500 LISSdemonstrationgrant will enablethe inorganicfertilizerapplicationpracticesand poor Ti1man andStamfordfacilitiesto documentthe operational distributionof animalwastes on croplands may resultin limitsassociatedwith the BNRprocess.One importantfactor overfertilizationof somefields.Theexcessfertilizersmayrun thu will be testedis the technique’seffectivenessin colder offthe land into the surface watersor be transportedin the temperatures.whenbacteriaareless active. groundwaterto nearby streams. Eventuallythe streams will Thestaff at bothfacilitiesaridtheir city governmentsare transportthenutrientstoLongIslandSound. verydedicatedto the project’ssuccess.They haveincreased Soilsaretestedtomeasurenutrientlevelsandtodetermine personneland providedfiianciaJ resources to ensure the whetherit is necessarytoapplyfertilizeraridinwhatamounts. project’sthoroughanalysis. Fertilizeraddedto soil alreadycontainingenoughnutrientsto supportthecroptobegrownmaywashawaywithrunofforleach into thegroundwater. By 1991twenty-seven(armswillhavepreparedindividual nutrientmanagementplans.Theplanswillbebasedonthetype of farm, nutrientlevels in the soil and current fertilizerand manure applicationpractices.The managementplans will be evaluated for their effectiveness in maintaining crops an reditcingrunoffof nutsientsfromeach property. An integral part of this project is an information and educationprogramdesignedtoencouragefarmerstovolunteer to participate in the project. By parucipating, farmers can decreasetheir operationalcost by usingless fertilizeron their Figure2. Exampleof nitrogencyclein astute. Adaptedfrom land. Garrels,Mackenve andHunt. 1975. The results of this $80,000 demonstrationgrant will be gricuItural Nutrient ManagementProject applicable throughout the Sound’s thainage basin and will Noapointsources of pollutionalso contributenutrientsto identify the economic and e i ental benefits of using LongIslandSoundvia landandnver runoff.In the Housatonic agncultwal. nutrientmanagementplans.

The LongIslandSoundStudy TheLongIslandSoundStudy(USS)isasix-yearresearchandmanagementprojectthatbeganin 19*5ii partoftheNationalEstuary Program,arecentadditiontothefederalCleanWaterActcreatedtoprotectestuariesofnationalimportance.TheLISSisacooperative effortinvolvingresearchinstitutions,regulatoryagencies,marineusergroupsandothercoonernedor ‘.,ionz andindividuals.The purposeof the Studyis toproducea managementplan forthe Soundthatwillbe administeredbythethreemajorUSS partners.the EnviroomentalProtectionAgencyandthestatesofNewYorkandCoanecuan. TogetinvolvedwiththeStudy,orformoreinformation, contact:the NewYorkSeaGrantExtensionProgram.125NassauHall,SUNY,StonyBrook,NY 11794.Tel.(516)632-8737orthe ConnecticutSeaGrantMarine Program,43 MaineSeet, Mamden,CT 06514,ThI.(203)789—7865. Advisory , ______, Thisfac1 sheet wasproduced by theNew YorkSea Grant Extension I si* siaFi’ Programand the CoIInecrxcut Sea GrantMarineAdvisoryProgrn. J ____ WrittenbyMelissaBeristain.ArrworkbyCatherineSexton. 2-. ‘.. FundingprovidedbytheLongIslandSoundStudy.CooperatingAgencies:1 C.U.S.EnvironsnentalProtectionAgency, I ConnecticutDepartmentof EnvirotinentalProte’tion,NewYorkDeparunentof EnvironsientalConservation. 8 LONG FACTSHEET#12 ISLAND /1 ‘SOUND Pathogens

STUDY Becausecoliformsare not always pathogens, they are not perfect indicators. Despite the limitations, Long Island Sound is as famous for its fish and standards based on coliforms have minimized typhoid shellfish as it is for boating, swimming, and scuba and cholera outbreaks caused by eating shellfish or diving. The Sounds sheltered embayments are the swimming polluted waters. Scientists are evaluating most desirable areas for many recreational and the reliability of other indicators. These new commercial activities. Yet, it is on the shorelines of indicators may improve our ability to identify the these ernbayments that developments are presenceofhuman pathogens. concentrated. Pathogen contamination, caused Currently, three types of indicators are measured: poor land use and flawed waste disposal practices, total coliform, which comes from decaying matter, often impairs our ability to swim or harvest shellfish feces,and soil;fecal coli.form, which is a component in many bays. In 1989, the dockside value of Long of total coliformbacteria; and enterococcus, which Island Sound’s commercial bivalve shelifishery — comesfrom feces of warm-bloodedanimals, including clams, oysters, and mussels (excluding bivalves humans. All suggest the possiblepresence ofharmful harvested in relay and depuration programs) — was bacteria and viruses. over $30 million. Because pathogen contamination Stormwater runoff that contains animal wastes and closes beaches and restncts shellfish harvesting, it soil washed from the land is often a major source of seriously affects the region, economically and socially. feca] coliformbacteria (see Figure 1). in many older cities, sanitary and storm sewer systems are OriginsandENactsof Pathogens combined. So when it rains, the volume of these Certain bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are known as combined flows often exceeds the capacity of the pathogens. When people ingest these microorganisms sewagetreatment plant. This results in the discharge or allow them to enter their bodies, they may incur of untreated wastes containing fecal and other illnesses and diseases such as gastroenteritis, cholera, coliforms into coastal waters. (In Figure 1, CSOs are typhoid fever, salmonella, or hepatitis A. Pathogens part of the urban runoff category.) The outflows of that concentrate in the fecal waste of infected humans combinedsewers and sewagetreatment plants have a and warm-blooded animals, find their way to Long higher probability of disease transmission because Island Sound via both point and nonpoint routes (see they carry high levels of bacteria in a concentrated Fact Sheets #3 and #7). Specificsources of pathogens form. include improperly and untreated sewage discharges from combined sewer overflows (CSOs), sewage treatment plant breakdowns, and pumping station SewageTr.atm.ntPlants(1.0%) bypasses; stormwater runoff; waterfowl and animal UrbanRunoff (47.3%) Riversarid wastes; septic systems; inadequately treated sewage Upstream discharges from boats; and illegal connections to Sources storm drain systems. (51.7%) TestingforPathogens human Asyet, there is no practical test for pathogens, IndustrialDischarge(0.1%) or otherwise. Consequently,their presence cannot be measured. Instead, the of accurately appearance 1. Estimatedfscalcoliforni to Island indicator determines the of Figure dcharges Long organisms presence Soundin 1986.TheurbanrunoffcategoryincludesCSOs: pathogenic organisms. Coliforrnbacteria are used as the river load includespointandnonpointSourcesfrom indicators and, like pathogens, are found in the upstream.Sourca:NationalCoastalPollutantDischarge digestive tracts of’all warm-bloodedanimals, on plant Inventory:EstimatesforLongIslandSound. matter, and in the soil. Because coliformbacteria are typically discharged with sewage wastes, their presence in significant numbers serves as an Effectsof PathoginContamination indication that other harmful bacteria or viruses may 1.ClosureofBathingBaches be present. Swimming in contaminated waters can lead to BeachClosureStandards WestchesterCounty Totalcoliforngreaterthan2,400/100ml NewYorkCityandNassauCounty• —

SuffolkCounty,NewYork Fecalcoiiforrngreaterthan400/100n’

Connecticul Enterococcalorganismsgreaterthan61/100ml (singlesample) Rainwaterrunoffcanraisetotalcoliformlevelsbecauseitcamesdecayingmatterandanimalandhumanwaste. Certainbeachesin MamaroneckHarborare automaticallyclosedfollowingrain events. NassauCounty recommendspeoplerefrainfromswimmingin certainareasaftersignificantrainfallbecausethecoiilorrnlevels maybeincreasedbutnotexceedthestandard. Colitormstandardsarebasedonalog-meanaverageforSor moresarrles within30days. bacterial and viral infections. Therefore, beaches are shellfish resources. Bivalveshellfish, such as oysters, monitored and closedby the health department when mussels, and clams, feed by filtering large quantities levels of indicator organisms exceed acceptable of water and extracting foodparticles. If the shellfish standards. But because these standards are set by are growingin polluted areas, this process will collect local health departments, they may vary among and even concentrate pathogens in their digestive jurisdictions (see box). Figure 2 shows the number of systems. By eating whole, partially cooked, or raw Long Island Sound beach days lost due to coliform contaminated shellfish, viable pathogens can be contamination. Many of New York’sbeach closures passed on to the consumer. Other forms of seafood, were not the direct result ofmeasured coliformlevels- such as lobsters, crabs, and shrimp, are not filter rather, they were precautionary closings caused by feeders, and are usually cooked before eating. sewage treatment or pumping station failures in the Therefore, they are not as likely to be contaminate vicinity of a bathing beach. The increased number of with pathogens. The LISS Fact Sheet #9, “Seafood beach closures in 1989is related to the record rainfall Issues,” describes how to ensure the shellfish you eat experiencedthat year. are safe and are ofhigh quality. ShellfishSanitation LI SoundBeachClosures Program DuetoColiformContamination Shellfish growing waters are routinely tested for coliform levels. This is to the shellfish — assure being 600- harvested are safe for human consumption. Under the 0 National Shellfish Sanitation initiated in 500- Program, 1925, States are responsible for ensuring that o 400. shellfish are harvested only from clean waters. The New York State Department of Environmental 300. Conservation and the Connecticut Department of Agriculture, along with some coastal municipalities, ‘ 200. monitor and regulate the Sound’s shellfish resources J100. and enforce contaminated shellfish.ingarea closures. Shellfish can be harvested only from areas where the median coliform values are routinely found to be 1987 1988 1989 below 70 total or 14 fecal coliformsper 100milliliters Date of water. Shellfish can be moved from pathogen contaminated Connecticut NewYork’ waters to clean waters, where they will flush out the a period of several weeks. due coliform pathogens over Figure2. LongIslandSoundbeachclosings to Transplanting or rl’ving shellfish to clean waters contamination.Numberofbeachdayslot’ squalsthesumof allows for natural ,EOfl flushing. Controlled The number of daysallbeacheswire closed.’ Excludes . or NewYorkCitybeaches puriflcacaonakes place in depuration pliZLt$ in which shellfish are held in tanks with rapidly circulating water.Bothtypes of activities are carefully regulated 2. ClosureofShellfishingGrounds by state agencies. Pathogen contamination also limits the use of The Shellfish Sanitation Program has been very Shellfish Associatedliness In NewYorkState ExtentofPathogenContamWatIon in LongIslandSound I ConnecticutNewYitc 0 Total 1 (acres) (acres) (acres) Potentialshelitishinggrounds392,419 471,220 863,639 Prohibitedorrestrictedarias 78,009 82,445 160,454 (20%) (18%) Productiveshellfishbeds 52,500 66.000 118500 Prohibitedorrestrictedareas 18,375 48.500 66,875 I wherebedsareproductive (35°!.) (73.5%) Asof January1990.Source:NY Dept.of Erivironmentai ConservationandCTDept.ofAgnculture. C., C” C 0101010101 — — . — — — — — YEAR Figure3. Shellfish-associatedillnessreportedin NewYork previous years. An outbreak represents two or more State.SoJrc9: Bureauof CommunitySanitationand Food illnesses at one location. Protection,NewYorkStateDept.of 4eatth. TheLISSand PathogenContamination effective in controlling outbreaks of shellfish-borne Figure 4 compares average total coliform disease. Figure 3 summarizes shellfish-associated concentrations for wet and dry weather conditions illnesses reported in New York State over the past fromJune to September 1989.This type ofdata, when decade (it includes shellfish harvested outside state combined with other available information, will be waters). In 1982,many reported illnesses were traced u.sedto characterize pathogen contamination in Long to clamsharvested in New England and Europe. In Island Sound. Figure 5 shows the decreasing trends 1989, only ten outbreaks were reported in in total coliformlevels in the East River and Western Connecticut, no major outbreaks were reported in Sound. Sh&IfishAresClassifications ApprovedorCertifiedAreas: TOTALCOLIFORMDISTRIBUTION Shellfishcan be freely harvestedfrom areasthat meet IN SURFACEWATERS ShellfishSanitation approprIatestateandNational Program liii Le,.4. - DSYWEAThERVS.WETWEAThER bacterialstandards.Theseareasan regularlysampledby I, shellfishregulatoryagencies. WET ConditionallyApprovedorCertifiedArias: Any area influencedby occasionaland predictable deteriorationof waterquality.Shellfishcanbe directly harvestedonlyunderspecifiedconditions(i.e.,whenwater qualitymeetscertifiedcnitenaunderentified situationsof reducedpollutantinputs). Theareaistemporarilyclosed whencertifiedcriteriaarenotmet.Rainfallis a majorfactor thataffectsconditionalclosings. / RestrictedArias: Areasthatdo notmeetthecertifiedareacriteria.Sh.lIfish 2,400. 8.1P*ig S*anded be harvestedfromthese fortransplantingor may arias I20.000 10,000 —,OOO 02.400 — 10.000 deputationunderspecialpermitsfromtheStateShellfish ControlAg.ncy. 0 2,400(MPN/ 10044.) NotMsasr.d ConditionallyRestrictedAreas: Any aria predictably influenc•d by pathogenic Fure 4. Comparisonofwetanddryweatheraveragetotal contamination,aswithconditionallycertifiedareas. coliformconcentrationsmeasuredatthesurfacefromJuneto ProhibitedAreas: S.pt.mber1989.Bathingstandardis applicablein western No harvestingis permittedfrom areasthatan, grossly Soundonly. Source: NewYorkCity Departmentof contaminatedorfor whichno shorelinesurveyandwater EnvironmentalProtection. qualityassessmenthasbeenrecentlyoompl.t.d. I

AvsraQ Surlace Clforrrr a W,st,m L0fl9 slajrCSounc arc .posr East The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) is investigat2n 1000000 ways in which the Sound’s water quality can b WesternLong san Sound maintained or enhanced. Under an Action Plan 100000 Demonstration Project, the LISS is z studying the 0. relationship of urban stormwater runoff to coliforrn 10o0c New YOrKSata levelsin the MamaroneckHarbor area.Nonstructural War 0uary coliformreduction Srr0w0 lr management practices (catch basin U.0 $*irt,rrrig cleaning, Street sweeping, and an educational 0 Q program on pet waste ordinances) have been implemented and evaluated. Although the results 0 have shownthat these measures alone did not reduce coliformlevels, the project’sgoal of improving water 1000000 quality can still be achieved. Coliform modeling will UpperEastRrver provide estimates of effluent limits for point source 100000- discharges into the Harbor. These estimates can be used to develop goals that will continue to reduce 10000 NWYOSIa pathogen inputs to the Sound. WaterQuajiry In its ComprehensiveConservation and Management 0 e I r Starca or U 1000 Swrmminç Plan (due out in November 1991), the LISS will 0 Q identify specific actions to reduce pathogen 100 contamination in the Sound. Scientists and managers will characterize the conditions for pathogen closures the -i in Sound, identify standards used, and evaluate 1969 1974 1979 198.4 1989 the need for a uniformbeach closure standard.

Figure5. Averagetotalcoliformconcentrationsmeasuredat the surfacefromJuneto September1970through1989in the EastRiverand WesternSound. Bathingstandardis applicableeastof theWhestone Bridge.Source:NewYork CityDepartmentof EnvironmentalProtection.

The Long IslandSoundStudy

TheLongIslandSoundStudy(LISS)isa six-yearresearchandmanagementprojectthatbeganin 1985aspartof theNationalEstuaryProgram,a recent additionto thefederalCleanWaterActcreatedto protectestuariesof nationalimportance.TheLISSisa coooerativeeffortinvolvingresearchinstitutions,regulatoryagencies,manneuser groupsaridotherconcernedorganizationsaridindividuals.ThepurposeoftheStudyistoproducea management plan fortheSoundthatwillbeadministeredbythethreemajorLISSpartners,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency andthe statesofNewYorkandConnecticut.Tobecomeinvolvedwiththe Study,or formoreinformation,contactthe NewYorkSeaGrantExtensionProgram,125NassauHall,SLJNY,StonyBrook,NY 11794,Tel.(516)632-8737;or theConnecticutSeaGrantMarineAdvisoryProgram,43MameStreet,Hamden,CT 06514,Tel.(203)789-7865. Thisfactsheetwasproducedby theNewYorkSeaGrantExtension ProgramandtheConnecticutSeaGrantMarineAo4visory Program.Written byMelissaBenstain.LayoutandgraphicsbyCatherineSexton. FundingProvidedby theLongIslandSoundStudy.CooperatingAgencies:TheU.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency,ConnecticutDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection,NewYorkDepartmentofEnvironmentaiConservation. ‘SEA GRANT eO ‘4P, 178

Topic Nineteen Undersea Technology (Societal Influences)

I. OVERVIEW Underwater exploration is not a new concept. Humans have hunted for food, searched for treasure, and recovered minerals and hydrocarbons from the ocean. Our growing population, diminishing resources and awareness of major resource imbalance in future generations continues to turn our attention to the untapped resources beneath the sea.

II. CONCEPTS Undersea Exploration Famous Scientists Equip men tITechno! ogy

III. OBJECTIVES Upon the completion of the readings, discussions, and activities, a student will be able to:

A) Identify the type of equipment used in undersea exploration, B) Learn the advantages of In Situ research. C) Understand the advantages and disadvantages of using Scuba in undersea research. D) Become familiar with the basic pieces of Scuba and related equipment. E) Become familiar with those scientists who have been pioneers in undersea research. F) Explore the possibilities of careers in oceanography.

IV. KEYWORDS Pressure Barotrauma Submersibles In Situ Underwater Habitat Rebreathers Diving Mammalian Reflex Jim Suit Decompression Sickness NOAA Embolism ALVIN Refraction JASON SCUBA Nitrogen Narcosis 179

V. ACTIVITIES

Student Reports on Marine Biologists

VI. EVALUATION

VII. RESOURCES

Undersea World of Jaques Cousteau AppendixA TheMetricSystem

introduction TheSysteméInternationald’Unites,commonlyknownas themetricsystem,is internationally acceptedas the systemof measurefor reportingscientificand engineeringdata.Thissystemis widely usedbecauseof its simplicityand easeof conversionUnlikethe UnitedStatesSystemof Weightsand Measures(closelyrelatedto the Britishsystem),whichwe commonlyuse,the threebasicmetricunits for distance,volume,and mass(weight)are closelyinterrelatedEachbasicunitis relatedto the others by a simpleequality,makingit relativelyeasyto convertfromoneunitto another.Sincethe metric systemis a baseten,or decimal,systemidenticalto our methodof expressingnumericalvalues,the techniquesfor manipulatingthe unitsis not unfamiliarto us. I. Distance Let us firstconsiderthe basicunitfor distance,the meter(m),whichis slightlylongerthana yard.The meterwas originallydefinedas one ten-millionthof the distancebetweenthe northpole andthe equator alonga linerunningthroughParis Thisdefinitionhas sincebeenrefined,but it shouldbe notedthat the basisfor the definitionwas,and stillis, a relativelyunchangingphysicalconstant.Themetermaybe prefixedby a termthat eitherincreasesor decreasesthe valueof the unitby somefactorof ten

kilometer= 1,000m hectometer= 100m dekameter= 10m meter= lm decimeter 0.1 m centimeter= 0.01 m millimeter= 0.001 m

Thisdecimalsystem,therefore,maybe expressedas a seriesof equivalentsbasedon ten.

1 kilometer(km) = 10 hectometers 1 hectometer(hm) = 10dekameters 1 dekameter(dkm) = 10meters 1 meter(m) = 10decimeters 1 decimeter(dm) = 10centimeters 1 centimeter(cm) = 10millimeters(mm)

IF 4

Thissystemallowsus to convertfrom oneunitof expressionto anotherwitha minimumof effort For example,if you are givena metricmeasurementof 5,729378meters,it mayalso be expressedn the followingmanner:

0 * , 0

‘5729 378

Notethatthe decimalpointliesto the rightof the metercolumn If thisexpressionis to be convertedto kilometers,the numberis dividedby 1,000or, moresimply,the decimalpointis placedto the rightof the kilometercolumn.Theexpression5,729.378metersis thenwrittenas 5 729378kilometers. If the originalvalueis to be expressedin millimeters,thedecimalpointis placedto the rightof the millimeterscolumn,converting5,729.378metersto 5,729,378millimetersCompletethe following examplesto test yourunderstanding.(For answerssee p. 179.)

= = 57 89 cm ______dm 578.0dm ______km

57.89cm =______mm 0.578m ______mm = = 5789 cm ______m 0.578m ______cm 5789 mm =______m 0.578m =______dm 57.89mm =______cm 0.578km =______m II. The UnitedStatesSystemof Weightsand Measures Theeasewithwhichthe metricsystemmaybe manipulatedcan be underscoredif we compareit to our ownUnitedStates(or British)Systemof WeightsandMeasures. Oursystemis an amalgamof standards,the firstof whichwas establishedby the Englishking Alfredthe Great,in 850 AC Someof his standardsfor measuringdistanceare stillin useby surveyors andby peoplein ruralareas.

10fingerwidths 1 span 10 spans = 1 armstretch 10armstretches= 1 chain 10chains = 1 furlong 10furlongs = 1 thus-hurid(or 1,000armstretches)

Thiselementarydecimalsystemwas modifiedin 1066whenthe French-speakingWilliamthe ConquerorinvadedEngland.Duringhis reign,the unitsusedin mainlandEurope(primarilyRomanin origin)wereintroduced.Theseunits,includingthe foot, yard,mile,and pound,wereusedsIde-by-side withthe old Anglo-Saxonunits. By 1300,the Englishmerchantshad becomepowerfulenoughto set theirownstandards,causing confusionas differenttownsoftenhad differentvaluesfor the sameunits.It was at thistimethat the Britishounceandpoundwerechangedto equalthe weightof the Italianonzia(oz) and libra(lb). From timeto time,reformsin the standardsweremade,but eventhisled to confusion.TheBritishchanged theirstandardsin 1824so that someUnitedStatesand Britishunitswereno longerequal.

4 4 The following are the current official United States units for measuring distance.

12 inches = 1 foot 40 rods = 1 furlong 3 feet = 1 yard 8 furlongs = 1 mile 5/2 yards = 1 rod

A quick comparison with the metric system points out that the United States system is not a decimal system.Converting5729.378 feet into miles,or rods, or inchesrequiresmorethanthe simpletask of movingthe decimalpoint from one place to another.

III. Area Two types of units are used to measure area. Some are simply squared distance measures, such as square centimeters (cm2), square decimeters (dm2), square meters (m2), and square kilometers (km2). Figure A. 1 illustrates some relationships between linear and area measurements. Other units are used exclusively for area measure. One are (a) equals 100 m2, and one hectare (ha) equals 100 ares.

1dm 12c 11 I I I .!:

Area = length x width 1 dm x 1dm = 1 dm2 = .1 m x .1 m = .01 m2 = 10cm x 10cm = 100cm2

— — I I I I I Figure A.1 Some metric unitsof area, based on the square of distance units, I

IV. Volume As withareameasure,two separatebut relatedsystemsof unitsare usedfor volumemeasurements. Thefirstis basedon the cubeof distancemeasures,suchas km3, m3, dm3, and cm3 (alsoabbreviated as cc) FigureA.2 illustratesa cube 1 dm, or 10cm, on eachside.It contains1 dm3, or 1,000cm3(10 cm X 10cm X 10cm).

1._..

FigureA.2 Somemetric unitsof volume,basedofthe cubeof distanceunits.

Theotherbasicunitfor volumeis the liter.Theliteris slightlylargerthana quartandis equalto thevolumeof I dm3, or 1,000cm3 The systemof equivalentsfor expressingliquidmeasureis basedon t the sameunitprefixesas metricdistancemeasurement.

1 kiloliter(kl) = 10hectoliters 1 hectoliter(hi) 10dekaliters t 1 dekaliter(dkl) 10liters 1 liter(I) = 10deciliters e 1 deciliter(dl) = 10centiliters 1 centiliter(Cl) = 10 milliliters(ml) e e e.

4 p.,. ‘p V. Mass Anothersystemof metricmeasureis massor weight.Thebasicunitfor massmeasureis the gram(g) Themethodsfor expressingequivalenciesis exactlythe sameas that usedfor measuringdistanceand liquidvolume.

1 kilogram(kg) = 10hectograms 1 hectogram(hg) = 10dekagrams 1 dekagram(dkg) = 10grams 1 gram(g) = 10decigrams 1 decigram(dg) = 10centigrams 1 centigram(cg) = 10milligrams(mg)

A gramis definedas the massof purewatercontainedin one milliliter(or cubiccentimeter)at a temperatureof 4°C, the temperatureat whichwaterreachesits maximumdensity.Thisrelationship formsa commonbasisfor the metricunitsof mass,volume,anddistanceKnowingthis relationship (1 ml of purewaterat 4°C weighs1 g and occupies1 cm3 of space)shouldenableyou to answerthe followingquestions(for answers,seep. 179).

Howmanylitersare containedin 1 m3 of purewaterat 4°C? ______Howmanygramsdoes 1 literof purewaterat 4°C weigh? Howmanymilligramswould 1 milliliterof purewaterat 4°C weigh? Vi. Temperature Inengineeringwork and in everydaylife in thiscountrythe Fahrenheittemperaturescaleis usedmost frequently.In scientificwork throughoutthe world,temperaturesare expressedusingtheCelsiusor Centigradescale.AndersCelsius,an 18thcenturySwedishastronomer,was the firstto describethis typeof thermometer.On the Celsiusscalethe freezingpointof purewateris usedas the zeropoint. Theboilingpointof purewaterat sea levelis usedas 100°.Theintervalbetweenwas thenevenly dividedinto 100graduations.TheFahrenheitscaleuses32° for the freezingpointof purewaterand 212° for the boilingpointof water. Inyourwork in thisclassyou willgenerallyusethe Celsiusscale.Althoughthe changeto the metric systemhas alreadybeeninitiatedin thiscountry,manypeopledo not yet possessa workingknowledge of thissystem,especiallythe measurementof temperature.To helpfamiliarizeyou withtheCelsiusscale the followinginformationis provided. Formulasfor convertingFahrenheitto Celsius,and Celsiusto Fahrenheittemperaturesare listed below.Theseformulascan be usedto accuratelyconvertfromonetemperaturescaleto another. However,theyare seldomused,as mostlaboratorythermometersare equippedwithbothFahrenheit and Celsiusscalessideby side.

FtoC:C=5/9(F— 32°) C to F: F = 9/5 C + 320 -—.1

It mightbe helpfulto earna fewcommontemperatureequivalentsin both scalesso thatyoucan performsome balIpark mentalconversions

CF 00 waterboils 212 100 humanbodytemperature 99 37 roomtemperature 70 21 temperateseawater 60 16 waterfreezes 32 0

VII. Summaryof MetricUnitsand SomeEquivalents Thefollowingtablesincludethe morecommonlyusedmetricprefixesandtheirrelationto thebasicunits of metricmeasure.

TableA.1 MetricPrefixes Decimal Exponential Notation Notation Micro () = one millionth = 0.000001 = 10_6 Mlli (m) = one thousandth 0.001 10 Centi (c) one hundredth 0.01 102 Deci (d) = one tenth 0.1 10— Basic unit = one = i = 1 Deka (dk) = ten 10 10 Hecto (h) = one hundred 100 102 Kilo (k) = one thousand = 1,000 = i0 Mega = one million = 1,000,000 106 Mega has no accepted abbreviation.

TableA.2 Length

Nanometer (nm) = 0.000,000,001 meter Micrometer (Mm) = 0.000,00 1 meter Millimeter (mm) = 0.00 1 meter Centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meter Decimeter (dm) = 0,1 meter Meter (m) 1 meter Kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters

TableA.3 Area

Square millimeter (mm2) = 0.000001 square meter Square centimeter (cm2) 0.000 1 square meter Are (a) = 100 square meters Hectare (ha) = 10,000 square meters Square kilometer (1cm2) = 1,000,000 square meters

‘I TableA.4 Volume

Milliliter (ml) 0.00 1 liter = 1 cm3 Liter (I) = 1 cubic decimeter = 1000 cm3 Cubic centimeter (cm3) = 0.000001 cubic meter = 1 ml Cubic decimeter (dm3) 0.00 1 cubic meter = 1000 ml

Table A.5 Mass or Weight

Milligram (mg) = 0.00 1 gram Gram (g) = 1 gram Kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams Metric ton = 1,000,000 grams

TableA.6 Metric—U.S. Unit Equivalents

1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers 1 kilometer = 0.62 mile 1 pound = 453.6 grams 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds 1 liter = 1.06 liquid quarts 1 liquid quart = 0.95 liter

VIII. Conversion Answers

A. Answersto DistanceConversionProblems(p. 174)

5.789 dm 0,0578 km 578.9 mm 578 mm 0.5789 m 57.8 cm 005789 m 578 dm 5.789 cm 578 m

B. Answersto VolumeandMassConversionProblems(p. 177).

1,000I 1,000g 1,000mg *

AppendixB TheMicroscope

Introduction A laboratorytool thathas becomealmostsynonymouswithbiologyis the microscope.As an extensionof youreyes.the microscopeis oneof the mostimportantbiologicaltoolsthatyou willusein thiscourse Getto knowit, howit works,andwhatits limitationsare. A lightmicroscopeis reallyonlya sophisticatedarrangementof magnifyinglenses,constructedfor convenientobservationof smallobjectsandusinglightas a sourceof illumination.Thereare several commontypesof microscopes,difleringprimarilyin theirmagnificationranges,typesof lightused, physicalstructures.andapplicabilityto the materialsunderstudy.Whatevertypeof microscopeyouwill be using.propercareandmaintenancewillenableyou to seethe objectsof studymoreclearly.All the lensesof yourmicroscopeshouldbe cleanedbeforeeveryuse.Useonlylenspaperspecifically manufacturedfor thispurpose,to avoidscratchingthe surfaceof the lens.Theeyepiecemayoften becomesmearedwithmascara,dust,oil, or dirt. Theobjectivelensesshouldbe cleanedto removeany residuethat mayhavecoatedthemduringprevioususe.Shoulda lensaccidentallycontactthe object you are observing,immediatelydry and cleanthelenswithlenspaper.II seawaterhas contaminateda lensor the stageof the microscope,cleanand dry it usingdistilledwaterand lenspaper. I. The Compound Microscope A compoundmicroscopeis a delicateandexpensiveinstrumentandmustbe treatedgently. Familiarizeyourselfwiththe partsand operationof yourinstrument,referringwhennecessaryto figure Bi Removeyourassignedcompoundmicroscopefromits cabinetby the arm.Holdingit uprightand supportingthe basewithyourfreehand,takethe instrumentto yourdeskandput it downgently,arm towardyou.(A microscopeshouldalwaysbe carriedin thisfashion,withbothhands.) t Thearmsupportsthe bodyof the microscope,whichin turnsupportsthe magnifyingelements.At the top of the bodytubeis the ocular,or eyepiece,oneof the magnifyingelements.It is usually removableTheothermagnifyingelementsare screwedinto a revolvingnosepleceat thebottomof the bodytube.Thesemagnifyingelementsare calledobjectives.Together,the ocularandthe objectivesconstitutethe magnifyingsystemof yourmicroscope. Belowthe bodytubeand nosepieceis a flat plate,the stage,wherethe objectsto be examined are placed Directlybeneaththe stageopeningyou will noticea systemof lenses,the condenser lens,that servesto concentratelightfromthe mirroror lightsourcebelow.On mostinstruments,one sideof the mirroris concaveand the otheris flat. Whenthe lightsourceis yourdeskilluminator,always usethe concavesideof the mirror. Lightplaysan extremelyimportantrolein the operationof a compoundmicroscope.Lightis t directedup throughthe stageopening,passesthroughthe specimen,and thenintothe bodytube, ultimatelyformingan imageon the retina,the light-sensitiveportionof the eye.Thecriticalimportanceof t lightnecessitatescarefuladjustment,and severalcontrolsare availablefor thispurpose.TheIris diaphragmmaybe foundattachedbelowthe condenser.To seethe diaphragmclearly,removethe t ocular(so that it doesnot fall out) and gentlyturnyourmicroscopeover.Lookup throughthe stage opening,findthe irisdiaphragmlever,a smallhandleat one sideof the diaphragm.Pushit back and’ e I C Fielddiaphragm and pointer

Arm

- 1Objective . .:L

Fineadjustment knob

Coarseadjustment knob

FigureB.1 Thecompoundmicroscope.(Courtesyof AmericanOpticalCompany.) forth,notinghowthe sizeof the iris openingchangesto regulatethe amountof lightpassingthroughit. Thiscontrolis one of the mostimportanton yourinstrument.Openthe diaphragmfullyandreposition yourmicroscope;replacethe ocular. Justas witha magnifyingglass,viewingan objectwiththe microscoperequiresthatthe lensbe a certainspecifieddistancefromthe object.Thatdistanceis a propertyof the lenssystemand is constantfor eachobjective;it is calledthe workingdistance.At the workingdistancefroman object, an objectiveis in focus.Changesand adjustmentsin the focus,whichare necessarywhenan objectis first placedon the microscope,are essentialin orderto obtaina preciseimage.Focusingis accomplishedby meansof coarseandfine adjustmentknobs,usuallylocatedon the arm.Try turningeachof theseknobs,notingcarefullyhoweachaffectsthe positionof the objectives.Thecoarse adjustmentis usedto obtainan approximatefocusandthe fineadjustmentto obtainan exactandclear focus. A. Magnification Themagnificationof mostobjectivesand ocularsis engravedon them.Ontheocular,the markingcan be foundon the smoothcylinderthatfits insidethebodytube Onthe objectives,the magnificationis engravedon the sideof the cylinderThemarking lox meansthatthe lensyieldsan imagetentimes largerin eachdimensionthanthe objectbeingviewed. Rememberthatwitha microscopeof thiskind,you are usingtwo setsof magnifiers.On low power (lOX),for example,the objectiveformsan image(insidethe bodytube)that s ten timeslargerthanthe viewedobject;the lOXocularthenmagnifiesthis primary’ imageanothertentimes.Theimagethat finallyreachesyoureyehas beenenlarged100Xthe sizeof the object Thetotal magnificationfor any combinahonof objectiveand ocularcan be computedsimplyby multiplyingthe magnificationof each lens. Thecommonunitof lengthusedin microscopyis the micrometer(j.Lm). Onemicrometerequals 0.001 millimeter(mm),or 1/25.400inch Thecalibrationson the finead1ustment knobare in micrometer units.By usingthisscale,the thicknessof a microscopicobjectcan be determined

B. OilImmersion Modernmicroscopescommonlyhavethreeor four objectivelenses.Mostmicroscopicobservationsuse objectivelensmagnificationsup to 45X power.However,whenobservingbacteria,objectivelensesup to 100X powermustbe used Dueto the smalllensdiameterof thispower,specialmeansmustbe employedto ensurethat lightcomingup throughthe stageis not scatteredand lost.Directinglightinto the objectivelensis accomplishedby the techniqueof addinglight-transmittingoil to the slideand loweringtheobjectivelensuntilit comesin contactwiththe oil. Thiskeepslightfromscatteringout of the pathwayof the objectivelens.As strongerobjectivelensesare used,the focusingdistancebetween the lensesandthe slidegets smallerand smaller(fig B.2).It soonbecomesobviousthatgreatcare mustbe takenwhenworkingwiththe oil-immersionlensso that the objectivelensis not drivenintothe slide.To avoidslidebreakage,thisprocedureshouldbe followed; 1. Afterfocusingon the objet, rotatethe objectivelensout of theway and add a drop of immersion oil to the coverslip. 2. Then,withoutchangingthe focusingadjustment,rotatethe oil-immersionlensintoplaceandreadjust the lighting(thisusuallymeansopeningthe iris diaphragm). 3. If focusingadjustmentsmustbe made,watchthe objectivelensfromthe sidewhileyou moveit closerto the coverslip. 4. Afterthe lenstouchesthe coverslip,viewthroughthe ocularlensas you turnthe finefocusknobto increasethe spacebetweenthe objectivelensand the coverslipuntilthe bacteriacomeinto focus. U I- I Lowpower Highpower Oilimmersion FigureB.2 Comparisonof workingdistances(focallengths)andmagnificationinobjectivelenses. Asthe magnificationincreases,theworkingdistancebetweenthe lensandtheslideis reduced.With the oilimmersionlens,the slideandthe objectivemaycomeintoactualcontactwitheachother. 4

II. The Dissecting Microscope The dissectingmicroscope(fig B 3) is useful for observing organisms larger than those for which the compound microscope is used The magnificationis not as great, but there is much more distance between the objective lens and the stage allowing for manipulationand dissection of specimens.Most dissecting microscopes are binocular, providing a stereoscopic view, and are equipped with either a zoom lens or multiple objective lenses for variable magnification.Total magnificationis computed in the same manner as for the compound microscope. There is no fine adlustmentknob on these instruments

Eyepiece

Rotatablebody

Zoom control knob n Arm

Objective Focusadjustment knob

Transparentbase 4 Base plate 1 Mirror adjustment Mirror (underbase)

FigureB.3 Thedissectingmicroscope.(CourtesyofAmericanOpticalCompany.)

——II r,II I-, — 180

APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS

A. RELATED ORGANIZATIONS

B. SELECTED LABORATORY MANUALS

C. SELECTEDFIELD GUiDES

D. SEASHORE: A FIELD EXPERIENCE (SCHEMATIC)

E. OCEANS: DIVERSITY OF MARINE LIFE (SCHEMATIC) 181

A. RELATED ORGANIZATIONS.

Action for Preservation and conservation of the North Shore of Long Island, Incorporated 328 Main Street Box 492 Huntington, New York 11743 (516) 271-3029

Adeiphi University Marine Science Program, Dr. Anita Fruedenthal, Director Adeiphi University Garden City, N.Y.

American Littoral Society New York Chapter 28 West 9th Road Broad Channel, New York 11693 (718) 634- 6467

Blue Points Company, Incorporated Foot of Atlantic Avenue Post Office Box 8 West Sayville, New York 11796 (516) 589-0123

Cold Spring Harbor Fish Hatchery and Aquarium Route 25A at Junction of Route 108 Box 535 Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724 (516) 692-6768

Cornell Cooperative Extension of Suffolk County! Marine Program 39 Sound Avenue Riverhead, New York 11901 (516) 727-3910 182

NYS Department of Environmental Conservation Division of Marine Resources (Covering the geographical region from the Tappan Zee Bridge to Montauk) Building #40 - SUNY Stony Brook, New York 11790-2356 (516) 751-7900 - General (516) 751-2719 - Marine Habitat Protection (516) 751-8611 - Finfish & Crustaceans (516) 751-6381 - Shelifisheries Fire Island National Seashore Fire Island Lighthouse/Sunken Forest 120 Laural Street Patchogue, New York 11772 (516) 289-4810 - Headquarters (516) 661-2556 - Lighthouse Gateway National Recreation Area including Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge Crossbay Boulevard Broad Channel, Queens, New York 11693 (718) 474-0613 -Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge (718) 338-3688 - Gateway National Recreation Area

Great South Bay Audubon Society a chapter of the National Audubon Society Box 916 Bayport, New York 11705 (516) 472-2107

Hofstra University Marine Laboratory Professor Gene Kaplan, Director Hofstra University Hempstead, N.Y.

Town of Brookhaven Highway Department Holtsville Ecology Site 249 Buckley Road Holtsville, New York 11742 (516) 758-9664 Hudson River Sloop Clearwater 112 Market Street Poughkeepsie, New York 12601 (914) 454-7673 183

Long Island Divers Association a chapter of Underwater Society of America Post Office Box 7304 Hicksville, New York 11801 (516) 643-9163 Long Island National Wildlife Complex U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Department of the Interior Wertheim NWR, Smith Road Post Office Box 21 Shirley, New York 11967 (516) 286-0485 Marine Environmental Council of Long Island Inc. Box 55 Seaford, N.Y. 11783

State University of New York Marine Sciences Research Center Stony Brook, New York 11794 (516) 632-8700

New York Ocean Science Laboratory Montauk, N.Y. 11954

Long Island Sound Study Taskforce Stamford Marine Center 185 Magee Ave Stamford, CT 06902 New York Sea Grant Institute and Sea Grant Extension Program

NY Sea Grant Institute Sea Grant Extension Sea Grant Extension Dutchess Hall Cornell University Lab 125 Nassau Hall SUNY @ Stony Brook 39 Sound Avenue SUNY@Stony Brook Stony Brook, N.Y. 11794 Riverhead, NY 11901 Stony Brook, NY 11794 (516) 632-6905 (516) 727-3910 (516) 632-8730 NYS Department of Environmental Conservation Region I - (Nassau & Suffolk Counties) Building #40 - SUNY Stony Brook, New York 11790-2356 (516) 751-7900 - General (516) 751-7362 - Oil Spills (516) 751-7304 - Public Affairs 184

New York State Marine Education Association a chapter of the National Marine Educators Association Post Office Box 705 Mineola, New York 11501 (516) 232-0350

New York State Parks - Long Island Region NYS Office of Parks Recreation & Historic Preservation Post Office Box 247 Babylon, New York 11702-0247 (516) 669-1000 x275 Office of Ecology Suffolk County Department of Health Services Bureau of Marine Resources and Environmental Management County Center Riverhead, New York 11901 (516) 548-3060 Okeanos Foundation Hampton Bays, N.Y. 11946 Outdoor/Environmental Education Program Board of Cooperative Educational Services Third Supervisory District 810 Meadow Road P0 Box 604 Smithtown, New York 11787 (516) 360-3652 FAX (516) 360-1486 Southhampton College, Natural Science Division-Marine Center Southhampton College Southhampton, N.Y. 11968

Town of Islip South Shore Nature Center Department Parks, Recreation & Cultural Affairs Bayview Avenue Islip, New York 11730 (516) 224-5436 Quogue Wildlife Refuge NYS Department of Environmental Conservation and the non-profit organization, Southhampton TownshipWildfowl Association, Inc. Old Country Road Post Office Box 492 Quogue, New York 11959 (516) 653-4771 185

The Nature Conservancy South Fork/Shelter Island Chapter Route 114 and Cross Street Post OfficeBox 2694 Sag Harbor, New York 11963 (516) 725-2936

The Oceanic Society Stamford Marine Center Magee Avenue Stamford, CT 05902

University of Delaware Sea Grant Marine Advisory Service Program Dr. Carolyn A. Thoroughgood College of Marine Studies University of Delaware Newark, Delaware 19711 (302) 738-2818 186

B. SELECTEDLABORATORYMANUALS

Chiasson, Robert B. Laboratory Anatomy of the Perch. 4th Ed. Wm. C. Brown Press, 1983.

Chiasson, Robert B. Laboratory Anatomy of the Shark. 4th Ed. Wm. C. Brown Press, 1983.

Matthews, Carol. Marine Biology and Oceanography Experiments and Activities. 4th Ed. Water Press 1990.

NASCO Dissection Guide to Clam

NASCO Dissection Guide to Crayfish

NASCO Dissection Guide to Starfish

Sumich, James L. Laboratory and Field Investigations in Marine Biology. 4th Ed. Wm. C. Brown, 1980.

Whitten, Richard H. Carolina Protozoa & Invertebrates Manual. Carolina Biological Supply Co., 1980. 187

C. SELECTEDFIELDGUIDES

Audubon Society Field and Nature Guides: 1) Atlantic and Gulf Coasts; 2) Fishes, Whales, and Dolphins; 3) North American Seashells; 4) North American Seashore Creatures; and 5) Wetlands (See below.)

Audubon Society and Rehder, Harrold A. 1981. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Seashells. New York: Knopf.

Audubon Society, et al. 1983. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Fishes, Whales, and Dolphins. New York: Knopf.

Daiber, Franklin C. 1982. Animals of the Tidal Marsh. Florence, Kentucky: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Gosner, Kenneth L. 1971. Guide to the Identification of Marine and Estuarine Invertebrates. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

National Geographic: Birds of North America. Washington, D.C., 1986.

Harrison, Peter. Seabirds. Houghton Mifflin Co. N.Y. 1983.

Peterson Field Guides: 1) Atlantic Seashore; 2) Coral Reefs of the Caribbean and Florida; 3) Wetlands; and 4) Birds.

Gosner, Kenneth. 1982. Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Peterson Field Guide Series, Princeton, NJ: Peterson Guides, Inc.

Kaplan, Eugene H. 1984. Field Guide to Coral Reefs of the Caribbean and Florida. Peterson Field Guide Series, Princeton, NJ: Peterson Guides, Inc.

Lapedes, Daniel. Dictionary of the Life Sciences, McGraw-Hill, N.Y. 1976.

Morris, Percy A. 1974. Field Guide to Pacific Coast Shells. Peterson Guide Series, Princeton, NJ: Peterson Guides, Inc.

Robertson, William B. 1969. Everglades--The Park Story. Coral Gables, FL.: University of Miami Press. (No longer in print but may be available in libraries.) 188

ADDITIONALRESOURCES:PERIODICALS

The Aquarium, 87 Route 17, Maywood, NJ 07606

Conservationist, State Campus, Albany, NY 12201

Dive Magazine, P.O. Box 7765, Long Beach, CA 90807

East Coast Diver, A. & G. Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 2109, Grand Central Station, New York, NY 10017

Environment, The Committee for Environmental Information, 438 N. Skinner Boulevard, st. Louis, MO 63130

Long Island Fisherman, P.O. Box 143, Deer Park, NY 11729

Long Island Sound Study Update, Long Island Sound Study Taskforce, 185 Magee Ave., Stamford, CT 06902

Marine Network News, NYS Sea Grant Program, 39 Sound Ave., Riverhead, N.Y. 11901

The National Fisherman, 21 Elm Street, Camden, ME 04843

National Geographic Magazine, National Geographic Society, 17th and M Streets, NW, Washington, DC 20036

National Oceanography Association News, 190 North Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036

Natural History, American Museum of Natural History, 79th Street & Central Park West, New York, NY 10024

Oceanology, American Aviation Publication, Inc. 1156-15th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005

Oceans Magazine, 125 Independence Drive, Menlo Park, CA 94025

Ocean Science News, Nautilus Press, Inc., 1053 National Press Building, Washington, DC 20004

Oceanus, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543 189

Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1515 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20005

Sea Frontiers, International Oceanographic Foundation, 10 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key, Miami, FL 33149

Sea Technology, Compass Iublications, Inc., Suite 1000, 1117 North 19th Street, Arlington, VA 22209

Scientific American, 415 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10017

Skin Diver, Peterson Publication Co., 8490 Sunset Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90069

Underwater Naturalist, American Littoral Society, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, Highlands, NJ 07732

Underwater News, Sportsmen’s Publications, Box 1974, Newport Beach, CA 92663

Underwater Reporter, The Underwater Society of America, 427 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106