AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FLORICULTURE IN DISTRICT

Thesis submitted to Bharathidasan University for the award of the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS

By A. AHILANDESWARI

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Mrs. N. CHITHRA ,M.A, M.Phil., Ph.D.,

P.G. AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS KHADIR MOHIDEENCOLLEGE (Nationally accredited with B by NAAC) – 614 701, ,

SEPTEMBER - 2014

Certificate

P.G. AND RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS KHADIRMOHIDEENCOLLEGE ADIRAMPATTINAM

Dr. Mrs. N. CHITHRA, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor& Research Advisor,

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

OF FLORICULTURE IN ” submitted by

A.AHILANDESWARI (Reg.No. 48091/Ph.D2/Economics/Full Time/April

2012 ) is a bonafide record of research work done by her under my guidance in the Department of Economics, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam and that the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree or any other similar title. The thesis is the outcome of personal research work done by the candidate under my overall supervision.

Date: (N. CHITHRA) Station:

Declaration

A. AHILANDESWARI

Reg.No. 48091/Ph.D2/Economics/Full Time/April 2012 Research Scholar (Full Time), PG and Research Department of Economics, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis “AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF

FLORICULTURE IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT” submitted by me for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics to the Bharathidasan University under the guidance and supervision of Dr.N.CHITHRA, Associate Professor of Economics and Research Advisor, PG and Research Department of

Economics, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam is the Record of work done by me. This work has not formed the basis for the award of any degree,

Diploma, Associateship, Fellowship of any university.

Place :

Date :

(A. AHILANDESWARI)

Acknowledgement ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. N. CHITHRA , M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Associate Professor of Economics and Research Advisor, PG and Research Department of Economics, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam, for her expert guidance and invaluable help throughout the study. Mere words would not suffice to explain her persistent encouragement, advice and help to complete this research work. It is a great pleasure and excellent experience to work under her guidance.

My Sincere thanks are due to Dr.A. JALAL, M.Com., M.Phil.,

Ph.D., Principal, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam, for offering facilities to do the valuable course and for doing the research work.

I am thankful to Dr. P.Ganapathy, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., HOD of Economics Associate Professor of Economics and Research Advisor, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam for his encouragement.

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. A.Raja Mohamed, M.A., M.Phil.,Ph.D., Asso. Professor and Retd. HOD of Economics especially to Dr.A. Mohamed Abdul Khader, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., and Retd. HOD of Economics and Research Advisor, Khadir Mohideen College, Adirampattinam and Mr.S.Abdhahir M.A., M.Phil., Asst.Professor of Economics, PG and Research Department of Economics and to all the Faculty Members of PG and Research Department of Economics for their timely help and moral support.

I express my heartfelt thanks to my beloved husband Mr.G.Rajeshkannan, my son R.Varshan & R.Dhuruvan for their valuable guidance to do this project successfully. My sincere thanks are due to my father-in-law S. Ganapathy , Mother- in-law G.Prema, Sister-in-law G.Rajarajeshwari , My Brother-in-law S.S.Poongundran , Political P.A and Publisher of Jaya Publication, My father T.Ananthan (Late) , Mother A. Malathy for their timely help and moral support.

My Sincere thanks are due to Dr.V.Dhivaharan , Managing Trustee, Sengamala Thayaar Educational Trust Womens College, .

I am greatly indebted to Mr. S. Srinivasan, M.Sc.,M.Ed., M.Phil., MBA., Headmaster (SG), GHSS, Siramelkudi and his daughter Selvi.S.SUBARNAA, B.E., for their valuable help and timely suggestions.

The last but not least this research work would not have been completed but because of Dr.R.GOPALASUNDAR, M.A., B.Ed., M.Phil., PGDCA., PDNT., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economics, Adaikkalamatha College , for his valuable untiring compiling work.

I convey my sincere thanks to all members of Hamidia Browsing Centre at especially to Mr. M. Mohamed Ismail and R. Reka who typed the script neatly and executed the work promptly.

A. AHILANDESWARI

Contents

CONTENTS

Chapter Page Title No. No.

I. Introduction 1

II. Concepts and Review of Related Literature 14

III. Profile of the Study area, Materials and Methods 55

IV. Floriculture – An Overview 107

V. Analysis and Discussion 152

VI. Findings, Policy implications and suggestions 262

Appendices

i) Appendix – I - Bibliography

ii) Appendix – II – Interview schedule

iii) Papers published

List of Tables

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page Title No. No.

3.1 Population in Thanjavur District 2001 Census 62

3.2 Literacy Rate in Thanjavur District 63

3.3 Occupational Classification of Population 2000-01 63

3.4 Soil Series and its extent in Thanjavur District 65

3.5 Characteristics of soil series in Thanjavur District 66

3.6 Major soil series and crops grown 68

3.7 Land capability of Thanjavur District 69

3.8 Soil pH in Thanjavur District 70

3.9 Productivity ratings of the soils in Thanjavur District 71

3.10 Season-wise normal rainfall in Thanjavur District 73

3.11 Land use pattern in Thanjavur District 74

Number and Area of operational Holdings in Thanjavur 3.12 75 District 2000 – 01

3.13 Source – Wise area Irrigated 80

Classification of blocks based on level of Exploitation of 3.14 81 ground water potential

3.15 Area of the crops in the District 84

Area, Production and productivity of mango and banana in 3.16 85 Thanjavur District in 2009 – 10

3.17 Livestock population census 86

Livestock population growth rates (2010-10) Thanjavur 3.18 87 District

3.19 Activity-wise employment status of Fisher folk 91 3.20 Marine fish production in Thanjavur District 92

3.21 Details on banking sector in Thanjavur District 95

3.22 Gross and net domestic product of Thanjavur District 98

5.1 Religion wise Distribution of the Respondents 153

5.2 Community wise Distribution of the Respondents 155

5.3 Sex wise Distribution of the Respondents 157

5.4 Age wise Distribution of the Respondents 159

5.5 Educational Level wise Distribution of the Respondents 161

5.6 Type of House of Respondents 164

5.7 Household Income of Respondents 167

5.8 Income of the Respondents Educational wise 170

5.9 Ploughing Cost Per Acre 173

5.10 Digging Cost Per Acre 177

5.11 Weeding Cost Per Acre 178

5.12 Fertilizer Cost Per Acre 181

5.13 Pesticide Cost Per Acre 184

5.14 Cost of Plucking Per Acre 187

5.15 Type of Market 190

5.16 Method of Sale 193

5.17 The Purchase of Seedlings 194

5.18 Type of Transport is Used 195

5.19 Annual Transport Cost to Market Per Farmer 197

5.20 Details of Annual Yield 199

5.21 Details of Selling Price of 201 5.22 Annual Income Per Acre 202

5.23 Net Income Per Acre 203

5.24 Expenditure Per Acre 204

5.25 Type of Land 205

5.26 Type of Soil 207

5.27 New Variety 208

5.28 cultivated area (acre) by the Respondents 209

5.29 Distance Between 210

5.30 Type of Irrigation is Used 211 Determinants of Income from Flower 5.31 212 Cultivation Per Acre

Determinants of Income from Flower Cultivation Per 5.32 214 Acre

5.33 Employment per acre 216

5.34 Income per acre 217

5.35 Employment per acre in Ettari Area 218

5.36 Employments Per Acre in Koppu Area 219

5.37 Employments Per Acre in Posampatti Area 220

5.38 Employments Per Acre in Puliyur Area 221

5.39 Employment per acre in Pothavur Area 222

5.40 Income Per Acre in Ettari Area 223

5.41 Income Per Acre in Koppu Area 224

5.42 Income Per Acre in Posampatti Area 225

5.43 Income Per Acre in Puliyur Area 226 5.44 Income Pers Acre in Pothavur Area 227

5.45 Comparison on House Value 228

5.46 Comparison of Female Employed in Weeding Activities 229

5.47 Comparison of Male Employed in Weeding Activities 230

5.48 Comparison of Income From Land 231

5.49 Comparison of the Cost of Cultivation 232

5.50 Comparison of Yield 233

Overall Rank Order of the Constraints Experience by Rose 5.51 235 Flower Cultivators in the Descending Order of Importance

Resource Constraints Experienced by Rose Flower 5.52 236 Cultivators

Constraints in Marketing Experienced by Rose Flower 5.53 237 Cultivators

Constraints in Plucking Experienced by Rose Flower 5.54 238 Cultivators

Constraints in transport experienced by Rose Flower 5.55 239 Cultivators

Constraints in Fertilizer and Pesticide Experienced by Rose 5.56 240 Flower Cultivators

Overall Rank Order of the Constraints Experienced by Rose 5.57 241 Flower Cultivators in the Descending Order of Importance

Constraints in Cultivation period experienced by Rose 5.58 242 Flower Cultivation

Overall Rank Order of the Constraints Experienced by 5.59 Jasmine Flower Cultivators in the Descending Order of 244 Importance

Resource Constraints Experienced by Jasmine Flower 5.60 246 Cultivators

Constraints in Marketing Experienced by Jasmine Flower 5.61 247 Cultivators

Constraints in Plucking Experienced by Jasmine Flower 5.62 248 Cultivators

Constraints in Transport Experienced by Jasmine Flower 5.63 249 Cultivators

Constraints in Fertilizer and Pesticide Experienced by 5.64 250 Jasmine Flower Cultivators

Constraints in Cultivation Period Experienced by Jasmine 5.65 251 Flower Cultivators

Constraints cultivation period experienced by Jasmine 5.66 252 Flower Cultivators

Overall Rank Order of the Constraints Experienced by 5.67 Overall Flower Cultivators in Descending Order of 254 Importance

Constraints in Plucking Experienced by Overall Flower 5.68 256 Cultivators

Constraints in Transport Experienced by Overall Flower 5.69 257 Cultivators

Constraints in Fertilizer and Pesticide Experienced by 5.70 258 Overall Flower Cultivators

Constraints in Sales Period Experienced by Overall Flower 5.71 259 Cultivators

Constraints in Cultivation Period Experienced by Overall 5.72 260 Flower Cultivators

List of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page Title No. No.

1. The position of Thanjavur District in National Map 59

2. Map showing the Taluks in Thanjavur District 60

3. Map showing the blocks in the District 61

4. Map showing the Panchayat Villages of Pattukkottai Block 101

List of Diagrams LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Diagram Page Title No. No.

5.1 Religion wise Distribution of the Respondents 154

5.2 Community wise Distribution of the Respondents 156

5.3 Sex wise Distribution of the Respondents 158

5.4 Age wise Distribution of the Respondents 160

5.5 Educational Level wise Distribution of the Respondents 163

5.6 Type of House of Respondents 166

5.7 Household Income of Respondents 169

5.8 Income of the Respondents Educational wise 172

5.9 Ploughing Cost Per Acre 175

5.10 Digging Cost Per Acre 176

5.11 Weeding Cost Per Acre 180

5.12 Fertilizer Cost Per Acre 183

5.13 Pesticide Cost Per Acre 186

5.14 Cost of Plucking Per Acre 189

5.15 Type of Market 192 Chapter - I

Introduction 1

CHAPTER- I INTRODUCTION

Floriculture, till recently considered to be a simple garden activity to get flowers for religious offerings and home decoration, has emerged as an important agri-business enterprise. International Association of Horticulture

Producers, publishes regularly their international statistics on worldwide production and trade. India is among the important agriculture based economy in the developing world and has in the recent years recognized the importance of floriculture as a segment of agri-business.

Agriculture development in our country is largely public sector guided and supported. Even though floriculture emerged as a viable economic option in the diversification of agriculture in the last decades or so, there is yet no strategy for a planned development of the sector. The government of India supported by the horticultural active states has initiated programme for floriculture development. 1

Flowers like Jasmine, Rose, Kanakambaram, and Lily come under floriculture. The impact of floriculture on the generation of income and employment is very significant. Though there are higher initial costs in floriculture, higher returns will be realized in the later stage. 2

1 Dadlani. N.K. (2002), “Promoting Floriculture Business In India”, Indian Horticulture, vol. 46, No.4, January – March, P.39. 2 Gangaiah, C. (2001) “Floriculture Earns higher Farm Returns “Southern Economist, vol. 40, No.2, May-15’, P.16. 2

Flowers are one of the most beautiful gifts of nature to man. Their beauty and fragrance bring joy and happiness to our lives. Flowers in great variety are always the main attraction. Their colour combination, fragrance, and the skill with which they have been grown and displayed count a lot. There has been a complete change in the garden style in modern landscaping designs as it turns on labour – saving ideas and functional suitability in view of the high cost involved. 3

Floriculture has generated large employment in India in diverse agriculture activities, to stabilize farm income and employment in rural areas.

But this horticultural sector inspite of this immense value, has not received due support. Hence, an economic analysis of floriculture has become a researchable problem. This study focuses the various dimensions of floriculture and its potentials to augment farm income and employment. Towards these objectives this study has been under taken.

1.1. MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY

Floriculture sector plays a key role in Indian economy. Though its contribution to the agriculture sector is the highest, the public investment in this sector inadequate to ensure sufficient growth in future. No doubt, the state and the central governments have initiated various development programmes and policies which are now being debated. For example, the training facilities,

3 Manibhushan Rao, K. “Flowers As Nature’s Gift”, Text Book of Horticulture. Agro bios (INDIA) Agro House, Behind Nasrani Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur- 342002. p.49. 3

flower exhibition, display of flower varieties to the cultivator have been encouraged and successful across different categories of farms and regions.

The government institutions find difficulties in delivering them on time due to financial as well as bureaucratic constaints. Hence reorientation of the government policy in this regard is an urgent need. This situation prevailing in the Indian economy has motivated the researcher to pursue a research work on the factor contributing to the floriculture income of flower cultivators and problems encountered by them in .

Development of floriculture offers many socio-economic benefits in employment generation, higher incomes and foreign exchange earning.

Floriculture provides excellent employment opportunities for agricultural labour. The scope for earning foreign exchange is ample. In floriculture, family labour is mostly engaged. But during plucking season additional hands are employed in large numbers. Both adults and children are employed for plucking though children are better performers in this field.

1.2.NEED FOR THE STUDY

The liberalization of the country’s economy has given a boost to agri- business. Particularly floriculture. The prospect of better returns on value added floriculture items has attracted private investors. Floriculture – defined as all activities related to production and use of flowers, ornamental plants, seeds and 4

bulbs is ecofriendly and can be an important source for earning foreign exchange.

An important requirement of floriculture is the production of good quality plants which can give world class quality flowers. It is now felt that in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to have nurseries in rural areas and that would help in increasing employment in rural areas. In fact, as we proceed towards globalization, our country has attracted big investors in various sectors.

Also, some consultancy services have been set up to provide guidance and help to prospective floriculturists and the organization involved.

1.3. THEORETICAL FRAMWORK FOR THE STUDY

Flowers have become an integral part of human life. There is an increasing demand for in domestic and international trade. At present, floriculture has become a potential money-spinner of the third world countries. Bestowed with congenial environment, good soil, water, comparatively cheaper manpower and ideal geographical location, India is in an enviable position as producer and exporter of several types of cut flowers that are in great demand in developed countries. 4

From centuries flowers are symbol of beauty and love essentially grown for aesthetic, social function. Besides, there is the extraction of essential oil and manufacturing of perfumes. India is the only country gifted with suitable

4 Murugesan. R, Jeeva Jothi, L and Thiruvelavan. P (2002)m “Avenues For Floriculture In Shevory Hills”, Kisan World, Vol. 29, No.6, June, P.57. 5

climate to grow spectrum flowers. Indian floriculture industry is witnessing an unprecedented growth and increasing acceptability today. The consumption of ornamental and flowering plants is generally by the affluent class of society.

Higher standards of living and growing desire to live in an environment friendly atmosphere have led to an increasing demand for flowers in India.

Availability of natural resources like favourable and diverse climatic conditions permit production and availability of a large variety of flower crops round the year. Cheap labour leads to reduction in production costs, increasing access of the consumer to good quality flowers at affordable prices, besides increasing our competitiveness in the export markets. Being a new concept in the agri-business, it took some time for scientific commercial flower production to take roots, but with the appreciation of its potential as an economically viable diversification option, its growth is slowly stabilizing. The government also has, during the last few years, recognized floriculture as an important segment for developmental initiatives. Model Floriculture Centres being set up in 11 major production zones, to serve as focal units for development in the region, have a mandate of making available quality planting material, new/improved production technologies and also to provide training in production and post harvest management. There are also special government programmes for area expansion in floriculture with state assistance. The

National Horticulture Board, a major developmental agency for horticulture, also makes available finance as soft loan for setting up integrated projects for 6

production and marketing. As mentioned earlier, the government is investing in improving the infrastructure for marketing in the domestic sector.

Production of cut flowers for exports is also a thrust area for support.

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority

(APEDA), the nodal organization for promotion of agri-exports including flowers, has introduced several schemes for promoting floriculture exports from the country. These relate to development of infrastructure, packaging, market development, air freight subsidy etc. The 100 per cent Export Oriented

Units are also given benefits like duty free imports of capital good. All these efforts indicate the government’s commitment for improving the sector and creating a positive environment for entrepreneurship development in the field.

Rose is the principal cut flower grown all over the country, even though in terms of total area, it may not be so. Larger percentage of the area in many states in used for growing scented rose, usually local varieties akin to the Gruss en Tepelitz, the old favourite to be sold as loose flowers. These are used for offerings at places of worship, for the extraction of essential oils and also in garlands. For cut flower use, the old rose varieties like Queen Elizabeth, Super

Star, Montezuma, Papa Meilland, Christian Dior, Eiffel Tower, Kiss of Fire,

Golden Giant, Garde Henkel, First Prize etc. are still popular. In recent times, with production for export gaining ground in the country, the latest varieties like First Red, Grand Gala, Konfitti, Ravel, Tineke, Sacha, Prophyta, Pareo,

Noblesse. Virsilia, Vivaldi etc. are also being grown commercially. 7

Gladiolus is the next most important cut flower crop in the country.

Earlier it was considered a crop for temperate regions and growing it was restricted to the hilly areas, particularly in the north eastern region, which still continues to supply the planting material to most parts of the country.

However, with improved agronomic techniques and better management, the northern plains of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, as well as

Maharashtra and have emerged as the major areas for production of gladiolus.

Tuberose, a very popular cut flower crop in India is grown mainly in the eastern part of the country i.e. West Bengal, and also in northern plains and parts of south. Both single and double flower varieties are equally popular.

Tuberose flowers are also sold loose in some areas for preparing garlands and wreaths. The other main cut flower item is orchid. Its production is restricted mainly to the north-earth hill regions, besides parts of the southern states of

Kerala and Karnataka. The main psecies grown are Dendrobiums, Vanda,

Paphiopedilums, Oncidiums, Phalaenopsis and Cymbidiums.

Among the traditional crops grown for loose flowers, the largest area is under marigold, grown all over the country. In most parts of the country only local varieites are grown for generations. African marigolds occupy more area as compared to the small flowered French types. Jasmine flowers in view of its scent are also very popular as loos e flowers and for use in garlands and Veni

(ornament for decoration of hair by women). The major areas under this crop 8

are in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka in South and West Bengal in East. The chrysanthemum, particularly the white varieties are much in demand as loose flowers during the autumn period of October – December when other flowers like jasmine, tuberose are not available for use in garlands etc. Among other traditional flowers grown in large areas are crossandra in southern states of

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh and aster in Maharashtra. 5

India has vast potential for production and export of floricultural products. A combination of factors including infrastructure, environment, ecology and Government policy would ultimately decide the competitiveness of India’s floriculture industry. Liberalization of industrial and trade policies has opened up several avenues for growing floricultural products for exports.

Combined with this, the availability of credit and incentives for taking up floriculture business would help India to retain her competitiveness to emerge as an important supplier to global markets.

Cold Storage Facilities at International Airports. Walk-in-type cold storage facilities for export consignments have been created at the international airports. The facilities are available at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Bangalore,

Madras and Trivandrum. APEDA is setting up bigger cold storages at Delhi and Bombay international airports with separate handling facilities for perishable products, and export cargo. Export oriented units in some of the agricultural related activities including floriculture have been granted

5 Narendra K. Dadlani, “Cut Flower Production In India”, Division of Floriculture, Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi, India. 9

exemption from the requirement of custom bonding with persmission for duty free import of specified goods for being used in connection with production, manufacture or packing.

1.4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In modern times, the study of floriculture is considered to be very important and effective in the field of agriculture sector because today cultivation of flowers has become big business in the world. The cultivation of cut flowers becomes a commercially viable and a profitable venture. Many agriculture universities and agriculture research institutes give much importance to floriculture. During the Eighty Five year plan period the ministry of commerce identified floriculture as an extreme focus segment. Various measures are being taken up at the government level to support this sector.

Various research to the economics of floriculture and benefits in different culture. The study also deals with uses, efforts and cost structure and how it generates employment, income to the individual and also it deals with the cultivation pattern of flowers.

1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Flowers occupy a significant place in the socio culture of our country.

India is able to produce flowers of the best quality. New technology has also 10

benefied flower growers in areas like plucking, preservation and transportation in fresh condition until they reach the consumers. 6

Consumption of flowers in southern states is much higher than in northern ones. During the last few years there has been a drastic change in flower trade of modern flowers in Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore, ,

Hyderabad, Delhi, Chandigarh, Lucknow and Kolkata. Now every corner of a city has a flower shop. This trend will continue to increase because of its demand in the market and improvement in purchasing power. Moreover, diversified agro climatic conditions give and opportunity to grow rose, chrysanthemum, carnation, gerbera, lily, orchid, and some annual flowers. 7

Floriculture is an important agricultural bridge between economically usable products for the consumer. Invitro propagation (commercialized by floriculture research) provides better quality and more economical products for all industries. The central government and the state governments grant subsidies and give information to stimulate the building of greenhouses for the cultivation of , carnations, chrysanthemums and other cut flowers. This development takes place mainly in the countryside surrounding the metropolises, Bangalore, Mumbai (Bombay) and Delhi. During the last few years the acreage of flower greenhouses has tripled or even quadrupled near these cities. India hopes to get its share of the growing demand for cut flowers in the world. Flower trade is said to create plenty of employment opportunity.

6 Satya Sundaram. I. (2003), “Floriculture : Fluctuating Fortunes, Facts For You, vol.23, 7 Sindu. S.S. (2003), “Popularizing Flower Cultivation For Export”. Indian Horticulture, vol.48, No.1, April-June, P.41. 11

Moreover, the export of cut flowers would earn a great deal of foreign currency. This is very important for India.

Floriculture products have ample export opportunities in both the developed and developing countries. India grows a wide range of subtropical and tropical flowers. Among the floriculture products, non-flowering foliage plants, fresh decorative cut foliage and fresh cut flowers have good value in the domestic market as well as in the export market. The government of India and most of the state governments have, in recent times, launched several programmes supporting this industry. Nowadays most of the farmers have started cultivating flower crops because they are earning high profit within a short period. 8

1.6. OBJECTIVES

1. To identify the economic conditions of the flower cultivators in study

area.

2. To study the cost structure of flower cultivation in study area.

3. To identify the flower market channels in study area.

4. To analysis the profitability of floriculture in study area. And

5. To examine the various problems of floriculturists and suggest suitable

measures to mitigate them.

8 Kumar. D and George Clement. R. (2004), “Promoting Floriculture Business”. Kisan World, vol.31, No.2, February, P.59. 12

1.7. HYPOTHESES

1. Floriculture has contributed significantly in enhancing the employment

and income of all types of farmers.

2. Income from Floriculture is significantly related to seasons and various

climatic conditions and as a consequence wild fluctuation in income and

employment is found among the horticulturists.

1.8. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

1. The Present study includes only five villages of Pattukkottai and

Orathanadu in Thanjavur District. Further, data have been collected

from 250 respondents.

2. Therefore the generalization of findings should be made with care

because agro-climatic conditions are different in different in different

regions of the country.

3. However, the findings of the study may apply to those areas with the

same agro- climatic conditions. 13

1.9. CHAPTER SCHEME

Chapter I introductory aspects such as motivation of the study, need for

the study, statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses,

theoretical frame work for the study, methods and materials,

profile of the study area, limitations and plan of the study

Chapter II deals with Concepts and Review of Related literature.

Chapter III deals with Profile of the Study Area, Materials and Methods.

Chapter IV brings out the floriculture – An overview.

Chapter V records the analysis of discussion.

Chapter VI concludes with findings, policy implications and suggestions.

Chapter - II

Concepts and Review of Related Literature 14

CHAPTER – II CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter records the findings of the research studies conducted previously on the floriculture in various parts of India and other countries.

2.1. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON THE ECONOMIC CONDITION

OF FLOWER CULTIVATORS

Trivedi P.P (1990) 9 says that in India, the national market for floriculture is expanding fast supporting millions of people mostly belonging to the weaker sections of the society, who are engaged in the cultivation, transport and marketing of flowers. Yet floriculture has been treated as an elitists activity and does and find a place in the socio-economic polices and programmes of poverty alleviation and income generation.

Manmohan Attavar (1993) 10 points out a significant increase in the per

Capita consumptionof floricultural products. It as observed in both developed and developing countries in the recent past. The USA, where the per capita consumption of cut flowers has gone up by 36 per cent between 1985 and

1990. Still it continues to consume more flowers than the rest of the world.

9 Trivedi P.P. (1990), “Traditional Indian Flowers Need A Trade Back-Up” Indian Horticulture, Vol. 34, No.4, January – March, P.31. 10 Manmohan Attavar (1993). “Producted Cultivation of Ornamental Crops” Indian Horticulture, Vol.38, No.1, April-June, P.19. 15

Japan is the second largest flower consumption centre in the world. The West

European countries together consume about half the total number of flowers produced worldwide. With increase in the availability of flowers and purchasing power, East could develop into a major consumption centre in the years to come.

Brijendra Singh (1997) 11 points out that floriculture is a fast emerging industry in India, as it has increased 12.5 times in area and 33 times in trade from 1962-1991. The increase in both area and trade is because of socio- economic factors such as changes in social values of people, environment, increase in population and living in the flats in cities, standard of living, development of hotels and shopping centers and making beautiful flower items presented on different auspicious occasions.

Floriculture crops are very important for exports. “India can become a major exporter in floriculture and horticulture but not in other commodities”, said Dr.Manmohan Singh, former finance minister. Now floriculture has become one of the extreme focus segements for development of export by the government of India. The growth of floriculture industry from 1962 to 1990 was very slow but thereafter there has been a significant rise in floriculture export from Rs.14.55 crores in 1991-92 to Rs.30.60 crores in 1994-95, and

Rs.57.80 crores 1995-96. Developing countries have only 6 per cent share in

11 Brijendra Singh (1997) “Floriculture : An Emerging Industry In India”, Indian Horticulture, Vol.42, No.2, July – Sep, P.47. 16

the world market. This helps in increasing the export from India, which is otherwise negligible.

Satya Sundaram I. (1999) 12 view that the liberalization of the country’s economy has given a boost to agri-business particularly floriculture. The prospect of better returns on value – added floriculture items has attracted private investors. Floriculture – defined as all activities related to production and use of flowers, ornamental plant seeds and bulbs, is eco-friendly and can be an important source for earning foreign exchange.

Selvaraj A (2001) 13 views that flowers have been grown in India since pre-historic times and form an integral part of our heritage and culture. Among the various crops cultivated and marketed by the farmers, flowers are important and commercially it has a significant role. India, endowed with various agro climatic conditions, provides natural advantage to grow various types of flowers. Flowers are used by people of all walks of life starting from birth to death and have become an integral part of human life in our society. Flowers are grown extensively in India. According to APEDA, (Agriculture Processed

Food Products Export Development Authority) the area under flower crops is about 37,000 ha. Of this 27,000 ha are under traditional flowers (Jasmine,

Tuberose, Crossandra, Chrysanthemum etc.) and it is expected to go to 50,000 ha by 2000 AD. In Tamilnadu, flowers are grown extensively occupying an area about 12,000 ha.

12 Satya Sundaram I. (1999) “Floriculture Coming To Bloom”. Facts For You, Vol.19. No.8, May, P.26. 13 Selvaraj A. (2001) “Role of Socio- Economic Characters of Growers In Flower Cultivation” Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. xxxi, No.3-4, March – April, P.28. 17

Dadalani N.K. (2002) 14 points out that India is among the important agriculture – based economics in the developing world and has in the recent years recognized the importance of floriculture as a segment of agri-business.

With more than 80,000 hectare, India is the leading country for floriculture in terms of area. Many feel that figures are high. Considering that flower growing is practiced on very small holdings in most parts of the country.

The Editor (2002) 15 says that flower do play a highly significant role in the socio-cultural ethos of our country. In the last decade or so, the fast development of technology has helped India to grow the best quality of flowers. More over, new technology has benefited flower growers in areas like plucking, preservation, and transportation in fresh condition until they reach the consumer not only within India but also the foreign countries. Naturally, therefore, growth and marketing of flowers has taken the status of an industry.

An important requirement of floriculture is the production of good quality of plants which can give world class quality flowers. It is now felt that in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to have nurseries in rural areas and that would help in increasing employment in rural areas. In fact, as we proceed towards globalization, our economy has attracted big investors in various sectors. Also, some consultancy services have been set up to provide guidance and help to prospective floriculturists and the organizations involved. They also prepare market survey reports, project reports and provide training to farmers.

14 Dadalani N.K. (2002) ‘Promoting Floriculture Business In India’ Indian Horticulture. Vol. 46, No.4, Jan- Mar, P.39. 15 The Editor (2002), “Floricultural Needs A Big Boos” Southern Economist, Vol.41, No.13, November, P.1. 18

Christy Adams (2002) 16 points out that floriculture is a major division in the horticulture field. Floriculture is the cultivation and management of flowering and ornamental plants. Floriculture is a large field with many connections to business. Flowers are an important part of our lives whether we realize it or not. Many people use flowers as a token of gratitude and love for people or their actions. The purchase of floriculture flowers has increased greatly in the last couple of years due to the rise in popularity for giving them as a gift. This business gets moving more around holidays and certain days such as Mother’s Day. Flowers are very valuable, especially in the United

State, and show appreciation when given on special events or just out of the blue. Floriculture flowers and plants are usually grown in-ground and then transplanted to containers and then sold. These plants and flowers can be grown in all different types of soils. Usually flowers grow best if they are grown in some kind of organic matter. Most gardeners use irrigation as the major watering source for floriculture plants and flowers. These plants are grown in and out of season mainly for the popular demand on them.

Floriculture plants not only help the environment but also bring love and happiness to people everyday.

Staff Report (2004) 17 views that West Bengal is set to gain more flower power. The state will set up a flower export zone to grab a piece of the $50bn

16 Christy Adams. (2002) “The Science And Practice of Growing, Harvesting, Storing, Designing and Marketing Flowering Plants.”, www. all the Web.com. 17 Staff Report (2004) “Flower Power : Bengal Plans Export Zone for Floriculture” The Economic Times, July 14, 2004. 19

global floriculture market. The state’s move is in line with Prime Minister

Manmohan Singh and finance minister P.Chidamabaram’s promise of a “new deal” for rural India. Mr., while presenting the Union Budget 04-

05, had branded such special economic zones as “true engines of growth”, which can boost exports and employment. Mr.Chidambaram also encouraged farmers to diversify into horticulture and floriculture. With the objective of doubling horticulture and floriculture production from 150m tonnes to 300m tonnes by ’11-12, the finance minister not only proposed to launch a National

Horticulture Mission but invited the state governments to replicate the Anand

Model and form cooperative societies for promotion of horticulture and floriculture.

Encouraged by the government’s moves, the state has identified two ideal locations for setting up this special economic zone for flower – one in

Nadia and another in Midnapore. The state already exports 14,000 flowers every week. The export basket has traditional flowers like marigold, jasmine, chrysanthemum, aster, crossandra, tube-rose and contemporary flowers like rose, gladiolus, carnation and orchids. Once the export zone comes up, this volume can move up substantially, particularly with better air –links and lesser air freight The state has also drawn up plans to set up cold storage, preferably at the airport, for preserving cut and loose flower, and to roll out refrigerator vans for carrying the flowers. 20

Balasubramaniyan (2004) 18 views that the new agriculture policy seeks to promote growth of private sector participation in agri-flori business through contract farming and land leasing process to trigger technology transfer, capital inflow, availability of quality seeds and assured export market for flowers. The central government is set to tap and unearth the potential resources judiciously to provide the people with a feel good factor in terms of more employment generation, low inflation rate, higher economic growth and fabulous export growth with significant foreign exchange reserves. The new paradigm of feel good factor has already taken place in most parts of India.

De Groot N.S.P. 19 views that all over the world, the floricultural sector can nowadays be characterized as a sector experiencing rapid changes. Due to globalization and its effect on income development in the different region of the world, we see a growing per capita consumption in most countries. At the same time, competiton is increasing worldwide. Besides the traditional centres of Production (USA, Japan, Italy, The Netherlands, Columbia), new production centres are developing. In Latin America and Africa, production is increasing very quickly. Also in Aisa, countries like India, China, Vietnam, etc., seem to be moving in the direction of more intensive horticulture. In the traditional centres, the total area under production will remain stable or increase slightly.

Productivity will go up in these centres. The supply of floricultural products worldwide will grow.

18 Balasubramanian (2004) “Export of Flowers” Kisan world, vol.31, No.7, July, p.52. 19 De Groot N.S.P. “Floriculture Worldwide” Agricultural Economics Research Lot Agricultural Economics Research Insititute (LEI-DLO) P.O.Box 29703, NL-2502 LS The Hague, The Netherlands. 21

Samuel H.Henao 20 says that since the early 1990s, in many countries and across several continents, floriculture as an economic activity has been expanding rapidly. Its growing importance in export markets has resulted in an integrated development of several aspects of this field of activity, including production, technology, scientific research, transportation and conservation.

Geert Ritsema 21 points out that these are the words the Indian authorities use to sing the praises of the flower industry. The central government and the state governments grant subsidies and give information to stimulate the building of greenhouses for the cultivation of roses, carnations, chrysanthemums and other cut flowers. This development takes place mainly in the countryside surrounding the metropolises Bangalore, Mumbai (Bombay) and Delhi. During the last years the acreage of flower greenhouses has tripled or even quadrupled near these cities. Hopes are running high. A growth percentage of 30 per cent is being mentioned. India hopes to get its share of the growing demand for cut flowers in the world. This trade is considereda goldmine and a panancea for India’s economic and social problems. The flower trade is said to create plenty of employment opportunity. Moreover, the export of cut flowers would earn a great deal of foreign currency. This is very important to India. It has a debt of fifty thousand million US dollars and is listed third on the world ranking of debts countries – after Mexico and Brazil.

20 Samuel H_Henao. “Floriculture.”. www.askjeeves.com 21 Geert Ritsema. “Export Flowers From India”. www.google.com 22

Balaji S Kulakarni 22 points out that it is an occupation that involves low cost, easy management and not require any specific technical skills.

Jasmine, roses and other decorative flowers can be growth in the region because of the conductive red-soil, ample water supply and the perfect climate, he said. Farmers must come forward to grow these highly profitable flowers instead of adhering to the traditional crops that are usually grown in the region, he added.

He assured that the horticulture department will provide all the necessary help to the farmers in this direction. Chief of Agricultural Science

Centre Dr Ravi Deshmukh says that different types of flowers are already being grown in the district but this is possible only with the collective effort of the farmers, he adds. The neighbouring Hyderabad is seen as a potential market for the sale of flowers with low transportation and other overhead costs.

He also assures all farmers of timely and necessary aid from the horticulture department in carrying out the occupation successfully.

Vishnu Swarup (1997) 23 point out that the new economic policy of the

Indian government has encouraged foreign investments in floriculture.

Recently, trade devegations from Israel, Holland and Germany came to India to negotiate joint ventures in floriculture and other horticulture projects.

22 Balaji S Kulkarni. “Floriculture Is A Great option for Progressive Farmers”. www.alltheweb.com. 23 Vishnu Swarup (1997). “Floriculture Trade – Global Scene And Indian Prospects”. Ornamental Horticulture , Published By Rajiv Beri For Macmillan India Limited, 2/10 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, P.426. 23

Singh H.P. (2005) 24 points out that global consumption of cut flowers is valued at 55 billion US dollar, of which 9.0 billion US dollar worth cut flowers are imported, and market continues to grow at 6.0-9.0 per cent annually. But, there is a high competition as floriculture economy has shifted to a consumer – driven enterprise, rather producer – driven economy.

The Editor (2005) 25 says that flowers from West Bengal are in great demand in markets abroad. Infact, floriculture, is fast emerging to be a thrust area in the over all agro-economic development of the state, with more than

7000 hectares of land being used for the purpose.

Toto Sutater and Kusumah Effendie 26 say that cut flower production has sprouted from cultural and hobby based activities into a lively and prospective business. Current government efforts to monitor the domestic and global demand and production have provided sufficient evidence that the cut flower industry could contribute substantially to the GDP of Indonesia. A productive cut flower industry could provide additional economic strength to the process of industrialization in the 21 st century.

24 Singh H.P. (2005) “Floriculture Industry Development In ”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.50, No.3, October- December, P.27. 25 The Editor (2005) “Floriculture In Big Boom of State Agro-Economic Development” Indian Express Newspapers (Mumbai) Ltd. 26 Toto Sutater and Kusumah Effendie. “Cut Flower Production In Indonesia” Research Institute for Ornamental Plants, Central Research Institute for Horticulture, Agency for Agricultural Research and Development, Jakarta, Indonesia. 24

2.2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON THE MARKETING OF

FLORICULTURE

Maiti R.G. (1995) 27 points out that with the entry of big business house in the floriculture in recent years the prospects work up. Foreign companies, particularly from the Nether lands, are interested now on a buy back basis to capitalize the congenial environment and cheap labour of India. So long

Almery in the Netherlands had been the only big international auction market for flowers. The possibility of establishment of another one soon in will open up new possibilities to India of growers by its nearness. All this favourable factors, combined together, will create a bright horizon for the future flower trade in India.

Bhinu V.S. (1996) 28 says that Indian flowers can find market in South

East Asia, Middle East and Japan. The potential of a large of flourising market, has lured several big houses to enter the scene. The entry of the large houses is beneficial to the industry as the assimilation of technology and creation of infrastructure will be a modality.

Rangaswami G. (1997) 29 views that there is a growing demand for fresh cut flowers in the domestic market. THough the demand varies widely from season to season and on different days of the week, there exists a gap between supply and demand. Under the floriculture project seven major flower

27 Maiti, R.G. (1995) ‘Flower – A Non Conventional Commodity of Modern Commercial Agriculture’, Kurukshetra, Vol. XLIV, No.3, December, P.39. 28 Bhinu V.S.(1996). “Flori-Potency”. Kisan World, Vol.23, No.9, September, P.36. 29 Rangaswami G. (1997) Project Director, Prepared for the World Academy of Art & Science by the Mother’s Service Society, Pondicherry, India. 25

crops are suggested, indicating the preferred varieties in each. The total to be covered is 100 ha and the cost of cultivation Rs.102.00 lakhs per annum. The produce is to be sold in bulk by weight or by numbers, and the value is estimated at Rs.409.50 lakhs. For adoption of the latest production technology by the farmers, a technical cell is provided. Also a marketing set up with initial non-recurring expenses of Rs.33.78 lakhs and recurring expense of Rs.16.28 lakhs is provided. For marketing of the flowers, a margin of Rs.2/kg is provided. On this basis, the marketing organization can make an annual profit of Rs.16.82 lakhs.

Dhall S.C. (1999) 30 points out that flower is not a flower any more. It now means big money, big business. The floriculture industry is in for a major boom. India is undergoing an orchid revolution paving the way for a huge amount of foreign exchange earning. As part of this, a massive effort is on to grow and export flowers. Indications of a global deficit of flowers by 2000 AD paint a rosy picture for India. Impressed by the prospects of an ever growing market, the government has formulated a major action plan for the export of fresh and cut flowers. India should be able to generate foreign exchange worth

Rs.200 crore annually through flower exports.

Today India’ contribution to the world floriculture market is $ 20 million. While the global trade is expanding at the rate of 10 per cent a year,

India’s exports are growing at between 7 and 8 per cent. India’s share in the

30 Dhall S.C. (1999) “Flowers Mean Business Now”, Agriculture Tribune, Monday, November- 15. 26

global floriculture trade is estimated at 0.5 per cent. According to trade sources, if its growth in the past few years is any indication, the Indian floriculture industry has shown signs of playing a major role in the world market.

Kehar Singh and Virendra Singh (2001) 31 points out that total cost includes expenses on human labour +expenses incurred on material inputs + depreciation and interest on fixed capital +interest on working capital +land revenue + imputed rental value of land + imputed value of risk factors and management input at the rate of 10 per cent each of the working capital.

The cost of cultivation has been divided into two parts, one is cost incurred during non-bearing stage (gestation period) termed as an establishment cost and the other is cost incurred during bearing stage termed as maintenance cost. The establishment cost has been defined as the initial fixed investment plust cost incurred during gestation period. It has been assumed as fixed cost for the remaining life of plantation and it was, therefore, amortized over the period using 12 per cent interest rate as below.

AAEC = CEC – PL + St ; St = TI – PI

Where AAEC is average annual establishment cost; CEC is cumulative establishment cost ; PL is the project life in years except gestation period; St is the average interest and TI is the total interest under amortized decreasing repayment plan for ten yearly installments. The depreciation (component of fixed cost) has been compouted by using straight line method and interest on

31 Kehar Singh and Virendra Singh, (2001) “Economics of Cultivation And Distillation of Damask Rose: A Case Study In Palapur (Himachal Pradesh)”. Indian Journal of Agriculture Economics. Vol.56, No.4, October – December, Pp.697-698. 27

fixed capital has been calculated under amortized decreasing repayment plan for ten yearly installments.

RETURNS

Net return per annum = gross return per annum – Average annual total cost. Gross returns = Quantity of oil x price per unit + Dried flowers x price per unit. In order to examine the economy of scale, on the basis of the data for plantation production and average annual maintenance cost were obtained for one hectare plantation unit as follows :

D1 = D 2 – {1+D 4-D2)-D2}

Where D stands for data of daily fresh flowers production and average annual maintenance cost and subscripts 1, 2 and 4 for plantation unit size. From the data of one-hectare plantation unit, the data for 3 and 5 to 10-hectare plantation units were obtained as under :

Di = i x D 1 x (D 4 – D2) – D2, i = 3, 5, 6, …., 10

The fixed cost of distillation per annum and the variable cost of distillation per batch are independent of the plantation unit size.

Singh H.P., Jose Samuel C. (2000) 32 point out that Indian floriculture industry has gone through 2 district phases. The first phase (1991-97) was a learning phase where the dependency was more on imported technology, machinery, auction marketing and buy back system. The second phase (1997-

32 Singh H.P., Jose Samuel C. (2000). “Bio Fertilizers And Bio Pesticides For Hotriculture Crops. Indian Horticulture, Vol.45, No.1, April-June, Pp.52-53. 28

99 on wards) is characterized by find tuning the technology to Indian needs, venturing into direct marketing, good export growth, more price realization, stabilizing production and marketing relationships.

Archana Jayakar (2000) 33 points out that Floriculture involves the cultivation of ornamental plants and flowers, and marketing them. With the influx of western culture the demand for flower has increased considerably.

Flowers are used for social gatherings and occasions. Corporate environments are graced with fresh flowers, and the hotel industry is the largest consumer of commercial flowers, particularly roses. With the industry worth over 280 crores, and growing at the rate of 15 per cent each year (NEDFi study) the scene forecasts an increase in production and distribution of flowers in India.

Bangalore, Calcutta, and Delhi are important cities that have good markets for floriculture. , North Eastern states also contribute to the orchid industry while Calcutta accounts for 70 per cent of the dried flower exports from India.

Starting flower farms in rural areas is becoming increasingly popular as land and labour are easily available. Flowers can be grown in the open and also under monitored conditions by a greenhouse environment. Entrepreneurs who wish to set up a small farm require a minimum of an acre of land.

Mahalakshmi (2001) 34 says that the floriculture units in India have proposed for a direct marketing route without going through the auction

33 Archana Jayakar (2000), “A Floral Enterprise”. The Hindu opportunities, India’s National News Paper, Wednesday, August. 34 Mahalakshmi (2001) “Tata Economic Consultancy Service Study Moots Steps for Floriculture Revival” The Indian Express Online Media (Pvt) Ltd, C-6, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi – 110016, India. 29

system. The proposed direct marketing system, if it materializes, will increase the export earnings by 50 per cent for the growers, as it helps to avoid middlemen and pay no commission charges to the auction centre. South India

Floriculture Association (SIFA) has identified UK, Australia, Singapore and the Gulf countries, as the potential countries for direct marketing. With the introduction of direction flights to Gulf countries, the entry to these countries has been made easier, says Mr.Thummala Ranga Rao, vice-president of SIFA.

Staff Report (2001) 35 points out that the climatic conditions in and around Bangalore were favourable for floriculture. More than 35 companies were involved in export-oriented floriculture business by investing between

Rs.50 lakhs and Rs.60 lakhs for an acre of land. Flowers grown in Bangalore were in great demand world-wide. Some international companies had come forward to establish floriculture centers in and around Bangalore.

Manish Kapoor (2001) 36 points out that the global floriculture trade is estimated at $ 50 billion. Presently more than 10 countries are engaged in floriculture. The acreage under various flower crops is increasing constantly.

Developed countries account for more than 90 per cent of the total world trade in floriculture products. European countries take up the majority of the import.

35 Staff Report (2001) “Floriculture Center likely In Bangalore”. The Hindu, India’s National News Paper, Friday, December – 28. 36 Manish Kapoor (2001) “Floriculture – A Promising Forex Earner” The Tribune Online Edition, chandigarh, India. 30

Nagarajan S.S. (2002) 37 views that Hosur in Tamilnadu has a unique climate condition for successful growing of roses. Horticulturists believe that climate at Hosur ranks second best in the world for raising roses. The entire region lies in a plateau and has salubrial climate all round the year. Keeping in view the prevailing climatic condition, a firm from Hyderabad, CS flower Ltd has set up polyhourses to grow roses under protected condition.

Roses are in fact grown in Hosur for many years in the open field. Very often, the temperature, relative humidity, speed of wind, incidence of insects and disease affect the yield and quality of roses grown in the open to a considerable extent. Hence, roses produced from open field become unsuitable for export. However, these are sold at local markets. But, there is a wide gap between profits realized for roses that are exported and those sent for local consumption. Hence, growing of roses inside poly houses assumes importance.

Chris Ward (2002) 38 points out that rose flowers are one of the most popular flower crops grown in New Zealand. Very few roses are now exported from New Zealand, as a result of the global trend of rose production in developing countries such as South America, Africa and Asia at cheaper prices.

The domestic market is well supplied by New Zealand growers in summer, but supply is still limited in winter. As a result, roses are imported from India and

South East Asia in winter. Over the last 12 months many rose growers have

37 Nagarajan S.S. (2002). “Colorful Roses Exported From Hosur” Kisan World, vol.29, No.7, July, p.58. 38 Chris Ward (2002) “Floriculture” Ministry of Agriculture and Foresty, Te Manatu Ahuwhenua, Ngaherehere, New Zealand, Innovation and Research Policy, MAF Policy, ASB House 101-103 The Terrace PO Box 2526, Wellington. 31

invested in new varieties, with increasing interest in fragrant new varieties from

Europe.

Satya sundaram I. (2002) 39 says that India’s floriculture industry is of recent origin. Large-scale investments in this industry began only in the mid-

1980s. Currently, around 210 hectares are under floriculture cultivation, with a capacity to produce around 300 million stems of flowers. Indian flowers can match the best in the world. Of course, the performance of the floriculture sector has been better in recent years. Export rose from Rs.810 million in 1997-

98 to Rs.1326 million in 2000-01. Domestic consumption is also on the rise, witnessing a growth rate of about 60 per cent. Also, there has been a shift in the consumption pattern with large wholesale buyers like hotels, hospitals, and offices becoming regular buyers.

The government plans to start auction centers in various states such as

Maharashtra, Karnataka, and west Bengal and also in major metros. These auction centers would be developed on the model of the centers in the

Netherlands. In a bid to revive the floriculture industry, the center is planning to infuse more funds and finance into the sick units across the country. A rehabilitation financial package is being worked out for floriculture units under which additional funds would be made available to the sick units to revive them. To help the flower sector, the government may also think of altering the present policy of 100 per cent export – oriented units.

39 Satya Sundaram I. (2002) “Floriculture Yet To Bloom” Facts For You. Vol. 22, No.6, March, P.5. 32

Pushpa Surendra (2003) 40 views that promoting floriculture seems a way of providing concessions to industry in the name of agriculture. A 1998 study of floriculture export units in Bangalore estimates the investment required to cultivate roses equipped with state-of-the-art technology like computer-controlled drip irrigation, sprinklers, air-conditioned cabins, water atmoizers, refrigerated vans and so on to be anything between Rs.20-25 million per hectare. According to the study, traditional floriculture units that have existed for a long time catering to local markets had better chances of survival and assured markets.

Vinod Kumar and Bhattacharjee S.K. (2003) 41 point out that ornamental crop culture is fast emerging as an important and innovative dynamic global enterprise. Floriculture has become apotential money spinner for the third world countries, since it is one of the most lucrative professions, having much higher potential of return per unit area than most field, plantation and horticulture crops. The ornamental crop industry is worth about US $ 60 billion. The world market has been growing around 12 per cent each year.

Sindhu S.S. (2003) 42 views that the rapid commercialization in agriculture, floriculture sector has been considered as fast growing industry in

India. An area of 4,000 hectare during 1962 has tremendously increased to

88,600 hectare during 1999-2000, with an annual turn over of Rs.500 crores.

40 Pushpa Surendra (2003), “Flowers or Food”. The Hindu, India’s National Newspaper, Sunday, Septermber 14, P.4. 41 Vinod Kumar and Bhattacharjee S.K. (2003) “Exploring Cut Greens For Florist Trade” Indian Horticulture, Vol.47, No.4, January – March, P.4. 42 Sindhu S.S. (2003). “Populating Flower Cultivation For Export”. Indian Horticulture, Vol. 48, No.1, April-June, P/41. 33

Cut flower industry is not only an attractive business but it is a profitable venture if approached rationally the world over.

Satya Sundaram I. (2003) 43 points out that India is a leading grower of roses. Karnataka continues to be the leader, accounting for over 50 per cent of the natural orse production. Bangalore has around 35 floriculture units producing roses. Flowers are transported either by bus or by air. The individual companies are able to realize 20 to 25 per cent higher prices. Bangalore continues to dominate the domestic floriculture scene as a major producing centre.

Sundar P.S. (2004) 44 views that Tamil Nadu Government is committed to making Nilgiris is best suited for global floriculture business and considering the scope to augment India’s share in the international trade, which is presently negligible, the State Government has drafted an ambitious plan to focus on floriculture development in the Nilgiris.

Rajesh Ahuja (2004) 45 says that the setting up of the flower auction center would ensure organized trade and prevent deterioration of the quality of flowers. It would also help in raising the socio-economic status of those farmers interested in taking up the cultivation of flowers. A modern flower auction center would be set up at Gurgaon to boost the upcoming flower industry and diversification programme of the agriculture sector. Flowers,

43 Satya Sundaram I. (2003) “Floriculture Fluctuating Fortunes”. Fact For You, Vol.23, No.11, August P.10. 44 Sundar P.S. (2004), “Tamil Nadu Government has big plan to make Nilrigis a floriculture District”. Business Line, India’s National News Paper, Friday, Dec03. 45 Rajesh Ahuja (2004) “Flower Auction Center To Be Set Up AT Gurgaon”. The Hindu Business Line, August. 34

being a perishable commodity, required efficient post-harvest management and marketing. As Gurgaon is adjacent to the international airport, it would prove to be of help in the export of flowers.

Satyasundaram I. (2005) 46 points out the total area under floriculture cultivation is about 82,000 hectares, with a production of 464.000 tones of loose flowers and 1155 lakh (numbers) of cut flowers. The annual turn over of the industry, at the national level, is around Rs.10 billion, However, India’s share in the global market at $ 40 billion is negligible. World trade in floriculture is estimated to be worth $ 500,000 million. India’s export of floriculture product is less than $30 million. It terms of volume, India exports mainly roses- almost 100 per cent. Exports of other flowers like carnations, gerberas, and rajnigandha are negligible.

In India, consumption of flowers has been on the rise. The Rs.5000 million domestic floriculture market has definitely hit the boom time.

Providing direct employment to 3000 people and indirect employment to over

10,000 people. The floriculture industry is high on the competitive index.

Gandhi G.P. (2005) 47 views that owing to the continuous increase in demand for flowers both in the domestic and international markets, floriculture has emerged as a leading industry in terms of trade. Bulk of India’s exports mainly comprises dried and fresh flowers. These offer enormous potential for exports. USA, European countries like the Netherlands, the UK, Germany,

46 Satya Sundaram I.(2005). “Changing Lifestyle Encouraging Floriculture”. Fact For you, vol.25, No.5, February, P.9. 47 Gandhi G.P. (2005), “Opportunities Galore For Floriculture Exports”. Fact For You, Vol.25, No.8, May, P.11. 35

Italy and France, and West Asian countries like the UAE and Saudi Arabia are the major export markets.

Singh H.P. (2005) 48 points out that India has a great tradition of growing flowers and use of flowers, the industry established itself in the national and international markets after initial struggle. The quantum jump witnessed in production and trade of floriculture of the government coupled with innovative entrepreneurs. The production of flowers under greenhouse, with international quality standard is only a recent development. The country has drawn strength from availability of different climatic zones, god climate and soil, cheap labour and land, and skilled manpower. The sector was not organized to the level of cultivation knowledge and post-harvest activities, but past experiences and quest to achieve excellence have turned the sector to be competitive.

Staff Report (2005) 49 points out that the floriculture business has been blooming in the domestic market, owing the growing demand for variety of flowers from retail and institutional customers on a daily basis. With flower consumption growing by about 40 percent per annum, a huge domestic market will help the farmers and organized growers to increase production and improve quality to export their flowers.

48 Singh H.P. (2005) “Floriculture Industry Development In Asia”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.50, No.3, October- December. P.27. 49 Staff Report (2005) “Bangalore To Host International Flora Expo”. Indo-Asian News Service, June. www.ians.in. 36

Prasad S. and Kumar U. 50 points out that the flowers and ornamental products are produced commercially and their markets exist throughout the country in which flower and other products are sold. Floriculture has by far, a greater annual growth potential of 25 to 30 percent which is 25 to 30 times more than that of cereals or any other agriculture produce. Floriculture deals with cultivation, marketing and arrangement of flowers and foliage plants.

Flowers and ornamental plants have gained an important position in present day society. In fact, man has utilized flower to express his sentiments on occasions of social functions, wedding, birthday, funerals etc. in the past, flowers were grown outdoors only and their quality and quantity were very much limited by the season.

Wilson M.J. 51 points out that India produces a variety of flowers including roses and gladioli which are currently in great demand in the international market. The agro climatic conditions are highly suitable for cultivation of high quality flowers in India. Relatively cheap and abundant labour availability favours India with a distinct competitive advantage in terms of prices. The rapidly growing World market for flowers is holding out adequate inducement for India to expand her production and export of flowers.

Moreover, India is an important source of supply of cut flowers for the

European market in the winter months when on account of severe cold, the supply of flowers from Holland and Germany dwindles down considerably.

50 Prasad S. and Kumar U. “Commercial Floriculture”, Agrobios (India) Agro ouse, Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopasani Road, Jodhpur-342 002. Pp 7-8. 51 Wilson M.J. “Indian Agricultural Export Opportunity Retrospect And Prospect”. www. yahoo.com. 37

These factors, coupled with the Government’s favorable policies in the recent years have contributed to the success of India’s cut flower exports.

Exports are likely to grow to the tune of five thousand million rupees by 2000

A.D.

Yang Xiaohan, Liu Guangshu and Zhu Lu 52 says that more than 90 per cent of the cut flowers produced in China are consumed within China. The cut flowers are sold through wholesale and retail distribution channels. At present, there are 670 cut flower markets and 7,000 flower shops across the country, and 7 regional whole sale markets which have been established in

Beijing, Shanghai, Kunming, Guangzhou, Fujian, Chengdu and Liaoning. The major consumption areas are Shanghai, Beijing, Zhejiang and Guangdong. The majority of the flower shops are located in these areas. In 1996, 260 million stems of cut flowers were consumed with about 20 stems per capita in Shangai, and 100 million stems were consumed with about 10 stems per capita in

Beijing.

Dhanasekera D.M.U.B. (1995) 53 Points out that the majority of large scale commercial growers produce plants in collaboration with foreign partners. Technology is hsared by these partners and highly advanced methods of production are followed. However, most of these ventures are involved in the production of cut flowers. Middle level and village level growers usually go

52 Yang Xiaohan, Liu Guangshu and Zhu Lu. “Cut Flower Production In China”. Institute of Vegetables and Flowers, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China. 53 Dhanasekara D.M.U.B. (1995) “Cut Flower Production In Sri Lanka” Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 38

in for low cost cultivation with minimum advanced techniques, sticking to conventional methods. The majority of these growers are the ones who produce cut flowers. Therefore, most of the cut flowers produced are used to satisfy the local needs and only the surplus is exported occasionally in small amounts. The exception is the production of carnations which are grown mainly for the export market. However, export oriented cut flower ventures are on the increase.

2.3. REVIEW OF LITERAUTRE ON THE FLOWER CULTIVATION

Malik R.S., Dadlani (1984) 54 view that In india, interest in rose cultivation developed mainly during the last three decades. As a result of the great demand for modern rose varieties raised by rosarians during this period, about a dozen good rose nurseries have come up at Delhi, Dehra Dun,

Chandigarh, Bangalore, Jaipur, Meerut, Lucknow, Pune, and Saharanpur. It is estimated that these nurseries raise about half a million plants worth 5 million rupees annually.

Rajeevan P.K. and Sathees Babu. K. (1997) 55 say that the agro climatic conditions of our country are best – suited for flower production. Of the flowers, cultivation of bush jasmine is an emerging business for small and marginal cultivators. Apart from bouquets and garland making, jasmine offers a

54 Malik R.S. Dadlani N.K, (1984). “Three Decades of Research on Floriculture In India”. Indian horticulture. Vol.29, July-September, P.27. 55 Rajeevan P.K. and Sathees Babu. K. (1997), “Cultivating Bush Jasmine A Promising Enterprise For Small Holders. Indian Horticulture, Vol.41. No.4, January-March, P.20. 39

wide scope in high-grade perfume industry also. The initial investment on jasmine cultivation is low. As its yield is stabilized, a jasmine plant may provide 1kg flowers/year. Thus making under employed / unemployed family members busy, especially women. Therefore cultivation of jasmine may be made more lucrative among small farmers.

Tamilnadu and Karnataka are major jasmine producers, Bihar, Orissa,

Maharastra, West Bengal, Delhi and Utter Pradesh being other grower states.

Brijendra singh (1997) 56 points out that floriculture is a fast emerging major venture in the world, especially as a potential money-spinner for many third-world countries. Many flowers and ornamental plants grown for domestic as well as for export market provide more return per unit area than other horticultural crops. The area under floricultural crops has reached from 4,000 ha in 1962 to 53,000 ha during 1996. After 1990 several export – oriented projects have been set up in India. Now there are more than 150 units producing cut flowers a day. The production under open field condition has also increased tremendously.

The trade of traditional flowers has also increased in spite of the shrinking of the land near cities due to rapid urbanization and industrialization.

During the current decade there has been a dramatic change in the florist trade in modern flowers in Bombay, Pune, Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Delhi,

Chandigarh, Lucknow and Caulcutta. Now almost every big hotel in big cities

56 Brijendra Singh, (1997) “Floriculture : An Emerging Industry In India”. Indian Horticulture. Vol.42, No.2, July – September, P.53. 40

has flower arcade besides a number of street vendors and flower shops shopping areas, which sell fresh and dried flowers and foliage, besides bouquets, flower baskets and arranged flowers.

Sindhu S.S. and Misra R.L. (1997) 57 points out that majority of flower cultivators in India consider rose as the only flower of international trade, but there are other flowers too which can be ventured either jointly or individually.

In 1962, the domestic flower trade was only around 5 metropolitan cities

(Bombay, Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore, and Delhi). Now every big city has a well-developed cut flower market dealing with lose flowers, cut flowers and cut greens. Howrah Bridge flower market, a very old and big flower market, has been decayed to a pitiable condition as there is hardly any development according to the pace with which the country is moving.

Guled Gudda S.S., Hosamani S.B. (1998) 58 view that jasmine is being cultivated in India over an area of 800 hectares. Due to its diverse usage, its cultivation is gaining momentum. Having attractive foliage and scented flowers, it is highly favoured in transitional Indian gardens. Though it is cultivated commercially for fresh flowers, the bulk of these flowers are used for garland, bouquets and chaptels.

57 Sindhu S.S. and Misra R.L. (1997). “Problem And Prospects of Flowers In India”, Indian Horticulture, Vol.42. No.2, July – September, P.52. 58 Guled Gudda S.S., Hosamani S.b. and Bhat S.N. (1998) “Importance of Jasmine Cultivation”. Kisan World, Vol.25, No.2, February, P.54. 41

Misra R.L and Pathania N.S. (2000) 59 point out that flower consumers in India are now become quality conscious, demanding flowers grown under protected environment. Out of 160 export orient units registered; only 70 are in operation, mostly of roses, the area under protected cultivation being about 150 hectors. The average cost for one acre protected area comes to Rs.40 lakhs to 2 crores (low-tech to high-tech) under Indian condition.

Subba Rao P. (2000) 60 views that Rose can be cultivated on open lands.

When cultivated under controlled conditions in a greenhouse, they show the best quality attributes required for the export market. Therefore under hi-tech conditions, greenhouses are constructed with especially prepared polythene sheets.

Kehar Singh and Virendra Singh (2001) 61 point out that commercial cultivation of damask rose in India dates back to Mughal times. However, its cultivation has remained restricted to some part of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and

Jammu and Kashmir. In India about 4,000 hectares are presently under its cultivation ; and a part of its harvest has been used for producing about 200 kg oil annually. is the major produce made from this plant. It has been found that mild temperate climate of western Himalayas, including Shivalik hills is the best for its cultivation.

59 Misra R.L. and Pathania N.S. (2000) “Hi-Tech Greenhouse And Production Strategies For Cut Flowers” Indian Horticulture, Vol.No.45, No.1, April-June, P.8. 60 Subba Rao P. (2000). “Comprehensive Floriculture Insurance” Indian Horticulture, Vol.No.45, No.3, October- December, P.4. 61 Kehar Singh and Virendra Singh (2001). Economics of Cultivation and Distillation of Damask Rose : A Case Study in Palampur (Himachal Pradesh). Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.56, No.4, October – December, P.696. 42

Special Correspondent (2002) 62 views that horticulture crops is the best alternative for Thanjavur district, according to the potential linked credit plan for 2003-04, prepared by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural

Development for the District. Horticulutre crop could be cultivated even during periods of water scarcity and shortage of labour. The report says 2,290 hectares are under banana, 3,206 hectares under cashew, 24,571 hectares under , 290 hectares under guava, 72 hectares under jack fruit, 679 hectares under mango, 986 hectares under oil palm, 621 hectares under vegetable, 103 hectares under flowers and 80 hectares under other crops. As for floriculture, the report says that though rose and jasmine are cultivated in some pockets in

Kumbakonam and Pattukkottai areas, there is not large-scale cultivation. A campaign can be taken up to promote floriculture, especially in the Budallur block. Village meeting on horticulture and floriculture may be conducted in the potential areas.

Special correspondent (2003) 63 says that in the changing scenario, the was concentrating on improving its performances under agricultural segment for higher agricultural production and productivity, the chief general manager of the state bank of India (Chennai circle),

S.Krishnasamy, said. Delivering his inaugural address at the “green channel programme for excellence” for officials of the bank organized by the state bank

62 Special Correspondent (2002) Horticulture Crops The Best Alternative For Thanjavur, The Hindu National News Paper, Tuesday, October 29, p.3. 63 Special Correspondent (2003). “Vast Scope For Improvement of Horticultre and Floriculture” The Hindu, India’s National paper, Tuesday, October 29, p.3. 43

institute of rural development (SBIRD), Hyderabad, at the bank’s staff training center here recently, Mr.Krishnamurthy said there was vast scope for improvement of horticulture and floriculture by introducing organic farming techniques, setting up bio-technological laboratories, farm mechanization etc.

Special Correspondent (2003) 64 says that the Tamilnadu government today signed a memorandum of understanding with the agricultural and processed food products export development authority for establishment of agri export zones for floriculture and mangoes. Based on APEDA approval, the government issued orders for establishing two more agri export zones, one in the Nilgiris for cut flowers and the other for mangoes in Theni district. The nilgiris agri export zone would have a total investment of Rs.15.89 crores. At present, 150-200 medium high tech floriculture units wear functioning in the district. The Theni agri export zone would be set up with an investment of

Rs.25.60 crores to cater of market in Theni, Dindugal, Madurai, Virudhunagar,

Tirunelveli and Kannyakumari Districts.

Ashok Dhillon and Khatkar R.K. (2003) 65 points out that flower cultivation is popular in Hariyana due to fast changing social scenario. The area under commercial flower cultivation has gone up 0.6 thousand hectares in

1990-91 to 2.5 thousand hectares in 1998-99. The earning per hectare ranged between Rs.50 thousands to 2.5 lakhs depending upon the nature, quality and

64 Special Correspondent (2003) Signed for Nilgiris, Theni agri export zones, The Hindu, India’s National Newspaper, February’ 6. P.4. 65 Ashok Dhillon and Khatkar R.K (2003) “Area And Production of Major Flowers Grown In Haryana” Agriculture Situvation In India, Vol.LX.No.2, May, P.93. 44

yield of flowers. Glodiolus, rose, tuberose, marigold and chrysanthemum are the main flowers taken up for commercial cultivation. Keeping the above factor in mind, the study was under taken to estimate the area and production of flowers grown in Haryana.

Amit Dixit, Agrawal N. (2004) 66 point out that with the rapid commercialization in agriculture, floriculture sector has been considered a fast growing industry in India. An area of 4,000ha during 1962 has increased to

88,600ha during 1999-2000, with an annual turnover of Rs.500 crores. Cut flower industry is not only an attractive business but it is a profitable venture if approached rationally the world over. During the last few years there has been a drastic change in flowers trade of modern flowers in Mumbai, Pune,

Bangalore, Chennai, Hyderabad, Delhi, Chandigarh, Lucknow and Kolkata.

This trend will continue to increase because of its demand in the market and improvement in purchasing power.

Radhakrishnan D. (2004) 67 points out that about 20 units in Kotagiri,

Kookalthorai, and Betlada cultivated capsicum as an inter crop. While the cost of a ploygreen house is Rs.5 lakhs, the department is providing a subsidy of

Rs.1 lakh. The ideal area for setting up a unit is 500 sq. mts. Applicatins are being cleared on a first come, first served basis. For 2004*-05, only applications from self help groups would be considered, in coordination with

66 Amit Dixit, Agrawal N. (2004) “popularizing flower cultivation for export” Agro bios, Vol.No.2, Issue No.10, March, P.34. 67 Radhakrishnan. D (2004) “Polygreen House Concept Catching on In Nilgiris” The Hindu, Indi’s National Newspaper, Vol.127, No.237. October – 3. P.12. 45

mahalir thittam, the united planters’ association of southern India and the

Tamilnadu Agriculture university. Preference would be given to Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes. Under the polygreen house concept, the farmers could expect returns in about six months and recover the entire investment after two years. A net monthly income of about Rs.15,000 could be expected from the third year, Mr.Sankaran said.

Claiming that carnations grown in the Nilrgiris were in demand in the

Netherlands (market leader), Japan and Singapore, T. Bellie, deputy director of horticulture, says that their quality is considered ‘world class’. In Japan, they are accepted without quarantine. He says that all floriculture associations in the

Nilgiris would soon come under one umbrella.

Pradip Bhattacharya 68 points out that are cultivated in

Madurai and that the flower itself is known as Madurai Malli (Malli means

Jasmine in Tamil)” --- Madurai Jasmine. Out of a total of 10,000 hectare of land under cultivation in Tamil Nadu, more than 560 hectares are in Madurai.

The rest of the land is spread over the districts of Ramnad, Kamaraj and Thevar

Thirumanganar. It is reported that about one lakh farmers eke out their living in and around Madurai and the adjourining districts. There are more than 400 wholesalers and 10,000 retailers involved in the trade. As a whole, the jasmine industry provides employment for nearly 200,000 people. The investment in this trade is over Rs.1,000 million and the revenue varies from Rs.54 million to

68 Pradip Bhattacharya, “Jasmine- The Fragrance of Madurai” www.google.com. 46

Rs.182 million per year. Exports bring about Rs.30 million for the entire flower industry of which jasmine forms a part. The cost of cultivation of one kg of jasmine, including the cost of saplings, fertilizers and pesticides, is about

Rs.15-20. But the selling price of per kg of jasmine varies from Rs.10 to 100.

According to flower merchant association, during Diwali and Dussehra, the flowers are sold to countries like Singapore, for as high as Rs.200 per kg. And in place like Mumbai, one kg of jasmine can fetch as much as Rs.80. The cultivation of Jasmine is done at the foothills of Kodaikanal near Madurai with its red soil which retains water. Although jasmine flower is available throughout the year, there is a lean period of three months between October-

January. Jasmines are also in much demand in other parts of India like

Mumbai, Bangalore, Delhi, Cochin, Trivandrum, Kolkata and Hyderabad. The flowers are mainly exported to middle East and Singapore. Jasmine, being a highly perishable commodity, is a major factor impeding the growth of the trade. The buds of jasmine bloom after five hours of plucking and the maximum life of the flower is only 36 hours.

The Editor 69 says that to encourage the farmers and entrepreneurs engaged in cultivation of flowers and allied activities and to attract new floriculture units in to Tamil Nadu, the Government has recently announced a policy on ‘Commercial Floriculture in Tamil Nadu’.

69 The Editor “Tamil Nadu Industry And Business Directory Floriculture Policy”. No. 30, Bhavani Plaza II Floor, Opp. Ramar Kovil, Nethaji Raod, Hosur – 635 109, Tamil Nadu. Hosur Online. Com. 47

2.4. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON PROFIT FROM FLOWERS

Sridhara C.J. (1995) 70 says that a consideration of concrete yield / ha, price and production cost suggest prospects of high profit. To get more profit, adopt scientific method of cultivation. Increase efficiency of flower harvest by illumination of plantation, manufacture high quality product.

Bal H.K and Bal H.S (1997) 71 points out that flower cultivation is a highly profitable enterprise compared to other food and cash crops. Flowers pass through fewer intermediaries (wholesale, retailers). The big growers are sending their produce to Delhi flower market.

Singh R.B, Prasad R.N, Nigam H.K (1997) 72 say that flower cultivation has great potential for increasing income and employment of the farmers. In needs to be encouraged for the benefit of the farmers by providing them necessary production inputs and marketing facilities.

Govindasamy T.N. (2001) 73 views that flower cultivation is one of the income generating activities. It is a remunerative business and employs small and marginal farmers.

Dadlani N.K. (2002) 74 says that to improve our profitability, the grower also needs to relate information about consumers to their floricultural products.

Flowers and plants in several markets are considered another consumer good.

70 Sridhara C.J. (1995) “Jasmine Cultivation For Essential Oil”. Kisan World, Vol.22, No.7, July, P.59. 71 Bal H.K and Bal H.S (1997) “Flower Power In Punjab”. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.52, No.3, July-September, P.639. 72 Singh R.B, Prasad R.N, Nigam H.K (1997) “Economic of Flower Production In District Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh”. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.52, No.3, July-September, P.621. 73 Govindasamy T.N. (2001) “Blossoming Avenues In Floriculture”. Kisan World, Vol.28, No.4, April, P.27. 74 Dadlani N.K. (2002), “Promoting Floriculture Business In India”. Indian Horticulture, vol.46, No.4, January- March, P.43. 48

In order to benefit from the growing trade, we need to understand national lifestyles and consumption patterns. The flower consuming population needs to be grouped into international lifestyle segments and appropriate marketing strategies developed.

Gill A.P.S, Dhiman J.S, Kushal Singh (1988) 75 point out that the cut roses are in great demand during winter and they fetch high prices. It is essential, therefore, that regular supply is maintained to meet their market.

Singh H.P (2005) 76 Says that flowers have been associated with mankind since time immemorial, as they have been used for religious offerings and other social ceremonies, whereas commercial floriculture development is associated with urbanization and accelerated income levels. Resultantly, floriculture sector has increasingly become important segment of the trade and opportunities have expanded.

The Correspondent (2005) 77 views that under the upcoming WTO regime floriculture being regarded as a viable and profitable diversification from the traditional field crops. There’s an increased willingness to adopt new techniques available in the area.

75 Gill A.P.S, Dhiman J.S, Kushal Singh (1988), “In The North-Eastern Plains of India: Tips For Growing Roses For Commerce”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.33, No.3, October-December. P.19. 76 Singh H.P (2005) “Floriculture Industry Development In Asia’’ . Indian Horticulture, Vol. 50, No .3, October- December.P.27 77 The Correspondent (2005) “Floriculture, India’s Upcoming Profitable Alternative” India News, Webindia 123.com 49

2.5 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON FLOWER CONSTRAINTS

Vishnu Swarup (1984) 78 points out that the slow progress in export of ornamental flowers from our country is due to several constraints in production transportation and marketing. The importing countries have demands mainly for cut flowers of rose, chrysanthemum, carnation, gladiolus and some exotic flowers like orchids, anthurium, protea etc., Besides there is a market performance for specific varieties and high quality with standard specifications. But in India large quantities of planting material of export varieties of most of the flowers are not available.

Singh H.P. (1993) 79 says that export trade in cut-flowers seemingly appears to be undoubtedly lucrative but it is highly competitive. The lack luster performance of India in export of cut-flowers has so- far been due to a variety of constraints, in spite of comparative advantage due to environmental variable factors, comparatively low cost of labour compared to North-America and

European countries.

Dharmaraj E. (1996) 80 says that the major hardship in floriculture industry is the absence of specific informations on the area, production and market trends of flowers products. Lack of such information can confuse policy planning makers for the development of this lucrative industry. Lack of direct

78 Vishnu Swarup (1984), “Export of Ornametal Problems And Prospects”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.29,No.2, July- September, p.55. 79 Singh H.P.(1993). “Export Markets For Cut –Flowers” . Kisan World, Vol.20,No.10, October, p.30.

80 Dharmaraj E. (1996) “Export Outlook For Floriculture Products” . Kisan World, Vol.23,No.5,May, P.31

50

air links between the local production points and the importing points could be a major bottleneck in the sector.

Satya Sundaram I. (1997) 81 points out that greenhouse technology is not available at affordable prices. Our field grown flowers are not acceptable in the international market. The delay in inspection often leads to degradation of import materials. There is the serious problem of non-availability of quality planting material of desired export varieties.

Sindhu S.S.and Misra M.L (1997) 82 view that non- availability of organized marketing and monitoring system, market systems, lack of sales promotion activities and insufficient cold storage facilities are main marketing constraints. The problem of excise duties, intellectual propriety rights, financial support, lack of coordination and export promotion council are constraints of policy matters, whereas inadequate incentive and financial support to growers, procedure of loan distribution and interest rate are the financial problems faced by farmers. Lacking human resources, having proper technical know how, infrastructural facilities, inadequate production, poor quality and inconsistent supply of planting material of elite cultivators, lack of an efficient post harvest handling, non-availability of propagation media, and ignorance in planting schedule are problems in production.

81 Satya Sundaram. I. (1997),”Floriculture : Blossoming Business”. Facts For You, Vol. 18, No.1,May, P.33.

82 Sindhu S.S.and Misra M.L (1997), “Problems And Prospects of Flowers in India”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.42,No.2,July-September,P.55. 51

Pathania N.S., Subodh Chander (1998) 83 view that 1) Poor production both in quality and quantity. 2) Lack of suitable planting material. 3)

Inadequate surplus for export. 4) High commodity air freight rate, inadequate incentives and financial assistance for export, absence of organized marketing channels and monitory system. 5) The infrastructure of floriculture research available in government research institute and agricultural universities is meager and it is not possible to evolve varieties. Suitable for export as expeditiously as some of the leading exporting countries. 6) Ornamental plants in soil based container medium are not allowed for export in most of the

European and middle East countries. 7) Efficient and viable floriculture production and propagation technology should be developed.

Misra R.L and Dhankhar B.S.(2002) 84 point out that interiors of our country are not having proper transport facilities. Himachal Pradesh and NEH region flowers growers face tremendous problems in marketing their produce.

In NEH region, adjoining areas of tiesta river, farmers grow beautiful ferns, gladioli, daylilies, anthurium, gerberas, birds-of –paradise and cymbidium orchids but they do not get remunerative price though their produce have superb qualities. The most important part of flower cultivation is the technical know-how, which a grower normally lacks. The inclement weather, improper sanitation of the field and indiscriminate use of pesticides are the major hindrances in flower growing.

83 Pathania N.S., Subodh Chander (1998), “Floriculture In India” . Kisan World, Vol.25, February,P.48. 84 Misra R.L. and Dhankhar B.S.(2002) “Producing Flowers In Non-Conventional Areas”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.46.No.4, January-March,p.37. 52

Prafulla K.Das (1984) 85 points out that 1) Disease control and pest control are rarely practiced. Tea-mosquito and stem borer cause severe loss of crop at many places. 2) Most of the gardens have been planted with poor quality planting materials, as sufficient quality of seeds are not available for planting. 3) In many plantations the planting distance is very wide.

Vishnu Swarup (1997) 86 views that there are several constraints coming in the way of improving our floriculture exports. The major problem is poor production technology, and so our consignments are of poor quality and small in volume. Availability of proper planting material, standard container/growing media, quality packing material, and inadequate post production/harvest technology especially the absence of ‘cool chain’ and above all limited experience of the growers in technology of flower exports, are the other handicaps. Finally, the limited cargo space, high airfreight charges and absence of refrigerated container vessels for plants and cut flower exports for nearer distinations like Gulf countries, are the disincentives to go in for big ventures in floriculture export trade.

Chahal S.S. and Amandeep Kaur (1998) 87 view that lack of awareness among the farmers about existence and benefits of selling the produce was also a major constraint.

85 Prafulaa K.Das (1984). “Flower Export Constraints And Prospects” . Indian Horticulture, Vol. 29, No. 3, December, p.13. 86 Vishnu Swarup (1997). “ Floriculture Trade- Global Scene And Indian Prospects”. Ornamental Horticulture, Published By Rajiv Beri For Macmillan India Limited, 2/10 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. P. 426. 87 Chahal S.S.and Amandeep Kaur (1998). “Adoption of Mechanical Handling Units In Cereals.” Kisan World, vol. 25, No .1, January,p.51. 53

Pathaniaa N.S., Subodh Chander (1998) 88 say that government regulations for export/ import are too time consuming and not in favour of export. Indian exporters are not subsidized by the government. Absence of market surveys, lack of stream lining of quality control mechanism and poor co-ordination between government agencies involved in export/ import of potted plants. There is an acute shortage of qualified and trained staff in floriculture.

Ritu Garg and Sharma J.L. (1999) 89 Point out that flower crops are high intensive skilled labour. This problem becomes major constraint for flower cultivation. Punjap agriculture university, Ludhiana and state

Deportment of Horticulture, Punjap no doubt are arranging training courses for farmers. But farm labourers engaged in flower cultivation are also required to be trained in production technology of flower crops. Krishi Vigyan Kendras of state agriculture universities set up at district level can organize short term training courses in flower cultivation for farm labourers especially in the flower growing areas of the country.

Mishra A.K., Mishra L.N. (2004) 90 Point out that floriculture is one of the major blooming fields of agriculture. In21 st century, this sector is posed for greater significance. The present position of our floriculture industry is not satisfactory. Lack of information and existing gap between institution and

88 Pathania N.S., Subodh Chander (1998). “Floriculture Industry In India”. Kisan World, Vol.25,No.2, February,p.48. 89 Ritu Garg And Sharma J.L. (1999). “Technological Constraints In Floriculture Farming In Punjap”. Agriculture Situation In Indian, Vol.LIV, No.8, November, P.472. 90 Mishra A.K. Mishra L.N. (2004) “Internet In Floriculture Industry” Indian Horticulture, Vol.48,No.4, January- March,P.20. 54

farmers to get technological know-how strike a major cause of existing setback in this industry. An effective transfer of technology calls for a close interaction among farmers, production environment, research organizations, extension system etc. There is a wide gap between production potential and actual production. The technological constraints as well as extension constraints are the reasons behind handicapped floriculture industry. Therefore to improve this industrial sector in India, there is an urgent need of application of internet and other infotech services in this field.

Ahilandeshwari. A (2012) 91 India is the largest producer of in the world. The country has produced 12.147 million nuts from an area of 1.932 million hectares during 2003-04 with an average productivity of 6523 nuts / hectare. In India, coconut development programmes received attention since

1950 during the 1 st Five Year Plan period. Over a period of 50 years beginning from 1950-51 to 2001-2002, the production of coconut has increased by four times, from 3,292 million nuts to 12,963 million nuts. Out of the total production in the country, the four major Southern States, namely, Kerala,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh together account for 88.8 per cent.

Coconut cultivation in India is mainly in the hards of small and marginal farmers with more than 90 per cent of the coconut holdings being less than 0.40 hectare in size.

91 Ahilandeshwari. A (2012) Small Farmers : An Assessment of Effective Production through Mixed Farmers, Southern Economist, ISSN 0038-4046, 51 st year of Publication Volume 51 Number 2. Chapter - III

Profile of the study area, Materials and Methods 55

CHAPTER - III

PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA, MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

Thanjavur being the foremost district of the cauvery delta occupies an important position in the agricultural map of Tamil Nadu state. Since its formation, the district is called as the bowl of Tamil Nadu. It was bifurcated and a new district named was formed during 1993.

Nagapattinam district was again bifurcated into Nagapattinam and

Thiruvarur districts during 1997. Thus, the erstwhile district of

Thanjavur had been trifurcated into Thanjavur, Nagapattinam and districts.

Thanjavur district stands unique from time immemorial for its agricultural activities and is rightly acclaimed as the Granary of the South

India lying in the deltaic region of the famous river Cauvery and criss- crossed by lengthy network of irrigation canals. This coastal district abounds in green paddy fields, tall coconut groves, vast gardens of mango and plantain trees and other verdant vegetation. Various testimonials available in the ancient Tamil literature referring to the Cauvery as possessing the sanctity of the Ganges in conformity with the legendry and mythological stories attributed to its divine origin, rightly point out 56

why the river is popularly called the ' Mother Cauvery' and its sacredness is evident from 'Kaviri-Thala-Puranam'. The river has also been named as

'Ponni' because it is yielding 'pon' -Gold in the form of paddy. That is why it is said with pride that every iota of the earth of Thanjavur is equal to an iota of gold. The tillers in Tamil literature have been rightly called as

'Kauvirippudhalvars', the sons of the Cauvery, as they alone are worthy of this title for the rich production of golden grains in this fertile soil.

It is no wonder therefore that at the very threshold of the district itself, one can feel the distinguished green vegetation and call Thanjavur as

“the green mansion”, of the South. With the river Cauvery irrigating the district, the cropping pattern followed was Paddy-Paddy-Rice fallow pulses/cotton/gingelly. The economy of the district is, therefore, primarily agrarian in nature with very few industrial units.

Thanjavur is one of the thirteen coastal districts of Tamil Nadu in the production of marine fish which accounts for about 5 per cent of the total marine fish catch in the State. The district is famous for its exquisite ancient handicrafts-making of bronze icons, Thanjavur art plates, bell-metal castings, bowls, and napkin and powder boxes of metal with beautiful and artistic in-laying and engraving work of motifs well known as "Tanjore swami work". It is equally well-known for pith-work, ornamental fans, mats and making of musical instruments out of jackwood. It is also a flourishing center of handloom silk and cotton sarees. 57

Thanjavur attained prominence under the Chola rulers who were paramount in South India dur ing 9th to 12th centuries. They were not only excellent rulers but also mighty builders, who erected a large number of exquisite temples in their empire, some of which constitute the finest specimens of architecture. Hence the district stands distinguished in the state even in its large number of temples, whose legends extend deep into early historic times. Many of these temples reflect the power, genius and architectural grandeurs of their authors displaying the unique and magnificent proficiency in sculpture, painting and wood carving. Art gallery the great

Saraswathi Mahal library, the 'Sangeetha Mahal' (hall of music), the thriving of classical music and dance known as 'Bharathanatyam' and the celebration of grand annual music festival at , in honour of the great Saint

Thiagaraja, all bear testimony to the cultural heritage.

The district can be divided into two distinct regions viz., the deltaic region, the upland area or non-deltaic region. The deltaic region covers the whole northern and eastern portions of the district where the Cauvery with its wide network of branches irrigate more than half of the district. It comprises the whole of taluk and parts of Thanjavur,

Papanasam taluks. The rest of the southern and western areas of the district are non-deltaic or upland region. A good portion of upland regions which was dry has now been brought under irrigation with the help of Grand

Anaicut canal, fed by the Cauvery- Project and by extension of the 58

Vadavar river. Non-deltaic region is also devoid of hills and slopes gradually seawards.

Thanjavur is the home to famous Brihadeeswara Temple, one of

UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Thanjavur is famous for the Brihadishwara

Temple (or Brihadeeswara temple) built by Raja Raja Cholan during the 11th century. The Brihadishwara Temple, also known as the Big Temple, is one of

UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The temple is enclosed in two courts, surmounted by a lofty tower and including the exquisitely decorated shrine of Murugan. Among the other historic buildings is the Vijayanagara fort, which contains a palace that was expanded by the Maratha king Serfoji II with an armoury, a Bell Tower and the , which contains over 30,000 Indian and European manuscripts written on palm leaf and paper. Also built by Serfoji II is the Manora Fort, a monumental tower, situated about 65 km away from Thanjavur.

3.2. DISTRICT AT A GLANCE

3.2.1. Location

Thanjavur District lies in the East Coast of Tamil Nadu. It is located between 9 o50’ and 11 o25’ of the northern latitude and 78o45’ and 70 o25’ of the

Eastern longitude. The District is bounded on the north-west by the Coloroon

River which demarcates itself from Tiruchirapalli, Perambalur and districts, and on the north and east it is bounded by Nagapattinam and the 59

Thiruvarur districts, and on the South by the Palk Strait and Pudukottai district and on the West by Pudukkottai and Thiruchirappalli districts.

The district has its headquartes at Thanjavur which was once upon a time, the kingdo m capital of Raja Raja Cholan.

Figure – 1

The Position of Thanjavur District in the National Map

3.2.2. Administrative Divisions

The district consists of the following administrative units.

Revenue divisions : 3

Taluks : 8

Blocks : 14

Revenue villages : 906

Village Panchayat : 589

60

Figure – 2

Map showing the Taluks in Thanjavur District

The district includes eight taluks namely;

1. Kumbakonam,

2. Orathanadu,

3. ,

4. Pattukkottai,

5. ,

6. Thanjavur,

7. Thiruvaiyaru and

8. . 61

Further, the district has been sub-divided into 14 community development blocks namely

Figure – 3

Map showing the blocks in the district

1. Ammapettai 8.

2. Kumbakonam 9.

3. Orathanadu 10. Papanasam

4. Pattukkottai 11. Peravurani

5. Sethubavachatram 12. Thanjavur

6. 13. Thiruvaiyaru

7. Thiruvonam 14. Tiruvidaimarudur 62

3.2.3. Demography

As per the Census 2011, Thanjavur district has a total population of about 22.16 lakhs, out of which about 66 percent live in rural areas and the rest live in urban areas. The details are furnished below in Table 3.1, below.

Table 3.1 POPULATION IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT-2011 CENSUS (in numbers) Decadal growth rate in Particulars Person Male Female percentage Total 2216138 1096638 1119500 7.38

Rural 1467577 726493 741084 -2.00

Urban 748561 370145 378416 32.00

Source: Census of India 2011

The decadal growth rate of rural population during 2001 to 2011 has been negative (-2.00 per cent), while the urban population has shown a decadal growth rate of 32 per cent. This shows that the rate of urbanization has been rapid in the district. The overall decadal population growth rate in the district was 7.38, which is well below the state’s growth rate of 11.19 percent.

The literacy rate among male population of the district as could be seen from the Table 3.2 is higher at 84 percent while the female literacy rate was only 66 per cent. The overall literacy rate in the district was 75 per cent, which is higher than that of the State. 63

Table 3.2 LITERACY RATE IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (in percent) Literacy rate Particulars Person Male Female Total 75.45 84.47 66.70

Rural 70.73 81.10 60.66

Urban 84.79 90.98 78.39

Source: Census of India, 2011

It could be seen from the Table 3.3 below that among the total workers, main workers constitute nearly 84 percent. Among the worker population, cultivators constitute 16.16 per cent while the agricultural labourers form 45.78 per cent.

Table 3.3 OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION-2010-11 Industrial Category Persons % to total workers

Main Workers 750032 83.60

Marginal workers 147091 16.40

Total workers 897123 100

Cultivators 144942 16.16

Agricultural Labourers 410718 45.78

Household industries 37986 4.23

Other Workers 303477 33.83

Source : Census of India 2011. 64

3.2.4. Soils and Topography i) Geology

The geological formation of Thanjavur district is made up of cretaceous, Tertiary and Alluvial deposits and the major area is occupied by the Alluvial and Tertiary deposits. The cretaceous formations occur as a small patch in West and South-West of Vallam. These formations have a very thick lateritic cap consisting of impure lime stones and sand stones of silt, clay calcarious and argillaceous variety, in the coast, these formations are over laid by Cuddalore sand stone of tertiary age.

The Cuddalore sand stone of Tertiary age are well developed as best seen, West of Grant Anaicut canal and near Orathanadu. These sand stones are covered by a thin layer of wind brown sandy clays, unconsolidated sand, clay bound sands and mottled clays with the lignite seams. This tertiary formation is invariably capped by laterite. In the east, the alluvial deposits of the river Cauvery and its tributaries lie over the Tertiary sand stone. They consist of sands, gravelly sands, clays and sandy clays. The thickness of these formations ranges from 30 Mt. to 400 Mt.

ii) Soil Colour

In Thanjavur district brown coloured soil was the maximum constituting nearly 65 per cent. Red soil and black soils were found in 19.30 and 15.97 percent of the area respectively. 65

iii) Soil Series

In Thanjavur district, 13 soil series were identified and the distribution of the various soil series is given in the Table 3.4 below. It could be seen from the table that Madukkur soil series occupied 34.18 per cent of the area followed by (15.90 per cent). Kallivayal soil series was the least which accounted for only 0.17 per cent.

Table 3.4

SOIL SERIES AND ITS EXTENT IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Sl. Percentage to Name of the Soil series Extent in ha. No. total 1. Madukkur 1,10,573 34.18 2. Kalathur 52,449 15.90 3. Padugai 36,467 11.27 4. Pattukkottai 33,424 10.33 5. Adhanur 30,642 9.47 6. Vallam 13,045 4.03 7. 12,111 3.74 8. Mudukulam 9,266 2.86 9. Peravurani 6.672 2.06 10. Alangudi 6,626 2.05 11. Budalur 6,446 1.99 12. Melkadu 5,045 1.56 13. Kallivayal 482 0.17 14. Reserved Forest 1,255 0.39 Total 3,23,506 100.00 Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur. 66

The various soil series available in the district have been briefly explained in the following Table 3.5 for a better perception.

Table 3.5

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL SERIES IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Name of the Characters series Madukkur Very deep brown soils derived from laterite parent material- Sandy loam – cultivated Kalathur Very dark gray brown, very deep calcarious, fine textured cauvery river alluvium Clay- cultivated. Padugai Brown, very deep, fine loamy, yound soils lying near the rivers. Sandy clay loan – cultivated. Pattukkottai Pale Brown, very deep, loamy, non-calcarious occupying, the top portion of the gently sloping Cauvery Mettur Project area- Loamy sand- Fallow Adhanur It comprises of dark gray brown to dark yellowish brown, loamy textured soils derived from Cauvery alluvium. The soils are very deep non-calcarious, having sand layer with in 100 cm Sandy clay loam- cultivated. Vallam It comprises of moderately deep sandy loam, yellowish red soils occupying the top most portion of the laterite cap. Sandy loam- cultivated fallow. Alathur These are grayish brown, fine loamy, very deep strongly calcarious, moderately alkaline soil occurring at the bottom of the cauvery Mettur Project area. Sandy clay loam cultivated fallows. 67

Madukulam It consist of dark red- very deep, non-calcarious, fine loamy textured one occupying in the gently sloping land subjected to severe soil erosion. Sandy clay loam- cultivated. Peravurani They include grayish brown, very deep, alkaline, fine loamy, calcarious soils, setting on the sides of the jungle rivers having proximity to the sea Sandy loam- cultivated. Alangudi These soils consist of very dark gray brown, fine, very deep calcarious, poorly drained Cauvery alluvium. It occurs in pockets away from the river beds when the river takes wide curves. Sandy clay loam – cultivated. Budular These are yellowish red to dark red, deep, non calcarious, acidic, gravelly in – SITU soils derived from granitic genesis. Sandy clay loam - cultivated. Melkadu These are dark brown, very deep, sandy calcarious coastal alluvium solid. Loamy sand –fallow Kallivayal These are dark brown, very deep, fine loamy, calcarious, saline and mildly alkaline soils derived from the coastal alluvium. Sandy loam- fallow Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur.

68

iv) Soil Series and Crops

Details on major soil series found in the district and the crops grown

are furnished in the Table 3.6 below.

Table 3.6

MAJOR SOIL SERIES AND CROPS GROWN

Soil Series Irrigated Crops Rain fed crops Tobacco, Gingelly and Melkadu Groundnut and Casuarina Vegetables Banana, , Paddy, Groundnut, Gingelly and Padugai Vegetables and Flowers Eucalyptus Kallivayal and Paddy and Pulses ----- Peravurani Alathur Paddy, Sugarcane and Millets ----- Budalur and Groundnut, Gingelly, Paddy, Groundnut Madukkur Millets and Chillies Groundnut, Coconut, Fruit Groundnut, Gingelly, Pattukkottai trees, Eucalyptus and Vegetables and Chillies Casuarina Coconut, Flowers and Groundnut, Millets and Fruit Mudukulam vegetables trees Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur.

vi) Land Capability

Land capability classification is given in Table 3.7 which shows the suitability of soils for agricultural uses. The groupings are made according to the soil limitations and the risks of damage when they are used. 69

Table 3.7

LAND CAPABILITY OF THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Land Capability Soil Series Extent Per cent Classification (LCC) II – Lands that have moderate limitations for sustained use under agriculture Kalathur, Alangudi, II s – Soil Limitations Madukkur, Peravurani, 242429 75.23 Adhanur and Padugai II es – Erosion and Soil Budalur, Madukulam and 49139 15.25 Limitations Pattukkottai II sw – Soil and wetness Alathur 12111 3.76 associated limitations III – lands that have severe limitations for sustained use under agriculture III s – Soil Limitations Melkadu 5045 1.57 III sw - Soil and wetness Kallivayal 482 0.14 associated limitations Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur.

This classification system evaluates the soil based on the inherent soil

characteristics (soil depth, texture, concretions, reaction, permeability),

external land features (slope, erosion, stoniness etc.) that limits the use of

land and environmental factors (rainfall and temperature). The groupings of

soils into capability classes is primarily done on the basis of their capability to

produce common cultivated crops and pastures without deterioration over a

long period of time. The capability classes are designated by roman numerals 70

I to VIII. In addition, the sub-classes (limitations) like topography (t), soils(s), wetness (w), climate (c) and erosion (e) are shown by suffixing small letters to the land capability classes. The numerals indicate progressively greater limitations and narrower choices for a practical use. It could be seen from the table above, that the soils with soil limitations are found to the extent of 75 percent.

vi) Soil Reaction (pH)

The details on series-wise soil reaction (pH) are furnished in Table

4.8. This could bring out a better perception on the best suited soils for the cultivation of crops whether it is seasonal/annual or perennial crop.

Table 3.8 SOIL pH IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT Extent Category Soil Series Per cent (ha.) Medium acidic Budalur and Vallam 19494 6.04 (5.6 to 6.0) Slightly acidic Pattukkottai and 42690 13.25 (6.1 to 6.5) Mudukulam Neutral Padugai, Adhanur and 177682 55.14 (6.6 to 7.5) Madukkur Mildly alkaline Kalathur 51449 15.97 (7.6 to 8.0) Moderately alkaline Alangudi, Melkadu, (8.1 to 8.5) Alathur, Kallivayal 24264 7.53 Strongly Alkaline Peravurani 6672 2.07 (8.6 to 9.0) Total 322251 100.00 Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur. 71

It could be seen from the above table, that the neutral soil series are

Padugai, Adhanur and Madukkur accounted for more than 55 per cent of area in this district. These are the soils that are the best suited for agricultural purposes.

vii) Soil Productivity

The productivity ratings of the soils are worked out taking into consideration the soil properties such as depth, base saturation, texture, structure, organic matter content, mineral reserve and soil moisture. Five productivity classes were identified and used here. Different productivity ratings are given in Table 3.9, below.

Table 3.9 PRODUCTIVITY RATINGS OF THE SOILS IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT Productivity Extent Soil Series Per cent Class (ha.) Extremely Poor Kallivayal, Melkadu 5527 1.72 Poor Vallam, Alathur, Peravurani 31828 9.88 Average Kalathur, Alangudi, Budalur, 248429 77.09 Mudukulam, Pattukkottai, Madukkur and Adhanur. Good Padugai 36467 11.31 Total 322251 100.00 Source: Soil Survey and Land use Organization, Thanjavur.

72

It could be seen from the table that the average productivity class accounted for the maximum of 77.09 per cent and the related soil series were Kalathur, Alangudi, Budalur, Mudukulam, Pattukkottai, Madukkur and

Adhanur.

3.2.5. Rainfall and Climate

The climate of Thanjavur can be termed as a fairly healthy one like other coastal areas. November, December, January and February are the pleasant months in a year with climate full of warm days and cool nights.

From March onwards, the climate rather becomes sultry and the mercury shoots up and reaching its peak by the end of May and June, depending upon the on-set of summer rain. The South-West monsoon sets in June and continues till September followed by North-East monsoon in October that brings complete relief to the farmers till January. The rainfall during

South-west monsoon period is much lower than that of North-East monsoon which sets in October and continues till the end of December and winter period starts in January. However Thanjavur District is benefited more by North-East monsoon because of its heavy rainfall and the invariably feeds the Cauvery and helps greatly for the vast cultivation of the deltaic area. The details on normal rainfall of the district are given below in Table 3.10. 73

Table 3.10

SEASON-WISE NORMAL RAINFALL IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (in mm) Season Month Normal Rainfall June 36.7 July 70.9 August 115.8

Monsoon September 118.6 South West Total 342.0 (32.48) October 190.5 November 208.7 December 146.5 Monsoon North East Total 545.7 (51.82) January 32.8 February 17.9 Winter Season Total 50.7 (4.82) March 21.9 April 36.1 Hot Season Weather May 56.6 Total 114.6 (10.88) Year Total 1053.00 (100.00) Source: Season and Crop Report: 2005-06, DES, Chennai. (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

A look at the above table has revealed that the normal annual rainfall is 1053 mm. The maximum rainfall of 51.82 per cent is received during north east monsoon followed by south west monsoon with 32.48 per cent 74

of the total rainfall. The maximum and minimum temperatures recorded

in the district are 36.6o C, and 22.8o C respectively.

3.2.6 Land Use Pattern

The total geographical area of the district is 3.40 lakhs hectares as

could be noted from Table 3.11, below.

Table 3.11 LAND USE PATTERN IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (in ha.) Triennium % age to the Land use 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 ending geographical 2009-10 area Total geographical area 339657 339657 339657 339657 100.00 Forests 3426 3426 3390 3414 1.00 Barren and Uncultivable land 2201 2197 2149 2182.333 0.63 Land put to non-agrl. Use 78989 80590 81676 80418.33 24.05 Culturable waste 15634 14591 14700 14975 4.33 Permanent pastures 1746 1477 1385 1536 0.41 Misc. tree crops and groves 6814 5462 5010 5762 1.48 Current fallow 23694 10458 9404 14519 2.77 Other fallows 49993 32161 29913 37356 8.81 Net area sown 157160 189295 192030 179495 56.54 Area sown more than once 36844 62159 49262 49422 14.50 Gross area sown 194004 251454 241292 228917 71.04 Source: Season and Crop Reports, DES, Chennai. 75

Of this, an area of just one per cent is under forests and 0.41 per cent under pastures and grazing lands. As much as 24.05 per cent of the total area is under non-agricultural uses. The area under cultivable waste is 4.33 per cent. The fallow lands have accounted for nearly 11 per cent of the total geographical area. The cultivable land is about 1.80 lakhs hectares constituting 56.54 per cent of the geographical area of the district. The cropping intensity of nearly 128 per cent for the triennium ending 2009-10, is a good indication of the intensity of agriculture in the district.

3.2.7. Land Holdings and Distribution

The land holding pattern in the district is given below, in Table 3.12.

Table 3.12 NUMBER AND AREA OF OPERATIONAL HOLDINGS IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT-2010-11 % age to the Area % age to the Category of farmers No. total operated area holdings (ha.) operated Marginal (below one ha.) 213782 76.96 75805 32.99 Small (1.0 - 2.0 ha.) 38191 13.75 54198 23.59 Semi-medium (2.0 - 4.0) 18673 6.72 50951 22.17 Medium (4.0 - 10.0) 6407 2.31 36537 15.90 Large (above 10.0 ha.) 720 0.26 12298 5.35 Total 277773 100.00 229789 100.00 Source: Agristat 2011, Director of Agriculture, Chennai 76

It could be discerned from the table above that the small holdings with a size of less than 2 ha constitute more than 90 per cent of the total number of holdings in the district and this category accounts for only about 56 per cent of the land area owned. On the other hand the relatively larger land holdings with a size of more than 4 ha constituting about just 3.00 percent of the total number of holdings account for more than 21 per cent of the total land owned in the district. However the medium sized holdings. (Four to ten ha) which constituted 2.3 per cent of the total holdings have accounted for nearly 16 per cent of the total area operated. Thus, there exists the skewed distribution of land among different farm sizes.

3.2.8. Irrigation, River and Groundwater

The agricultural occupation of the district is well supported by the river Cauvery and its tributaries. Cauvery is considered to be the best of the rivers that drain the Southern Peninsula of India. The river flows from

Karnataka State and passes through Dharmapuri, Salem, , Namakkal,

Thiruchirappali, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts of the

Tamil Nadu state covering a distance of about 770 Kms. and draining an area of about 72.800 sq.kms. in all. Springing from a spot lying on Brahmagiri

Mountains on western-ghats at a height of 1,320 meters above mean sea level, Cauvery meanders its way across Karnataka and Tamilnadu and showering not only economic prosperity to the millions of people but also 77

carving a riche for itself in their lives in historical, cultural and religious realms.

The three minor tributaries, Palar, Chennar and Thoppar enter into the Cauvery on her course, above Mettur, where the famous dam has been constructed. The joins the Sita and Pala mountains beyond that valley through which the Cauvery flow, up to the Grand Anaicuts. The dam in Mettur, impounds water not only for the improvement of irrigation but also to ensure the regular and sufficient water to the important Hydro-Electric generating station at Mettur. The river further runs through Erode district where river Bhavani merges with it. Two more tributaries viz. Noyyal and

Amaravathi join it, while it passes through Erode and reaches Thiruchirappalli district. Here the river becomes wide, with a sandy bed and flows in an easterly direction till it splits into two at upper anaicuts about 14 kilometers west of Thiruchirappalli. The northern branch of river is called the Coleroon, while the southern branch retains the same name Cauvery and then goes directly eastwards into Thanjavur District. These two rivers again come closer just before Kallanai and form the interim island namely

Srirangam near Thiruchirappalli. The river Cauvery and its tributaries are the most remarkable features of Thanjavur District.

Emerging as a small rivulet from the Coorg Mountains the river

Cauvery expands rapidly increasing in volume, as hundreds of streams and rivulets merge with it which are mostly fed on the heavy rainfall of the 78

south- West monsoon. After Sivasamudram Falls in , the

Cauvery again forms beautiful waterfalls at Hoganekal in Dharmapuri

District of Tamil Nadu state.

The Chola king, “Karikalan” has been immortalized as he has constructed the bank for the Cauvery all the way from Puhar

(Kaveripoompattinam) to . It was built as far back as 1,600 years ago or even more. On both sides of the river, the bund are found spreading to a distance of 1,080 feet. The dam Kallanai on the border between

Tiruchirapalli and Thanjavur districts, constructed by him is a superb work of engineering marvel, which was constructed with earth and stone and has stood the vagaries of nature for hundreds of years. In 19th century, it was renovated on a larger scale. The name of the historical dam has since been changed as

“Grand Anaicut” and stands as the head of the mammoth irrigation system with wide net-work of canals in the Thanjavur district. From upper anaicut, the coloroon branches and runs in north-east direction. After Grand Anaicut, the Cauvery divides into numerous branches and cover the whole of the delta with a vast network of irrigation channels and gets lost in the wide expanse of paddy fields. The mighty Cauvery River here is reduced to an insignificant channel and falls into the at the historical place called

Poompuhar (Kaveripoompatinam) about 13 Kms north of Tharangampadi.

The river Cauvery flows the entire district in different names through its tributaries and branches viz., Grand Anicut canal, Vennar, Pannaiyar, 79

Koraiyar, Vettar, Kodamuritiyar, Thirumalairajanar, Arasalar,

Veerasozhanar, Mudikondan, Noolar, Vanjiar, Vikaraman, Nattar,

Kirtimanar, Nandalar, Majalar, Mahimalayar, Palavar, Cholasudamani,

Puthar, Valappar, Vadavar, pamaniar, Mulliyar, Ayyanar, Adappar,

Harichandranathi, Vellaiyar, Pandavaiyar, Odambogiyar, Kattar, Kaduvaiyar and all these branch off into a number of small streams. These are the main sources of irrigation in the district.

The details on source-wise area irrigated in the district are given in

Table 3.13. It could be visualized from the table that canals are the major sources of irrigation accounting for more than 56 per cent of the total irrigated area in the district, followed by tube wells accounting for about 7.72 per cent of the gross area irrigated. 80

Table 3.13 SOURCE – WISE AREA IRRIGATED (in ha) Triennium % age to the Sources of irrigation 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 ending Gross area 2009-10 irrigated Canals 95772 159137 155378 136762 56.82 Tanks 168 368 500 345 0.14 Tube wells 54570 36093 37279 42647 17.72 Ordinary wells 2023 1105 513 1214 0.50 Ordinary wells (supp) 29248 30259 30336 29948 12.44 Net area irrigated 181781 226962 224006 210916 87.62 Area irri more than once 25570 35814 27991 29792 12.38 Gross area irrigated 207351 262776 251997 240708 100.00 Irrigation intensity 114.07 115.78 112.50 114.12 Source : Season and Crop Reports, DES, Chennai.

The irrigation intensity worked out to nearly 114 per cent, which meant that the farmers have cultivated second crop of paddy under sizable area during the triennium period ending 2009-10.

The community development blocks or the Panchayat unions in the district are classified based on the level of exploitation of ground water potential and the data is presented in Table 3.14 and the table indicate that five blocks are classified as safe blocks in terms of groundwater development, five blocks are classified as semi-critical and the remaining four blocks are classified as critical and overexploited. This indicates that there is very limited scope for further expansion of area under groundwater irrigation in the district. 81

Table 3.14

CLASSIFICATION OF BLOCKS BASED ON LEVEL OF

EXPLOITATION OF GROUND WATER POTENTIAL

Over Exploited Critical (90- Semi Critical (70- Safe (above 100%) 100%) 90%) (less than 100%) Thirupanadal Ammapet Madukkur Budalur Thiruvidaimarudur Kumbakonam Orathanadu Papanasam Peravurani Pattukkottai Thiruvaiaru Sethubavachatram Thiruvonam Thanjavur Source : Agristat 2011, Director of Agriculture, Chennai.

3.2.9. Agricultural Activity

The occupation of the people in the district is primarily agriculture, as the district depends on the cauvery river water for the agricultural sector to grow, in a sustained way. The western part of the district is rain-fed. The ayacut area of the river cauvery has been cultivated with paddy, sugarcane, rice fallow pulses and cotton. The river bed has been lined with teak trees and bamboo bushes. In the padugai lands (river bund area), the farmers have been cultivating vegetables, where the soils are very good in terms of soil texture and fertility. They cultivated coconut in farm bunds and as coconut groves. The cultivation of rice fallow pulses is unique in the sense that it will be sown with the available moisture just a week before the harvest of paddy and grows with the available dew during the rest of its growing season. The rain-fed area of the district where red soil is 82

predominant, groundnut and gingilly are the major crops. Summing up the cultivation, the major crops of the district are Paddy, Pulses, Sugarcane,

Groundnut, Gingilly, Cotton and Coconut.

The district is benefited mainly from major canal irrigation projects spread over the entire district. Groundwater is an important source of irrigation during non-canal season as well as in areas outside the command areas of canal irrigation projects. Given the variety of soil types and irrigation sources, a number of crops are cultivated and the pattern of crop diversification is well- suited to minimize the risks in agricultural production given the low rainfall in the district. As the entire activity of this delta district rests on the release of water from the Mettur dam, it is obvious that the socio-economic conditions of the farmers depend mostly on the timely release of water from the dam. The normal date of release/opening of the dam was fixed as 12 th

June of every year. The farmers often raise two paddy crops namely kuruvai and thaladi when the reservoir is normally opened. They cultivate only one crop viz. Samba when water release is delayed due to late arrival of south east monsoon.

In order to pay special attention and to give special assistance in terms of subsidy and other management assistance, Intensive Agricultural

District programme was implemented during the year 1962 and it was later converted in to Training and Visit system in 1981. By way of these programmes agriculture in this district got its launching pad and rocketed in 83

to the present position. The major crops cultivated in Thanjavur district are

Paddy, Pulses, Gingelly, Cotton, Groundnut and Sugarcane. The minor crops like Maize, Soyabean, and Redgram are also grown in uplands. Paddy is the principal crop grown in three seasons viz. Kuruvai, Samba and

Thaladi. Pulses like Blackgram, Greengram and cash crops like Cotton and

Gingelly are grown in rice fallows. In new delta area, the Groundnut is the principal crop Sugarcane is cultivated both in new delta and old delta.

Banana is primarily grown in Padugai lands.

The area coverage of difference food and non-food crops cultivated in

Thanjavur district is furnished below in Table 3.15. It could be observed from the table that the predominant crop was paddy which occupied nearly

64 percent of the gross cropped area of the district. It could also be seen that the area under sugarcane has increased considerably to the tune of 6000 ha.

Among the various crops, one could witness the area under coconut is also substantial and is being cultivated in an area of 26287 ha. during 2005-06.

During these three years the cropping intensity was observed to be the highest in 2004-05 at 132.84 percent which meant that the area cropped more than once was more. This could be attributed to the normal monsoon and normal date of the opening of the Mettur reservoir.

84

Table 3.15 AREA OF THE CROPS IN THE DISTRICT (in ha.) Area of the Crop Name of the Crop 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Paddy 123293 160608 154901 Blackgram 6354 13708 8951 Greengram 2776 8709 7392 Total food grains 133503 183976 171834 Sugarcane 9711 12000 15353 Banana 4158 4764 4921 Mango 777 849 842 Cotton 1738 2225 785 Groundnut 8065 8217 7274 Gingilly 4089 7243 5999 Coconut 24240 24893 26287 Total non food crops 41279 45726 44087 Total food and non food crops 194004 251454 241292 Net cropped area 157160 189295 192030 Area cropped more than once 36844 62159 49262 Cropping intensity 123.4 132.84 125.65 Source : Season and Crop Report, DES, Chennai.

3.2.10. Horticulture

Thanjavur is predominantly a rice growing tract and hence the scope for horticultural crops is very much limited. Most of the farmers are small holders of land and cultivating less remunerative crops like paddy, maize, and groundnut. The farmers are very progressive and enthusiastic to adopt 85

new technologies and new crops such as medicinal crops in pockets. After the intervention of Horticulture Department in this district, the farmers are ready to go in for cultivation of Horticulture crops which prove remunerative. The constraint in horticulture crop cultivation involves high cost and improved technologies, for which they need some support from Government in the form of subsidies and training. Only two horticultural crops viz; Mango and

Banana dominate the horticultural scene. The details on area, production and productivity of these horticulture crops in the district are given in Table 3.16, below.

Table 3.16 AREA, PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF MANGO AND BANANA IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT IN 2009-10

Production in Productivity Name of the Crop Area in ha MT (tonnes / ha) Banana 4921 242589 49291 Mango 842 3521 4182 Total Fruits 5258 NA NA Source : Season and Report, DES, Chennai

It could be seen from the table that the area under banana was nearly

94 per cent of the fruit crops in the district. The area under mango was very little. The farmers cultivate banana as a change crop in the cropping pattern 86

and the attention paid is also very little which could have its impact on productivity and the resultant production.

3.2.10. Livestock Activities in the District

Livestock growth in the district has shown a marginal increase over the decade. Animal Husbandry is an allied activity of Agriculture and cannot grow as fast as agriculture since its breeding programme is a slow process.

The district has more indigenous cattle than any special breed of cattle. It could be seen from the Table 3.17 that the livestock population of the district has increased which is a very good sign of development in the district.

Table 3.17 LIVESTOCK POPULATION CENSUS (in numbers) Particulars 2001 2011 Cattle 318436 442000 Buffalo 57641 59300 Sheep 27190 23300 Goats 244471 273500 Pigs 2794 1800 Total 726627 800000 Source : Census of India Reports, 2011.

Further, the growth rates for the cattle population from 2001-2011 were estimated presented in Table 3.18. During the period under consideration, 87

it could be observed that the cattle population has grown in numbers at the rate

of 6.34 percent. The growth rate was the highest for the cross-breed cows,

which stood at nearly 25 per cent and it augers well for the subsidiary

income of the farming community in addition to their main source of income

viz. income from crop enterprises. Buffaloes, both male and female and the

poultry population have witnessed a negative growth rate.

Table 3.18 LIVESTOCK POPULATION GROWTH RATES (2010-11) – THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Draught Female She Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Poultry Female Bovine Cross indigenous Buffalos Bree d 6.34 -7.08 6.45 4.82 -1.07 -5.198 24.368 -5.536 -7.130 Note : Annual Compound Growth Rate in per cent.

Thanjavur poled cattle are distinguished by the possession of dehorned

head and clipped ears. The breed is known as Umbalacherry. The main

stream of the district is fed by Cauvery River, when the river is dry, flock

owners of the sheep from Ramnathapuram and Southern Districts are coming

with their migratory stock for pasturing temporarily. The cattle/sheep would be

penned in the dry paddy fields for a monetary value so as to improve the soil

fertility and soil health of the cultivable lands.

The Cattle Breeding and Fodder Development schemes have been

replaced as Intensive Cattle Development Project, which functions from

Thanjavur. Under Cattle Breeding and Fodder Development a Semen Bank is 88

established at Ammapettai about 19 Kms from Thanjavur from which Liquid

Nitrogen and Frozen Semen straws are being supplied to various institutions and Veterinary Sub-centers of the Animal Husbandry Department in this district.

Since, January, 2010, the Hon'ble Chief Minister's Special Animal

Husbandry campaigns are being held in various Panchayat Union Villages, where Livestock breeders are not having access to Veterinary aid. The veterinary aids include, Artificial Insemination (at free of cost) and Disease investigation works. Demonstration of Urea enrichment of paddy straw and

Audio Visuals are exhibited in the special camps by ICDP. Cattle owners in remote villages are benefited by the various departmental activities of this district.

The district has two livestock farms. One exotic cattle Breeding

Farm located at Eachenkottai, in Orathanad taluk and one Progeny Testing

Scheme (Buffalo) District Livestock Farm, Orathanad. There are two

Poultry Extension Centres one at Orathanad and another in Pattukkottai.

The Animal Husbandry Department of this District looks after the welfare of the livestock through 2 clinician Centres, 6 Veterinary

Hospitals, 45 Veterinary Dispensaries, 73 Sub-Centres, 14 Extension

Veterinary Dispensaries, 3 Mobile Veterinary Dispensaries and 16 visiting

Sub-centres in the district. Work done particulars of the department during

2010-2011 are as follows: 89

1. No. of Artificial Inseminations done : 178514

2. No. of Calves Born : 57382

3. No. of Mass contact Programmes conducted : 881

4. No. of Vaccinations done : 982964

5. No. of Castrations done : 38061

6. No. of cases treated : 597423

3.2.12. Fisheries i) Coastal Fisheries

Thanjavur is one of the 13 maritime districts of Tamil Nadu state engaged in Marine Fishing and its fish production is about five per cent of the total catch in the state. The State has a total coastal line running to 1076

Kms embedded with 442 fishermen villages of which Thanjavur District occupies 45.1 Kms stretch in Palk Strait with 27 fishing villages in from

Thambikkottai in Pattukkottai Taluk in the North and Sembagamadevi

Pattinam in in the South. The coastal aquaculture is being done in an area of 822 ha. whereas the inland aqua culture has an area of

2400ha. The following statement shows the fishermen population details of the District.

- Total Number of Families : 4899

- Total Number of male children : 4858 90

- Total Number of Female Children : 5050

- Total Number of Adult male : 8094

- Total Number of Adult Female : 7376

- Total Number of Male : 12952

- Total Number of female : 12426

- Total Population : 25373

Table 3.19 given below shows the employment status of Fisher Folk 91

Table 3.19

ACTIVITY-WISE EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF FISHER FOLK

Activity Male Female Total Fishing 5503 - 5503 Fresh Fish Trade 90 122 212 Dry Fish Trade 57 598 655 Net Making 21 1 22 Diving - - - Allied Activities 42 89 131 Unemployed 2125 6533 8658 Employed in Govt 27 6 33 Employed in Private 44 1 45 Others 286 23 309

The census data further reveal that there are 370 mechanized boats which are operated from Kallivayalthottam, Mallippattinam and

Sethubavachathram fishing villages. There is a “T” Jetty in Mallippattinam coastal village constructed in 1980 facilitate the easy landing of the catches of Mechanised Boats. About 2500 fishermen were involved in mechanised fishing operations. In addition to the mechanised boats, 924 Plank Built Boats and 107 Cattumarams are also operated from the coastal villages and provide employment opportunity for more than 3000 fisherman of this district. There are 23 Fishermen C0-operative Societies and Nine Fisherwomen Co-operative

Societies functioning in Thanjavur District. 92

Table 3.20 MARINE FISH PRODUCTION IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (in tonnes) 2006 – 07 2007 – 08 2008 – 09 2009 – 10 17.150 17.550 8.030 22.650

ii) Inland Fisheries

Thanjavur district is also the richest in inland fishing due to the presence of Cauvery river system. The irrigation channels, canals major and minor tanks are richest in many varieties of fish. The inland fishing consists mostly of local Carps, Major Carps and other varieties such as Cat fish, Murrells,

Tilapia etc.,

About 5,000 inland fishermen are engaged in fishing and the production of fish form inland water sources. Seeds of Catla, Rohu, Mirgal and Common Carp, early fry are also produced by the Fisheries Department.

Fish seed production centre Silver Carp, and grass carps early fry were brought from West Bengal and reared by private fish seed producers.

Enormous numbers of fishermen are indulged in fish production by culture methods.

93

3.2.13. Agricultural Marketing

There are 15 regulated markets, spread all over the district. The total arrival of commodities in the market committee of Thanjavur was 49237 tonnes during 2005-06 fetching a revenue of Rs.438.78 lakhs. As regards performance of regulated markets, they are yet to make a headway. No co-op marketing society is functioning in the district at present. There are four

Farmers’ Markets (Uzhavar Sandhai) functioning in the district.

3.2.14. Rural Industries / Agro Industries

Thanjavur district has 1329 food products industries as on 31st

March 2005 (Source: Tamil Nadu – An Economic Appraisal2005-06).

Besides this there are about 122 small scale industrial units engaged in the production of beverages and tobacco-based products. There are two sugar mills being operated under cooperative sector one sugar mill under private sector which caters to the need of sugarcane growing farmers.

3.2.15. Electrification

The electrification of villages play a vital role in the development of rural economy. The status of electrification process in Thanjavur district is given below.

- Towns electrified : 31 94

- Villages electrified : 1728

- Hamlets electrified : 3866

- Adi dravidal colonies electrified : 6671

- Pump sets enegized : 56129

The above details indicated the intensity with which the electrification process is going on Thanjavur district and this could be the accelerator of growth for Thanjavur district.

3.2.16. Banking

The banking activity of any district is a good indicator of commercialization of the region as these institutions provide the impetus for the economic activities (agriculture and industry) to flourish. These banks are either nationalized or scheduled banks that provide credit and capital requirements for agriculture and allied activities as well to industrial sector which both combine together to boost the economic growth of any particular region. Hence, details regarding the baking sector have been provided in the following Table 3.21, that follows. 95

Table 3.21

DETAILS ON BANKING SECTOR IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT

Particulars 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 No.of banks / offices 165 163 164 164 Aggregate deposits 189005 204100 217900 254500 (Rs.Lakhs) Gross bank credit (Rs.Lakhs) 104481 125000 157200 196900 Population served per branch 13481 13596 13513 13513 Per capita deposit 8591 9210 9832 11484 Per capital credit 4749 5610 7093 8885 Credit deposit ratio 55.30 61.20 72.10 77.40 Source : Tamil Nadu – An Economic Appraisal, 2011

The above table indicated that all the parameters of banking development in relation to the population has been increasing and shows that the banking sector is going to be the best instrument for the development of the economy of the district.

Besides the nationalized, commercial and scheduled banks operating in the district, there are banks under cooperative sector and their details as on

2010-11 are given below.

No. of branches : 21

Share Capital : Rs. 34.08 crores

Reserves : Rs. 35.84 crores

Deposits : Rs. 127.95 crores

Borrowings : Rs. 143.62 crores 96

The details regarding the number of cooperative societies and banks are given in the following table.

Central Cooperative Bank : 2

Cooperative Wholesale Stores : 1

Cooperative Training Institute : 1

Cooperative Printing Press : 1

District Cooperative Union : 1

Primary Coop.Agri.& Rural Development Bank : 8

Primary Agricultural Cooperative Bank : 257

Cooperative Marketing Society : 6

Cooperative Urban Bank : 6

Primary Cooperative Stores : 13

Students Coop.Stores : 116

Vegetable Growers Coop.Societies : 1

Cooperative Farm Societies : 5

Employees Cooperative Societies : 56

Land Colonization Cooperative Society : 5

Labour Contract Cooperative Society : 2

Youngman Literary Association Cooperative Society : 1

Homeopathy Medicine Practioners Coop.Society : 1

Physically Handicapped Cooperative Society : 1

Cooperative Canteen : 1 97

3.2.17. Education

The literacy level of the people in the district is an important factor and is very crucial for the economic prosperity of the district. The numbers and the places where the population are educated is the deciding factor to the above said economic criteria by which the economic development could be triggered. The details on educational institutions as could be seen from the district website are given below.

Universities : 1

Arts & Science College : 15

Medical College : 1

Engineering & Technology Colleges : 4

College for Special Education : 3

Schools for General Education : 1535

Schools for Professional Education : 2

Schools for Special Education : 13

Institution for other professional Education : 14

3.2.18. District Income

The gross and net domestic product of the district as a measure of the district’s income is given below, in Table 3.22.

98

Table 3.22 GROSS AND NET DOMESTIC PRODUCT OF THANJAVUR DISTRICT (Rs. In Lakhs) Net Domestic Product Gross Domestic Product Year Current Constant Current Constant Prices Prices Prices Prices 2000-01 137753 137753 149751 149751 2001-02 171347 163946 185920 177414 2002-03 179200 159531 196665 174018 2003-04 210135 162507 229643 177712 2004-05 271576 203255 293628 220017 2005-06 288598 192398 312215 209274 2006-07 302483 202109 328312 220074 2007-08 350079 223866 379776 243741 2008-09 346390 213335 378911 234308 2009-10 368710 213785 403854 235952 2010-11 372356 224185 568961 242034 Growth rate (in %) 12.00 5.00 11.75 5.17 Source : An Economic Appraisal 2010-11, Department of Evaluation and Applied Research Tamil Nadu.

The growth rate was estimated to be 12 per cent at current prices and

5.00 per cent at constant prices, which is an indication of the better income growth in the district. The growth rates estimated for the gross district domestic product was also exhibiting the same trend as that of net district domestic product.

99

3.3 SELECTION OF BLOCK

3.3.1 Pattukkottai

Pattukkottai Block is an urban town in Thanjavur district, Chola Nadu region, in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Pattukkottai is the 3 rd largest town in the Thanjavur district and is located in the Southern part of the district. It is a peaceful town situated in the Cauvery data and comes under the Tropical Dry

Evergreen Forest region. It receives maximum rainfall during winter months as it lies along the Coromandel Coast of South India.

Pattukkottai 10 o26’N 79 o19’E10.43 oN 79.32 oE is located along the southeast coast of India in the East-central region of Tamil Nadu. Pattukkottai

Municipality covers an area of 21.83km 2., and has an average elevation of 5 meters (16 feet). Pattukkottai is 48 km from the city of Thanjavur. The coast of the Bay of Bengal is just 12 km away, with Manora fort 15 km away from this town.

Pattukkottai comes under the “As” region of the Koppen climate classification, as it is situated in Tropical region and receive its maximum rainfall during the winter months from October, November and December. Due to its geographical position, Pattukkottai experiences Hot and Humid climate and there is no extreme variation in seasonal temperature. As it is nearer to equator, the summer season starts from April and extends till early June. This period observes the hottest part of the year, locally known as “Agni

Nakshatram” or “Khatri”. 100

Pattukkottai is a Taluk headquarter in the Thanjavur District. With a population of 3,70,288 Pattukkottai Taluk has the highest number of 175

Revenue villages in the district. Once Pattukkottai Taluk (Area : 906 square miles or 2,350 square kms) was the largest Taluk in the Old Tanjore District of

Madras Presidency.

Agriculture, using water from the River for irrigation, is the mainstay of the area, though the town hosts a number of other businesses.

Paddy and Coconut are the major crops. In Tamil Nadu after Pollachi, coconut cultivation has been extensively done in Pattukkottai surroundings on 30,000 hectares. Pattukkottai has been declared a Coir Cluster under a Central scheme called “Scheme Fund for Regeneration of Traditional industries” A coconut complex at Ponnavarayankottai near Pattukkottai is to be constructed at a cost of Rs.4 crore which will have sections for trading, grading coconuts and separating copra, drying yard, shops for traders, restrooms, information centre and parking lots. It would be extended in future depending upon the needs of farmers. There are also demands to set up industries to promote Coir-related products with value addition.

The city, which was historically ruled by Raja raja Cholas and Maratha

King Serfoji Maharaja, is known for its ancient sculptures and temples. The

Nadiyamman Koil temple is in the town itself. 101

There are 15 temples in Pattukkottai. There are 21 Primary Schools, 7

Middle Schools, 7 Secondary Schools, 7 higher secondary schools and 5 colleges respectively.

Figure 4 Map showing the Panchayat Villages of Pattukkottai Block

Pattukkottai Block - Panchayat Villages Number of Panchayat Villages 43 Aladikkumulai Anaikkadu Enathi Eripurakkarai Kalugupulikkadu Karambayam Kargavayal Kondikulam Mahilankottai Malavenirkadu Maliakkadu Mudalcheri Naduvikkottai Nambivayal Narasingapuram Othiadikkadu Palamuthi Pallikondan Pannavayal Parakkalkkottai Ponnavarayankottai 102

Pudukkottai Ullur Rajamadam Santhankadu Sembalur Sendakkottai Sendankadu Soorappallam Sundaranayagipuram T.maravakkadu T.melakkadu T.vadakadu (north) Thamarankottai (south) Thittagudi Thokkalikadu Thuvarankuruchi Veerakuruchi Vendakkottai Veppankadu

Source : Secondary Data

3.4 PERIOD OF STUDY

The study has employed both primary and secondary data. The primary data were collected during the financial year 2012 – 2013. The data were collected from the respondents by using interview method from May 2012 to

June 2013.

3.5. METHODOLOGY :

This study is based on primary data as well as secondary data. The required primary data have been collected with the help of detailed questionnaire by multi-stage sampling method. Direct personal interview method is used to elicit information’s from respondents. Thanjavur district consists of 14 blocks and 589 panchayat villages. Pattukkottai block has been very well farmed as majority of the farmers are here engaged in flower cultivation. The areas allocated have selected cultivation of Jasmine and Rose flowers in 497.5 and 45 acres respectively. A few farmers are cultivating Rose flower from Pattukkottai block and only 30 acres of land have been utilized for 103

flower cultivation. From Pattukkottai block five Panchayat villages have been chosen viz Enathi, Pudukkottai Ullur, Nattuchalai, Parakkalakkottai,

Thambikkottai Maravakkadu. Pattukkottai block consists of 43 Panchayat villages they are given in the following table from 43 Panchayat Villages 5 villages have been selected at random.

It is clear that the total population in the five selected panchayat villages in 21,244. From the above given villages 50 sample households cultivating flowers from each village are selected. The total sample consists of 250.

Among 250 farmers 50 per cent of farmers (125 households) are cultivating jasmine and the remaining 50 per cent are cultivating Roses. The apportionment of samples among Jasmine and Rose cultivation is done with the list and the villages details provided by the Village Administrative Officers of each panachayat village. The entire methodology of selection of sample is based on multi-stage sampling process. In the first place Thanjavur district forms the universe of the study. The sample frame is drawn on the basis of blocks of Thanjavur district. The second stage is the listing of block in

Thanjavur District. Pattukkottai block is selected at random from the 14 blocks cultivating Rose and Jasmine. The third stage involves the selection of panchayat villages from Pattukkottai block. This block consists of 25 panchayat villages. From 25 panchayat villages, 5 villages are selected at random from the population of 21,244. From the populations, 250 sample 104

households comprising 125 cultivating Jasmine and 125 cultivating Rose are selected at random.

3.6 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF INCOME

This section presents the definitions of various categories of income of the farmers. The categories of income analysed in the study are floriculture income, farm income, and Non-farm income.

Floriculture income has been defined as the sum of income from garland, cut flower, foliage, bouquet, floral decoration, perfumes, essential oil, and rose water. Flower crops at present are cultivated on the large scale, because the cultivators are aware of their potential in generating high income to the flower cultivators.

Farm income has two components namely cultivation income and wage income. Farm wage income refers to the earning of the family members by doing floriculture work. Income they get from cultivation of crops has been taken as cultivation income.

Non-farm wage income refers to the earnings of family members doing any work apart from agricultural activity. Earning of the family members as employees of government or private companies is salary income. Non-farm income is the sum of non-farm wage income and salary income.

105

3.7 SAMPLE DESIGN

Thanjavur District consists of 14 blocks and 589 Panchayat villages.

Pattukkottai block has been very well formed as majority of the farmers are engaged in glower cultivation. The areas allocated have selected cultivation of

Jasmine and Rose flowers in 497.5 and 45 acres respectively.

A few farmers are cultivating Rose flower from Pattukkottai block and only 30 acres of land have been utilized for flower cultivation. Five Panchayat villages have been chosen viz. Enathi, Pudukkottai Ullur, Nattuchalai,

Parakkalakkottai and T. Maravakkadu.

The required primary data have been collected with the help of detailed questionnaire by multi-stage sampling method.

Thanjavur District

Pattukkottai Block

Rose Cultivators Jasmine cultivators 125 125

250

From the chosen villages 50 sample households cultivating flowers from each villages are selected. The total sample consists of 250 respondents.

Among 125 farmers 50 percent of the farmers (125 households) are cultivating 106

Jasmine and the remaining 50 percent are cultivating Roses in Orathanadu and

Among 125 farmers 50 percent of the farmers (125 households) are cultivating

Jasmine and the remaining 50 percent are cultivating Roses in Pattukkottai.

The apportionment of samples among Jasmine and Rose cultivation is done with the list and the village details provided by the village Administrative officers of each Panchayat Village.

The entire methodology of selection of sample is based on multi-stage sampling process.

3.8 DATA PROCESSING

Statistical techniques used for analysis.

Multiple regression model, Chi-square and T-test have been used to substantiate the findings in the study. The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of SPSS (Statistical Packages for Social Sciences).

The constraints faced by the flower cultivators in the study area have been analysed using ranking method. The responses of the farmers were quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of a particular constraint in their family situation. The total number of positive responses in each area of the constrains was quantified and frequency distribution of the cultivators with respect to a particular constraint was obtained for ranking these constraints.

Chapter - IV

Floriculture – An Overview 107

CHAPTER- IV FLORICULTURE - AN OVERVIEW

4.1 HISTORY OF FLOWER ARRANGEMENT

The history of flower arrangement dates back to ancient

Egyptian times. It developed in Egyptian, Chinese, Roman, Greek, Byzantine, and later in European, cultures.

The Ancient Egyptians

The earliest known flower arranging dates back to ancient Egypt.

Egyptians were decorating with flowers as early as 2,500 BCE. They regularly placed cut flowers in vases, and highly stylized arrangements were used during burials, for processions, and simply as table decorations. Illustrations of arranged flowers have been found on Egyptian carved stone reliefs and painted wall decorations.

Flowers were selected according to symbolic meaning, with emphasis on religious significance. The lotus flower or water lily, for example, was considered sacred to Isis and was often included in arrangements. Many other flowers have been found in the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, and garlands of flowers were worn by loved ones and left at the tombs. These included blue scilla, poppy-flowered anemone, Iris sibirica , delphinium, narcissus, pal tree, papyrus and rose. 108

The Ancient Greeks and Romans

The Greeks and the Romans also used flowers. The ancient Greeks used flowers and herbs for adornment. They did not often use vases, focusing instead on garlands and wreaths. They would place plant material, such as olive branches, in terracotta. The leafy branches were probably used for weddings.

They also tossed petals onto floors and beds. Like the Egyptians, the Greeks and Romans had preferences for the flowers and foliage they used.

The most popular foliage used by the Greeks and the Romans were acorns, oak leaves, laurel, ivy, bay and parsley. Laurel wreaths were presented to winners of athletic competitions in the ancient Olympics; these wreaths were also awarded to individuals winning competition in poetic meets, while in Rome they symbolized a military victory and crowned the successful commander in honor of his triumph. The garland wreath was a symbol to the

Greeks of power, honor, allegiance, dedication; it was awarded in honor of athletes, poets, civic leaders, soldier, and heroes.

The preferred flowers include roses, hyacinths, honeysuckle, violets, and lilies. Other flowers such as tulips, larkspur, and marigolds were also selected for their shape, color, and form.

Wealth and power led the Romans and Greeks to the greater luxury in the use of flowers which, like the Egyptian, were used in religious rites. At banquets, roses were strewn on the floor to a depth of one foot, and the flowers 109

"rained" from the ceiling. The fragrance of so many roses was almost suffocating. The Romans used the roses at many meals and because of its overwhelming fragrance it was known as the "Hour of Rose".

Ancient China

The Chinese were making flower arrangements as far back as 207 BCE to 220 CE, in the Han era of ancient China. Flowers were an integral component of religious teaching and medicine.

Practitioners of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism placed cut flowers on their altars, a practice which dates back to 618-906 CE. They created paintings, carvings, and embroidered items with depictions of flowers.

The paintings can be found on vases, plates, scrolls, and silk, while carvings were done on wood, bronze, jade and ivory.

Buddhist teachings forbade the taking of a life, so religious practitioners worked sparingly when taking cuttings from plants. Flowers and leaves that were used to make basket arrangements were selected based on their symbolic meaning. For example, the bamboo, the peach tree, and the pear tree symbolized longevity. The tiger lily, the pomegranate, and the orchid symbolized fertility. The most honored of all flowers was the peony.

Considered the “king of flowers”, it symbolized wealth, good fortune, and high status. 110

During the period 500CE to 1453CE, the Byzantine Empire made its contribution to floral arrangements, which typically included a cone shape design. The foliage was placed inchalices and urns, which were further decorated with brightly colored flowers and fruit. Flowers commonly included in these arrangements were daisies, lilies, cypress, carnations, and pine.

Ribbons were also commonly used, and leaves and tiny flowers were set in arching lines to give an twisted effect to garlands.

Flower arranging reaches Europe

Flower arranging arrived in Europe around 1000 CE, and was particularly popular in churches and monasteries where flowers and plants were used for food as well as for decoration. As crusaders came back from the Middle East, they brought with them new and interesting plants. As a result,

European countries began experimenting with plants that were previously unknown to them.

MIDDLE AGES ( AD 476-1400 )

During this era, monks were known for having gardens with herbs and wildflowers. In the later part of the Gothic period flowers reached a more dominant role, such as flowers beginning to blossom in altar pictures, manuscripts, and paintings. 111

An important aspect of the monastery plan was to include a medicinal herb garden, which would “furnish the physician with the pharmaceutical products needed for his cures. A dependence on the power of herbs. without reference to their Creator [God] was regarded as improper for a Christian”.

Because God “causes herbs to grow,” their medical utility is fundamentally spiritual. In addition, many plants were used by monks and Christians in general in sacred rituals and ceremonies. They often had association and appealed to spiritual bases as well as physical effects in medical care.

RENAISSANCE( AD 1400-1600 )

The flower design started in Italy and grew through Europe. Paintings of impressive floral arrangements in vases were popular. Fruit blossoms and leaves were woven into garlands to decorate walls and vaulted ceilings, and petals were piled into baskets or strewn on the floors, streets, or allowed to float down from balconies.

BAROQUE PERIOD ( AD 1600-1775 )

At the beginning of this period floral designs were symmetrical and oval-shaped, with asymmetric crescents and S-shapes becoming popular later on.

112

DUTCH –FLEMISH PERIOD ( AD 1600-1750 )

Unlike the Baroque period the arrangements of the Dutch-Flemish period were more compact and proportioned. The major characteristic of this period was the variety of flowers within the bouquet.

FRENCH PERIOD (AD 1600-1814)

During the French Baroque period, feminine appeal became a major characteristic of floral design. Arrangements were asymmetrical using the C- crescent or the S-shape. In the empire period they used simple lines in triangle shapes and strong colour contrast. The typical empire design would be arranged in an urn containing an abundance of large richly coloured flowers.

ENGLISH–GEORGIAN PERIOD (AD 1714 -1760 )

The designs in this period were formal and symmetrical and often tightly arranged with a variety of flowers. Oriental design became influential due to active trading. At the end of the period the designs became more informal due to the fact that the fragrance of the flowers, which were believed to rid the air of diseases, became more important. Small, handheld arrangements called nosegays or tussie-mussies were used to carry sweet scents, and also helped mask the odors of society where bathing was often believed to be unhealthy.

113

VICTORIAN PERIOD ( AD 1820-1901 )

Flowers were considered fashionable in this period. Although in this era flowers were poorly proportioned, large mass flowers were placed tightly into containers to create compact arrangements that were asymmetrical and massed tightly. There was no definite style, but many different flowers and colours almost made the arrangement look unplanned. The tussie-mussie bouquets were still serving to eliminate odors. At the end of this period attempts were made to set up rules for a proper arranging of flowers, which is when it became an artful skill or profession.

The Italian Renaissance helped to give an extra spark to the art of flower arranging in Europe. It was during this time period that a wide variety of arrangement styles began to develop. By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, flower arrangements were commonplace and a wide variety of materials were used to make containers, including marble, heavy Venetian glass, and bronze.

Flower arrangements made during this time introduced a whole new element - the usage of tropical fruits. These arrangements also focused on creating colour contrast. Some of the popular flowers included the Lilium

Candidum (or Madonna Lily, used as a symbol for fertility and chastity), narcissus, pinks, iris, jasmine, pansies, French marigolds, cornflowers, and rosemary

114

4.2 FLORISTRY

Flower arrangement in front of the altar in St James' Church, Sydney

Wedding bouquet of Cymbidium

Dried flowers arranged into figures by Israel Raymundo Cornelio and Liliana Sanchez Mateos in Oaxaca 115

Floristry is the production, commerce and trade in flowers. It encompasses flower care and handling, floral design or flower arranging, merchandising, and display and flower delivery. Wholesale florists sell bulk flowers and related supplies to professionals in the trade. Retail florists offer fresh flowers and related products and services to consumers.

Floristry can involve the cultivation of flowers as well as their arrangement, and to the business of selling them. Much of the raw material supplied for the floristry trade comes from the cut flower industry. Florist shops, along with online stores are the main flower-only outlets, but supermarkets, garden supply stores and filling stations also sell flowers.

Floral design or floral arts is the art of creating flower arrangements in vases, bowls, baskets or other containers, or making bouquets and compositions from cut flowers, foliages, herbs, ornamental grasses and other plant materials. Often the terms "floral design" and "floristry" are considered synonymous. Florists are people who work with flowers and plants, generally at the retail level. Floristry differs from floristics, the study of distribution and relationships of plant over geographic areas. Floristry also differs from horticulture, which more broadly relates to the cultivation of flowers and plants so they will remain fresh as long as possible, and would be desirable for purchase, which also involves knowledge of customers' requirements and expectations. The ability to create a variety of floral designs 116

such as wreaths, bouquets, corsages, boutonnières/'buttonholes', permanent arrangements and other more complicated arrangements is also important.

Education, both formal and informal, is another significant segment of the floristry industry. Established floristry designers and artists impart their craft to students interested in floral design as hobby or career. Courses are generally available through community colleges, private post-secondary vocational schools, and professional florist trade associations.

The floristry business has a significant market in the corporate and social event world, as flowers play a large part in the decor of special events and meetings. Centerpieces, entryways, reception tables, bridal bouquets, wedding chuppahs and stage sets are only a few examples of how flowers are used in the business and social event settings. Flowers are also traditionally used in ecclesiastical settings and their arrangement is often done by skilled church volunteers.

Styles of floristry

Many nations have their own style of floral arranging. This is dependent on what flower varieties are readily available and the culture of the nation. 117

Ikebana

Child learning the art of Ikebana

Ikebana is a style of floral design that originated in Japan. Best known for its simplicity of line and form, Ikebana is a design style primarily practiced for personal enjoyment. It has three parts of alignment: heaven, man, and earth.

English Garden

English Garden style is traditionally an English form of floral design.

Stems are placed in a radial fashion and feature abundant use of seasonal flowers and foliages. These designs are often done as low, tufted mounds, or taller vase arrangements that are all-sided (360°), and incorporate garden flowers like roses, gardenia, camellia, delphinium and peonies. The flowers are usually arranged with minimal space between the blooms and foliage is used to accent the flowers as these are the main feature. 118

Modern/European Style

Modern/European Style floristry involves contemporary, linear designs that highlight unique forms of both individual floral materials and of the designs themselves. Arrangements generally feature negative space and incorporate asymmetric placement of materials. The style stands in direct contrast to traditional radial arrangements such as English Garden. Modern designs are identified by their play on the space used between each bloom, which is often dramatic, and the play on the use of color and different textures, which can be quite experimental.

Modern/European Style designs often incorporate unique, exotic or tropical flowers such as Bird of Paradise, Orchids Anthurium and Protea but may also employ more common blossoms, such as Roses, Gerberas and lilies.

Significance of particular flowers

Flower market in Aalsmeer 119

Tulip shop in Amsterdam

Typically, a florist will organize flowers by season and holiday. Flowers have various different meanings in different cultures. The holidays and events for which flowers are used vary. Poppies are used to remember fallen soldiers only in Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries. People often prefer flowers that are associated with their ethnic group or country and the cultural meaning of the flower color strongly affects their choice and use. Colors convey different meanings to different groups so that, for example, various colors may be associated with luck or death or love. A flower such as a red rose might communicate love in some cultures, whereas in others, it might be considered indecent or simply puzzling. The vastly divergent attitudes to the color white can also lead to miscommunication and sometimes give offence.

White, for example, represents death in many Asian cultures, whereas white is usually a symbol of purity and innocence in countries with a European heritage. 120

Fresh flower sources

There are usually three major sources of fresh flowers for retail florists: local growers, local wholesalers and flower auctions. The majority of these are supplied by specialist horticultural and cut flower suppliers. Internationally there are hundreds of wholesale flower markets and auctions, the largest of which is located in Aalsmeer, Holland: the Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer. Other major markets include the fledgling Dubai Flower Centre and the Ota Flower

Market in Tokyo, Japan.

Within North America, Miami is considered to be the main distribution point for imported fresh flowers. Many local wholesalers purchase fresh flower stock from importers in Miami to resale to local florist in their areas. Wholesale flower districts are present in many North American cities such as New York,

Boston, and Los Angeles, San Francisco and Carlsbad, California. Flower auctions are run using the Dutch clock system and are mainly located in

Canada: Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

4.3 FLORISTRY SHOPS

A name tribute ("MUM") at a funeral in England, made with Chrysanthemums 121

Generally, a florist's shop will contain a large array of flowers, sometimes displayed on the street, or will have a large plate glass window to display the flowers. To keep them fresh, the flowers will be refrigerated and kept in water, generally in glass or plastic vases or other containers. Most shops have a refrigerator/chiller cabinet/cooler near the front of the shop/store with large glass doors so that customers can easily view the contents. Some shops also have another cooler out of the customers' view where they keep extra stock and arrangements for customers' orders. Most stores have a separate work room in which the design florist or designers can work on orders with more privacy.

The flowers sold in florist shops typically represent the varieties abundantly available in the season but also include blossoms flown in from around the world. Basic varieties in temperate latitudes include roses, tulips, irises, orchids and lilies. Fashion sometimes plays a role in floristry; what is considered the flower that everyone needs to have today can change very quickly.

Some shops also stock gift baskets, fruits, and chocolates as well as flowers, whereas some shops will purchase these things only when needed for an order. Floral business is seasonal and is heavily influenced by the following holidays and events: Christmas, Valentine's Day, Administrative Professionals'

Day, Mothers' Day, All Souls Day, Advent, Easter, weddings and funerals.

These occasions make up the largest part of the business, with the sale of house plants and home decor being a smaller, but more constant, part. 122

Flowers for personal enjoyment as well as those selected to celebrate birthdays, anniversaries, thank-yous and get well wishes are also a significant portion of a florist's business.

Supermarket flowers

Supermarket display under fluorescent lighting

Cut flowers are widely sold in supermarkets and petrol stations. These outlets offer a limited selection, usually in the form of mixed bouquets and roses by the dozen. Flowers purchased at these outlets are generally less expensive than the flowers purchased at a florist shop. Professional florists may offer a greater selection, higher flower quality, or more skillfully arranged flowers.

Technology

The World Wide Web has had a significant impact on traditional florists, with the North American market experiencing a more than 20% decline in traditional, independently owned flower shops since 1998. Purchases from 123

shops are slowly being overtaken byonline flower delivery. Some independent florists have taken to having their own online store, where customers can order online as well as on the telephone.

Floral Wire Services play an intermediary role in the flower business, gathering orders on behalf of local retailers and then sending these via proprietary computer systems to florists for fulfillment. Floral Wire

Services take a percentage of customers order value for orders provided through their websites and additional fees for the transmission of orders to local florists.

4.4 FLORICULTURE

A retail greenhouse shows some of the diversity of floricultural plants.

Floriculture , or flower farming , is a discipline of horticulture

concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. The development, via plant breeding, of new varieties is a major occupation of floriculturists. 124

Floriculture crops include bedding plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. As distinguished from nursery crops, floriculture crops are generally herbaceous. Bedding and garden plants consist of young flowering plants (annuals and perennials) and vegetable plants. They are grown in cell packs (in flats or trays), in pots, or in hanging baskets, usually inside a controlled environment, and sold largely for gardens and landscaping. Pelargonium ("geraniums"), Impatiens ("busy lizzies"), and Petunia are the best-selling bedding plants. The many cultivars

of Chrysanthemum are the major perennial garden plant in the United States.

Flowering plants are largely sold in pots for indoor use. The major flowering plants are poinsettias, orchids, florist chrysanthemums, and finished florist azaleas. Foliage plants are also sold in pots and hanging baskets for indoor and patio use, including larger specimens for office, hotel, and restaurant interiors.

Cut flowers are usually sold in bunches or as bouquets with cut foliage.

The production of cut flowers is specifically known as the cut flower industry .

Farming flowers and foliage employs special aspects of floriculture, such as spacing, training and pruning plants for optimal flower harvest; and post- harvest treatment such as chemical treatments, storage, preservation and packaging. In Australia and the United States some species are harvested from the wild for the cut flower market.

125

4.5 ROSE

Rose

Rosa rubiginosa

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked):

(unranked):

Order:

Family:

Subfamily: Rosoideae

Genus: Rosa

L.

Species 126

See

Synonyms

• Hulthemia Dumort.

• ×Hulthemosa Juz. (Hulthemia ×Rosa )

A rose is a woody perennial of the genus Rosa , within the family Rosaceae. There are over 100 species. They form a group of plants that can be erect shrubs, climbing or trailing with stems that are often armed with sharp prickles. Flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through yellows and reds. Most species are native to Asia, with smaller numbers native to Europe, North America, and northwest Africa. Species, cultivars and hybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach 7 meters in height. Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range of .

The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin rosa , which was perhaps borrowed from Oscan. 127

Botany

Cross-section through a developing

Exterior view of rose buds

Rose leaflets

The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13) leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small 128

prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are deciduous but a few

(particularly from South east Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.

The hybrid garden rose "Amber Flush"

The flowers of most species have five petals, with the exception of , which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red.

Beneath the petals are five (or in the case of some Rosa sericea , four).

These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes. Roses are insect-pollinated in nature.

The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip.

Many of the domestic cultivars do not produce hips, as the flowers are so tightly petalled that they do not provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa pimpinellifolia ) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the hypanthium, which contains

5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called achenes) embedded 129

in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the dog rose (Rosa canina ) and rugosa rose ( ), are very rich in , among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings, which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat the seeds.

Rose thorns are actually prickles – outgrowths of the epidermis.

While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are technically prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). (True thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha , are modified stems, which always originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn itself.) Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and Rosa pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight prickles, probably an adaptation to reduce browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind- 130

blown sandand so reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points.

Species

Rosa viridifolia, the petals resemnle leaves

The genus Rosa is subdivided into four subgenera:

• Hulthemia (formerly Simplicifoliae , meaning "with single leaves")

containing one or two species from southwest Asia, R. persica and Rosa

berberifolia which are the only roses without compound leaves or stipules.

• Hesperrhodos (from the Greek for "western rose") contains Rosa

minutifolia and Rosa stellata , from North America.

• Platyrhodon (from the Greek for "flaky rose", referring to flaky bark)

with one species from east Asia, Rosa roxburghii . 131

• Rosa (the type subgenus, incorrectly called Eurosa ) containing all the

other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections.

• Banksianae – white and yellow flowered roses from China.

• Bracteatae – three species, two from China and one from India.

• Caninae – pink and white flowered species

from Asia, Europe and North Africa.

• Carolinae – white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all

from North America.

• Chinensis – white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-color roses

from China and Burma.

• Gallicanae – pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from

western Asia and Europe.

• Gymnocarpae – one species in western North America ( Rosa

gymnocarpa ), others in east Asia.

• Laevigatae – a single white flowered species from China

• Pimpinellifoliae – white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses

from Asia and Europe.

• Rosa (syn. sect. Cinnamomeae ) – white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red

roses from everywhere but North Africa.

• Synstylae – white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas.

132

Rosa gallica Evêque , painted byRedouté

Uses

Roses are best known as ornamental plants grown for their flowers in the garden and sometimes indoors. They have been also used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover and slope stabilization. They also have minor medicinal uses.

Ornamental plants

The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage

(such as Rosa glauca and ), ornamental thorns (such as Rosa sericea ) or for their showy fruit (such as Rosa moyesii ). 133

Hybrid Tea cultivar 'Mrs. Herbert Stevens'

Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in

Mediterranean countries, Persia, and China.[5] Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants. Most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having mutated into additional petals.

In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as

1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. 134

Cut flowers

Bouquet of pink roses

Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercial cut flowers.

Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale.

In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown in glasshouses, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pest and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.

Perfume

Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or , which is a mixture of volatile essential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is rose water which is used for cooking, 135

cosmetics, medicine and in religious practices. The production technique originated in Persia then spread through Arabia and India, and more recently into eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses

(Rosa × damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the world Rosa × centifolia is commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.

Geraniol (C 10 H18 O)

The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol and rose camphor, an odorless solid composed of alkanes, which separates from rose oil. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.

Food and drink

Rose hips are occasionally made into jam, jelly, and marmalade, or are brewed for tea, primarily for their high vitamin C content. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to 136

produce , which is used in skin products and some makeup products.

Rosa canina hips

Rose petals or flower buds are sometimes used to flavour ordinary tea, or combined with other herbs to make herbal teas.

In France there is much use of rose syrup, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals. In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to make rose scones and marshmallows. In the Indian subcontinent Rooh Afza, a concentrated squash made with roses, is popular, as well as rose-flavored ice cream and kulfi.[8][9][10]

Rose flowers are used as food, also usually as flavouring or to add their scent to food. Other minor uses include candied rose petals.

Rose creams (rose flavoured fondant covered in chocolate, often topped with a crystallised rose petal) are a traditional English confectionery widely available from numerous producers in the UK. 137

Medicine

The rose hip, usually from R. canina is used as a minor source of

Vitamin C. The fruits of many species have significant levels of vitamins and have been used as a food supplement. Many roses have been used in herbal and folk medicines. has long been used in Chinese traditional medicine. This and other species have been used for stomach problems, and are being investigated for controlling cancer growth.

Culture

Art

Roses are a favored subject in art and appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg born Belgian artist and botanist Pierre-Joseph Redouté is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses.

Codex Manesseilluminated with roses, illustrated between 1305 and 1340 in Zürich. It contains love songs in Middle High German 138

Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.

Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-

Auguste Renoir have paintings of roses among their works.

Symbolism

The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol.

Pests and diseases

Wild roses are host plants for a number of pests and diseases. Many of these are also shared with other plants, including especially other genera of the Rosaceae. Cultivated roses are often subject to severe damage from insect, arachnid and fungal pests and diseases. In many cases they cannot be usefully grown without regular treatment to control these problems. 139

4.6 JASMINE

Jasmine

Jasminum sambac 'Grand Duke of Tuscany'

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked):

Order:

Family:

Tribe: Jasmineae

Genus: Jasminum L. 140

Type species

Jasminum officinale L.

Species

More than 200, see List of Jasminum species [1][2][3]

Synonyms

• hort. ex Schltdl

• Jasminium Dumort.

• Menodora Humb. & Bonpl.

• Mogorium Juss.

• Noldeanthus Knobl.

Jasmine (taxonomic name Jasminum ) is a genus of shrubs and in the olive family (Oleaceae). It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the characteristic fragrance of their flowers. A number of unrelated plants contain the word 'Jasmine' in their common names (see Other plants called 'Jasmine')

Description

Jasmines can be either deciduous (leaves falling in autumn) or evergreen (green all year round), and can be erect, spreading, or climbing shrubs and vines. Their leaves are borne opposite or alternate. They can be 141

simple, trifoliate, or pinnate. The flowers are typically around 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter. They are white or yellow in color, although in rare instances they can be slightly reddish. The flowers are borne in cymose clusters with a minimum of three flowers, though they can also be solitary on the ends of branchlets. Each flower has about four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They have two stamens with very short filaments. The are linear or ovate. Thecalyx is bell-shaped. They are usually very fragrant. The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe.

The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However, natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac (2n=39), Jasminum flexile (2n=52), Jasminum primulinum (2n=39), and Jasminum angustifolium (2n=52). [6]

Distribution and habitat

Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Australasia. Of the 200 species, only one is native to Europe. Their center of diversity is in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Although not native to Europe, a number of jasmine species have become naturalized in Mediterranean Europe. For example, the so-called

Spanish jasmine or Catalonian jasmine ( ) was originally from Iran and western South Asia, and is now naturalized in the Iberian peninsula. 142

Jasminum fluminense (which is sometimes known by the inaccurate name "Brazilian Jasmine") and Jasminum dichotomum (Gold Coast Jasmine) are invasive species in Hawaii andFlorida. Jasminum polyanthum , also known as White Jasmine, is an invasive weed in Australia.

Taxonomy

Species belonging to genus Jasminum are classified under the tribe Jasmineae of the olive family (Oleaceae). Jasminum is divided into five sections—Alternifolia , Jasminum , Primulina , Trifoliolata , and Unifoliolata . The genus name is derived from the Persian Yasameen ("gift from God") through Arabic and Latin.

Species

A double-flowered cultivar of Jasminum sambac in flower with an unopened bud. The flower smells like the tea as it opens.

Species include:

• J. abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC.

– forest jasmine 143

• J. adenophyllum Wall.

– bluegrape jasmine, pinwheel jasmine, princess jasmine

• J. angulare Vahl

• J. angustifolium (L.) Willd.

• J. auriculatum Vahl

– Indian hasmine, needle-flower jasmine

• J. azoricum L.

• J. beesianum Forrest & Diels

– red jasmine

• J. dichotomum Vahl

– Gold Coast jasmine

• J. didymum G.Forst.

• J. dispermum Wall.

• J. elegans Knobl.

• J. elongatum (P.J.Bergius) Willd.

• J. floridum Bunge

• J. fluminense Vell.

• J. fruticans L.

• J. grandiflorum L.

– Catalonian jasmine, jasmin odorant, royal jasmine, Spanish jasmine

• J. humile L.

– Italian jasmine, Italian yellow jasmine 144

• J. anceolarium Roxb.

• J. mesnyi Hance

– Japanese jasmine, primrose jasmine, yellow jasmine

• J. multiflorum (Burm.f.) Andrews

– Indian jasmine, star jasmine, winter jasmine

• J. multipartitum Hochst.

– starry wild jasmine

• J. nervosum Lour.

• J. nobile C.B.Clarke

• J. nudiflorum Lindl.

– winter jasmine

• J. odoratissimum L.

– yellow jasmine

• J. officinale L.

– common jasmine, jasmine, jessamine, poet's jasmine, summer jasmine,

white jasmine

• J. parkeri Dunn

– dwarf jasmine

• J. polyanthum Franch.

• J. sambac (L.) Aiton

– Arabian jasmine, Sambac jasmine

• J. simplicifolium G.Forst. 145

• J. sinense Hemsl.

• J. subhumile W.W.Sm.

• J. subtriplinerve Blume

• J. tortuosum Willd.

• J. urophyllum Hemsl.

Cultivation and uses

Widely cultivated for its flowers, jasmine is enjoyed in the garden, as a house plant, and as cut flowers. The flowers are worn by women in their hair in southern and southeast Asia. The delicate jasmine flower opens only at night and may be plucked in the morning when the tiny petals are tightly closed, then stored in a cool place until night. The petals begin to open between six and eight in the evening, as the temperature lowers.

Jasmine tea

Green tea with jasmine flowers

146

Jasmine tea is consumed in China, where it is called jasmine-flower tea. Jasminum sambac flowers are also used to make jasmine tea, which often has a base of green tea or white tea, but sometimes an Oolong base is used.

Flowers and teaare "mated" in machines that control temperature and humidity.

It takes four hours or so for the tea to absorb the fragrance and flavour of the jasmine blossoms, and for the highest grades, this process may be repeated as many as seven times. It must be refired to prevent spoilage. The spent flowers may or may not be removed from the final product, as the flowers are completely dry and contain no aroma. Giant fans are used to blow away and remove the petals from the denser tea leaves.

Jasmine syrup

Jasmine syrup, made from jasmine flowers, is used as a flavouring agent.

Jasmine essential oil

Jasmine is considered an absolute and not an essential oil as the petals of the flower are much too delicate and would be destroyed by the distillation process used in creating essential oils. Other than the processing method it is essentially the same as an essential oil. Absolute is a technical term used to denote the process of extraction. It is in common use. Its flowers are either extracted by the labour-intensive method of enfleurage or through chemical 147

extraction. It is expensive due to the large number of flowers needed to produce a small amount of oil. The flowers have to be gathered at night because the odour of jasmine is more powerful after dark. The flowers are laid out on cotton cloths soaked in olive oil for several days and then extracted leaving the true jasmine essence. Some of the countries producing jasmine essential oil are

India, Egypt, China and Morocco.

Jasmine absolute used in perfume and incense

Jasmine ( Jasminum officinale ) absolute

Many species also yield an absolute, which is used in perfumes and incense. Its chemical constituents include methyl anthranilate, indole,benzyl alcohol, linalool, and skatole. 148

Medical

Jasmine scent and (R)-(–)-linalool (licareol), one of its major odor components, has been reported to have sedative properties now being investigated for medical applications.

Jasmonates

Jasmine gave name to the jasmonate plant hormones as methyl jasmonate isolated from the jasmine oil of Jasminum grandiflorum led to the discovery of the molecular structure of jasmonates.

Cultural importance

The White Jasmine Branch , painting of ink and color on silk by Chinese artist Zhao Chang, early 12th century

Madurai, a city in Tamil Nadu is famous for its Jasmine production. In the western and southern states of India, including Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, jasmine is cultivated in private homes. 149

These flowers are used in regular worship and for hair ornaments. Jasmine is also cultivated commercially, for both the domestic and industrial uses such as the perfume industry. It is used in rituals like marriages, religious ceremonies and festivals. In the Chandan Yatra of lord Jagannath, the deity is bathed with water flavored in sandalwood paste and jasmine.

Jasmine used as garland for Meenakshi Sundareswarar, Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Jasmine flower blooming near Hyderabad, India

Jasmine flower vendors selling ready-made garlands of jasmine, or in the case of the thicker motiyaa (in Hindi) or mograa (in Marathi) varietal, bunches of jasmine, as well as flowers by weight, are a common sight on city 150

streets in many parts of India. They may be found around entrances to temples, on major thoroughfares, and in major business areas.

A change in presidency in Tunisia in 1987 and the Tunisian

Revolution of 2011 are both called "Jasmine revolutions" in reference to the flower. Jasmine flowers were also used as a symbol during the 2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests in the People's Republic of China. In Syria, jasmine is the symbolic flower of Damascus, which is called the City of Jasmine.

In Thailand, jasmine flowers are used as a symbol for motherhood. "Jasmine" is also a feminine given name in some countries.

Jasmine as a national flower

Several countries and states consider jasmine as a national symbol. They are the following:

• Hawaii: Jasminum sambac (" pikake ") is perhaps the most popular of

flowers. It is often strung in leis and is the subject of many songs.

• Indonesia: Jasminum sambac is the national flower, adopted in 1990. It

goes by the name " melati putih " and is the most important flower

in wedding ceremonies for ethnic Indonesians, especially in the island

of Java.

• Pakistan: Jasminum officinale is known as the " chambeli " or " yasmin ",

it is the national flower. 151

• Philippines: Jasminum sambac is the national flower. Adopted in 1935,

it is known as " sampaguita " in the islands. It is usually strung in garlands

which are then used to adorn religious images.

Other plants called 'Jasmine'

• Brazilian Jasmine sanderi

• Cape Jasmine Gardenia ,

• Carolina Jasmine Gelsemium

• Chilean Jasmine Mandevilla laxa

• New Zealand Jasmine capsularis

• Night-Blooming Jasmine Cestrum nocturnum

• Night-Flowering Jasmine Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

• Red Jasmine Plumeria rubra

• Star Jasmine, Confederate Jasmine Trachelospermum

• Tree Jasmine (disambiguation)

• Jasmine rice, a type of long-grain rice

Chapter - V

Analysis and Discussion 152

CHAPTER- V ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of the economic condition of the flower cultivators in the study area. And it comprises of five sections I furnishes the analysis of economics condition of the respondents in the study area. Section II provides the cost structure of flower cultivation in the study area. Section III gives the market channels of flower in study area. Section IV brings out the profitability of floriculture in the study area. Section V brings out the farmers’ initial stage cultivation of flower in the study area.

The first objective of the study is to identify the economic conditions of the flower cultivators in study area.

The analysis of economic condition of the respondents in Pattukkottai

Block, can be understood with the help of the following five tables. Table. 5.1 brings out the religion wise distribution of the respondents. Table 5.2 deals with the community wise distribution of the respondents. Table 5.3 deals with the sex wise distribution of the respondents. Table 5.4 deals with the age wise distribution of the respondents. Table 5.5 deals with the education level wise distribution of the respondents. Table 5.6 deals with the type of household.

Table 5.7 brings out the household income of the respondents Table 5.8 deals with education wise income of the respondents. 153

TABLE – 5.1

RELIGION WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

HINDU CHRISTIAN MUSLIM TOTAL Flowers Number % Number % Number % Number % Rose 98 78.4 25 20.0 2 1.6 125 100 Jasmine 84 67.2 35 28.0 6 4.8 125 100 Total 182 72.8 60 24.0 8 3.2 250 100 Source : Primary data.

The Table 5.1 reveals the religion wise classification of the villages. The sample villages belong to the following religions namely Hindus, Christians and Muslims. Among these there religions Hindu religions constitutes a major protion i.e.; 78.4 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators. Christians come the next that is 20 per cent. The last position is held by the Muslims i.e.; 1.6 per cent. From the collected data, the above said levels are identified.

Among Jasmine flower cultivators 67.2 per cent are Hindus. 28 per cent of the cultivators are Christians. 4.8 per cent of the cultivators are Muslims.

The total number of the respondents belonging to the Hindu religions is

72.8 per cent while the respondents belonging to Christian religion are 24 per cent and those of Muslim religion are 3.2 per cent. The data show that most of the Hindu farmers cultivated Rose flowers.

154

DIAGRAM – 5.1

RELIGION WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

78.4 80

67.2 70

60

50

40 Rose Jasmine Percentage 28 30

20

20

10 4.8 1.6

0 Hindu Christian Muslim Religion

155

TABLE – 5.2

COMMUNITY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

Flowers B.C S.C S.T TOTAL Number % Number % Number % Number % Rose 85 68 25 20 15 12 125 100 Jasmine 90 72 15 12 20 16 125 100 Total 175 70 40 16 35 14 250 100 Source : Primary data.

Table 5.2 reveals community wise classification of the sample villages.

The sample village belong to the following communities namely Backward community, scheduled caste and scheduled tribes. 68 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators are Backward community. 20 per cent of cultivators are scheduled caste. 12 per cent of Rose flower cultivators are scheduled tribes.

Among Jasmine flower cultivators 72 per cent are Backward community, 12 per cent are scheduled caste, 16 per cent of the Jasmine flower cultivators are scheduled tribes.

The total number of the respondents belonging to the Backward community is 70 per cent while the respondents belonging to scheduled caste are 16 per cent and those of the scheduled are 14 per cent.

156

DIAGRAM – 5.2

COMMUNITY WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

80

72

70 68

Rose Jasmine 60

50

40 Percentage

30

20 20 16

12 12

10

0 B.C S.C S.T Community

157

TABLE – 5.3

SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

Male Female Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Rose 67 53.6 58 46.4 125 100 Jasmine 75 60 50 40 125 100 Total 142 56.8 108 43.2 250 100 Source : Primary data.

The table 5.3 gives the sex wise distribution of the respondents. 53.6 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators are male and 46.4 per cent are female respondents.

As for sex wise distribution of the respondents in Jasmine flower cultivators category, male respondents are 60 per cent and female respondents are 40 per cent respectively.

The proportion of males is totally 56.8 per cent while 43.2 per cent are female respondents.

Male respondents dominate. The female respondents are less in number. 158

DIAGRAM – 5.3 SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

60

60 53.6 Rose Jasmine

46.4 50

40

40

30 Percentage

20

10

0 Male Female Sex

159

TABLE – 5.4

AGE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

Up to 30 31-40 41-50 Above 50 Total Flower No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Rose 3 2.4 54 43.2 55 44 13 10.4 125 100 Jasmine 4 3.2 48 38.4 51 40.8 22 17.6 125 100 Total 7 2.8 102 40.8 106 42.4 35 14 250 100 Source : Primary data.

Table 5.4 reveals the classification of the age group of the respondent.

2.4 per cent of the farmers up to the age of 30 cultivate Rose flowers. 43.2 per cent of the 31-40 age group farmers cultivate Rose flowers. 44 per cent of the

41-50 age group farmers cultivate the same flowers and 10.4 per cent of the above 50 age group farmers cultivate Rose flowers.

3.2 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators are of the age 30.38.4 per cent of the 31-40 age group cultivate the same flowers. 40.8 per cent of the 41-50 age group cultivate Jasmine flower and 17.6 per cent of the above 50 age group cultivators Jasmine flowers.

The total number of the respondents upto 30 age group is 2.8 per cent while the 31-40 age group is 40.8 per cent 41-50 age group is 42.4 per cent and in the above 50 age group 14 per cent.

Most of the cultivators in the age of 41-50 cultivate both Rose and

Jasmine flowers. The age group of 41-50 are well experienced cultivators. The farmers above the age of 50 cultivate jasmine flowers, more than Rose. 160

DIAGRAM – 5.4

AGE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS

44 45 43.2 40.8 38.4 40

Rose 35 Jasmine

30

25

20 17.6 Percentage

15 10.4

10

3.2 5 2.4

0 Up to 30 31-40 41-50 Above 50 Age

161

TABLE – 5.5

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

RESPONDENTS

1-5th 6-10 th 11-12 th Illiterate Total Flower Standard Standard Standard No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Rose 4 3.2 54 43.2 65 52.0 2 1.6 125 100 Jasmine 22 17.0 41 32.0 55 44.0 7 5.0 125 100 Total 26 10.4 95 38.0 120 48.0 9 3.6 250 100 Source : Primary data.

Human development basically comprise of income, health and education apart from various other factors like gender equality and political freedom.

Among the various factors, the principal institutional mechanism for human development is the development of educational systems. Education is of value in itself (in trinsic value) and is valued for what it can do (instrumental value).

The provision of free and compulsory education for all is one of the challenges accepted by the government of India through the “directive principles of state policy” which have been mentioned in the constitution as follows: the states shall endeavor to provide in free education within a period of 10 years from the commencement of this constitution.

The table: 5.5 reveals education level classification 3.2 per cent of the

Rose flower cultivators are illiterate. 43.2 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators have finished 1-5 standard. 52 per cent of the cultivators have finished 11 to 12 standard. 162

72 per cent of the Jasmine flower cultivators are illiterate. 32 per cent of the Jasmine flower cultivators have finished 1-5 standard, 44 per cent of the cultivators have finished 6-10 standard. 5 per cent of the cultivators have finished 11-12 standard. 163

DIAGRAM – 5.5

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL WISE DISTRIBUTION OF THE

RESPONDENTS

60

52

50 Rose 43.2 44 Jasmine

40

32

30 Percentage

20 17

10 5 3.2 1.6

0 Illiterate 1-5th Standard 6-10th Standard 11-12th Standard Educational Level

164

TABLE – 5.6

TYPE OF HOUSE OF RESPONDENTS

Pucca Thatched Tiled Terraced Total Flower House No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Rose 7 5.6 112 89.6 5 4.0 1 0.8 125 100 Jasmine 24 19.2 91 72.8 10 8.0 - - 125 100 Total 31 12.4 203 81.2 15 6.0 1 0.4 250 100 Source : Primary data.

The economic reforms which were initiated in this country in 1991 have certainly accelerated the pace of economic development which is anticipated to create an increased demand for better quality of housing and non-residential spaces. At this moment, the country needs “socially desirable and market – responsive policies” to enable the real estate sector to provide housing for all in a healthy social environment. Our country has succeeded in providing food and clothing to the people during the past 50 years.

Table 5.6 shows the different type of house. 5.6 per cent of the Rose flowers cultivators live in thatched house, 89.6 per cent of the Rose flowers cultivators live in tiled houses. 4 per cent of the Rose cultivators live in terraced houses. 0.8 per cent Rose flower cultivators live in pucca houses.

19.2 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators live in thatched houses. 72.8 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators live in tiled houses. 8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators live in terraced houses. 165

The total number of the respondents living in thatched house are 12.4 per cent, while the respondents living in tiled house are 81.2 per cent, whereas the respondents living terraced houses are 6 per cent and the respondents living pucca house are 0.4 per cent

Most of the farmers live in tiled houses, because their income and expenditure are very moderate.

166

DIAGRAM – 5.6

TYPE OF HOUSE OF RESPONDENTS

0 Pucca House Jasmine 0.8 Rose

8 Terraced 4 Type of House of Type 72.8 Tiled 89.6

19.2 Thatched 5.6

0 20 40 60 80 100 Percentage

167

TABLE – 5.7

HOUSE HOLD INCOME OF RESPONDENTS

1,20,001- Above Upto 50,000 50,001-1,00,00 1,00,001-1,50,000 2,00,001-2,50,000 Total Flowers 2,00,000 2,50,000

Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %

Rose 1 0.8 2 1.6 2 1.6 56 44.8 61 48.8 3 2.4 125 100

Jasmine 1 0.8 2 1.6 27 21.8 69 55.2 19 15.2 7 5.8 125 100

Total 2 1.6 4 3.2 29 11.6 125 50.0 80 32.0 10 4.0 250 100

Source : Primary data.

167 167 168

The table 5.7 reveals the classification of house hold income. 0.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn a household income up to Rs. 50000. 1.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 50001-100000. 1.6 per cent of

Rose cultivators earn Rs. 100001-150000. 44.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 150001-200000. 48.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 200001-250000. 2.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn above

250000 rupees.

Among Jasmine flowers cultivators 0.8 per cent earn a household income up to Rs. 50000. 1.6 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators earn Rs.

500001-100000. 21.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn Rs. 100001-150000.

55.2 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators earn Rs. 150001-200000. 15.2 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators earn Rs. 200001-250000. 5.8 per cent of

Jasmine flower cultivators earn above 250000 rupees.

169

DIAGRAM – 5.7

HOUSE HOLD INCOME OF RESPONDENTS

60

55.2 Rose Jasmine

50 48.8

44.8

40

30 Percentage

21.8

20

15.2

10 5.8

1.61.6 1.6 2.4 0.8 0.8 0 Upto 50,001- 1,00,001- 1,20,001- 2,00,001- Above 50,000 1,00,00 1,50,000 2,00,000 2,50,000 2,50,000 Household Income 170

TABLE – 5.8

INCOME OF THE RESPONDENTS EDUCATION WISE

Educational 100001- 200001- Upto 50000 50001-100000 150001-20000 Above 250000 Total level 150000 250000 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Illiterate 1 3.8 - - 2 7.7 17 65.4 5 19.2 1 3.8 26 100 1-5 - - 1 1.1 10 10.5 49 51.6 31 32.6 4 4.2 95 100 6-10 1 0.8 2 1.7 14 11.7 50. 49.2 40 33.3 4 3.3 111 100 11-12 - - 1 11.1 3 33.3 - - 4 44.4 1 11.1 9 100 Total 2 0.8 4 1.6 29 11.6 125 50.0 80 32.0 10 4.0 250 100

170 170

171

Table 5.8 explains the education wise household income. 3.8 per cent of the illiterate farmers earn up to 50000 rupees. 7.7 per cent of them earn Rs.

10001-150000. 65.4 per cent of them earn Rs. 150001-20000. 19.2 per cent of them earn Rs. 200001-250000. 3.8 per cent of the illiterate farmers earn above

250000.

1.1 per cent of Jasmine cultivators with 1.5 standard education earn Rs.

50001-100000. 10.5 per cent of them earn Rs. 100001-150000. 51.6 per cent of them earn Rs. 150001-200000. 32.6 per cent of them earn Rs. 200001-250000.

4.2 per cent of them earn above 250000.

0.8 per cent of flower cultivators with 6-10 standard education earn up to 50000 rupees. 1.7 per cent of them earn Rs. 50001-100000. 11.7 per cent of them earn Rs. 100001-150000. 49.2 per cent of them earn Rs. 1500001-

200000. 33.3 per cent of them earn Rs. 200001-250000. 3.3 per cent of them earn above 250000.

11.1 per cent of flower cultivators with 11-12 standard education earn

Rs. 50001-100000. 33.3 per cent of them earn Rs. 100001-150000. 44.4 per cent of them earn Rs. 200001-250000. 11.1 per cent of them earn above

250000.

172

TABLE – 5.8

INCOME OF THE RESPONDENTS EDUCATION WISE

70

65.4 Illiterate 1-5 6-10 60 11-12 51.6

50 49.2 44.4

40 33.3 33.3 32.6

Percentage 30

20 19.2 11.7 11.1 11.1 10.5 10 7.7 4.2 3.8 3.8 3.3 1.7 1.1 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 Upto 50000 50001- 100001- 150001- 200001- Above 100000 150000 20000 250000 250000 Income

173

The second objective of the study is to study the cost structure of flower cultivation in study area.

In the analysis of the cost structure of flower cultivation. Table 5.1 brings out the ploughing cost per acre. Table 5.2 deals with the digging cost per acre. Table 5.3 brings out the weeding cost per acre. Table 5.4 gives the fertilizer cost per acre. Table 5.5 brings out the pesticide cost per acre. Table

5.6 deals with the plucking cost per acre.

TABLE 3.9

PLOUGHING COST PER ACRE

1001 – Above Up to 500 501 – 1000 Total Flowers 1500 1500 No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Rose 34 27.2 89 71.2 2 1.6 - - 125 100 Jasmine 16 12.8 85 68 19 15.2 5 4 125 100 Total 50 20 174 69.6 21 8.4 5 2 250 100 Source : Primary data.

Ploughing is a form of cultivation of the ground that helps to prepare the soil to create a seedbed. Ploughing typically takes place in the autumn or early spring months and involves turning over the top nine inches of soil. This buries surface debris and loosens the soil so that seeds can be sown. Nowadays ploughing is fully mechanised and a tractor can plough as much as 30 times as a man with a horse.

174

Ploughing turn over about nine inches of soil and it will depend on the type of soil as to what happens next. If the soil is “light” the farmer may be able to drill directly into it. If not other cultivations may be required to create a seedbed for the crop.

The Table: 5.9 shows the ploughing cost per acre. 27.2 per cent of the

Rose flower cultivators spend Rs. 500 on ploughing. 71.2 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000. 1.6 per cent of Rose cultivators spend

Rs. 1001-1500.

12.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend Rs. 500 on ploughing. 68 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000 for ploughing. 15.2 per cent of

Jasmine cultivators spend Rs. 1001-1500 and 4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above Rs. 1500 for ploughing. But Rose flower cultivators do not spend above Rs.1500. 15.2 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators spend Rs. 1001-

1500.

The total number of the cultivators who spend upto Rs. 500 is 20 per cent while the cultivators who spend from Rs. 501-1000 are 69.6 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend Rs. 1001-1500 are 8.4 per cent and the cultivators who spend above Rs. 1500 are 2 per cent.

Most of the flower cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000. The amount of variation for ploughing depends upon the conditions of the soil in the land.

Most of the farmers spend only Rs. 501-1000 as the soil condition of their lands is better and thus, they spend low amount for ploughing.

175

DIAGRAM – 5.9

PLOUGHING COST PER ACRE

80

71.2 68 Rose 70 Jasmine

60

50

40 Percentage 27.2 30

20 15.2 12.8

10 4 1.6 0 0 Up to 500 501 – 1000 1001 – 1500 Above 1500 Ploughing Cost

176

TABLE – 5.10

DIGGING COST PER ACRE

Above Flowers Up to 2000 2001-4000 4001-6000 Total 6000

Rose 2 1.6 120 96 2 1.6 1 0.8 125 100

Jasmine 65 52 59 47.2 - - 1 0.8 125 100

Total 67 26.8 179 71.6 2 0.8 2 0.8 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Table 5.10 explains the digging cost per acre for planting. 1.6 per cent of

Rose cultivators spend up to Rs. 2000 for digging. 96 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 2001-4000. 1.6 per cent of Rose cultivators spend Rs. 4001-6000 for digging. 0.8 per cent of the cultivators spend above 6000 rupees for digging.

52 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend up to 2000. 47.2 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 2001-4000 for digging. 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above 6000 rupees for digging.

The total number of the number of the cultivators who spend upto Rs.

2000 is 26.8 per cent while the cultivators who spend from Rs. 2001-4000 are

71.6 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend Rs. 4001-6000 are 0.8 per cent the cultivators who spend above Rs. 6000 are 0.8 per cent .

Most of the farmers spend Rs. 2001-4000 for digging for planting Rose and Jasmine flowers.

177

DIAGRAM – 5.10

DIGGING COST PER ACRE

96 100

Rose 90 Jasmine

80

70

60 52

47.2 50 Percentage 40

30

20

10 1.6 1.6 0 0.8 0.8

0 Up to 2000 2001-4000 4001-6000 Above 6000 Digging Cost

178

TABLE – 5.11

WEEDING COST PER ACRE

Above Up to 500 501-1000 1001-1500 Total Flowers 1500

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Rose 2 1.6 105 84 16 12.8 2 1.6 125 100

Jasmine 10 8 105 84 5 4 5 4 125 100

Total 12 4.8 210 84 21 8.4 7 2.8 250 100

Source: Primary data.

To facilitate proper growth of the crop, the first weeding and hoeing should be done within 30-40 days after sowing. At the same time the plants are also thinned to a space of 10-15 cm within the row. Another 1-2 hoeing and weeding help to better crop growth if weeds appear again or crust formation takes place.

The 5.11 shows the weeding cost per acre. 1.6 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators spend upto Rs. 500 on weeding. 84 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000. 12.8 per cent of Rose cultivators spend Rs.

1001-1500. 1.6 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators spend above Rs. 1500.

8 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators spend Rs. 500 on weeding. 84 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000. 4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators

179

spend Rs. 1001-1500 and 4 per cent for cultivators spend above Rs. 1500 for weeding.

The total number of cultivators who spend upto Rs. 500 is 4.8 per cent while the cultivators who spend Rs. 501-1000 are 84 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend from Rs. 1001-1500 are 8.4 per cent and the cultivators who spend above Rs. 1500 are 2.8 per cent.

Most of the farmers spend rupees 501-1000 on weeding. This category of farmers of weeding one or two times. So they are able to reduce the amount for weeding.

180

DIAGRAM – 5.11

WEEDING COST PER ACRE

90 84 84

80

70 Rose Jasmine

60

50

40 Percentage

30

20 12.8

8 10 4 4 1.6 1.6

0 Up to 500 501-1000 1001-1500 Above 1500 Weeding Cost

181

TABLE – 5.12

FERTILIZER COST PER ACRE

Up to 1100 1101-2200 Above 2200 Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Number %

Rose 125 100 - - - - 125 100

Jasmine 60 48 64 51.2 1 0.8 125 100

Total 185 74 64 25.6 1 0.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Just as human body needs vitamins and minerals, plants need nutrients in order to grow. Plants need large amount of three nutrients-nitrogen, phosphours, and potassium. While fertilizers provide many important benefits that the necessary for our way of life, the improper use of fertilizers can harm our environment. In order to capture the important benefits of fertilizer, we work hard to ensure that our products are safe. We’ve used the most recent development in science to study our products and make sure that safety comes first, Today, the abundance of food we enjoy is just one way the fertilizers help to enrich the world around us. There are many application methods. Choice depends on grower preference, type of fertilizer being used and associated costs. Liquid fertilizers can be put through irrigation equipment that may already be in place.

182

Table 5.12 shows fertilizer cost per acre. 100 per cent of the Rose flower cultivators spend up to Rs. 1100 on fertilizer. 48 per cent Jasmine cultivators spend on fertilizer Rs. 1100. 51.2 per cent of the cultivators spend

Rs. 1101-2200 for fertilizer and 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above

Rs. 2200 for fertilizer.

The total number of the cultivators who upto Rs. 1100 is 74 per cent while the cultivators who spend from Rs. 1101-2200 are 25.6 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend above Rs. 2200 are 0.4 per cent.

Rose cultivators choose only a few varieties of fertilizers. But Jasmine cultivators choose different varieties of fertilizers.

183

DIAGRAM – 5.12

FERTILIZER COST PER ACRE

100

100 Rose Jasmine 90

80

70

60 51.2 48 50 Percentage 40

30

20

10 0.8 0 0 0 Up to 1100 1101-2200 Above 2200 Fertilizer Cost

184

TABLE – 5.13

PESTICIDE COST PER ACRE

Flowers Up to 500 501-1000 Above 1000 Total

Number % Number % Number % Number %

Rose 125 100 - - - - 125 100

Jasmine 68 54.4 56 44.8 1 0.8 125 100

Total 193 77.2 56 22.4 1 0.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

The plant production measures have to be farmed based on the plant part affected and symptoms. Depending upon the nature of damage, they adopt effective management strategy. The plant production measures should be adopted on a cooperative basis in large areas as the pest and pathogens in uncontrolled areas serve as ready made source to controlled areas.

Besides chemical means, crop rotation, hot weather ploughing, section of disease free seed, proper drainage, application of organic manure and other crop management practices have to be kept in mind to produce the crop. Table

5.13 shows the pesticide cost per acre. 100 cent of Rose flowers cultivators spend up to Rs. 500 on pesticide.

185

54.4 per cent Jasmine cultivators spend Rs. 500 on pesticide. 44.8 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 501-1000 for pesticide. 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above Rs. 1000.

The total number of cultivators who spend upto Rs. 500 is 77.2 per cent while the cultivators who spend Rs.501-1000 are 22.4 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend above Rs. 1000 are 0.4 per cent.

Rose flower cultivators choose only a few varieties of pesticides. But

Jasmine flower cultivators choose different varieties of pesticides.

186

DIAGRAM – 5.13

PESTICIDE COST PER ACRE

100

100 Rose Jasmine 90

80

70

60 54.4

44.8 50 Percentage 40

30

20

10 0.8

0 0 0 Up to 500 501-1000 Above 1000 Pesticide Cost

187

TABEL – 5.14

COST OF PLUCKING PER ACRE

Above Up to 2500 2501-5000 5001-7500 Total Flowers 7500

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Rose 14 11.2 107 85.6 3 2.4 1 0.8 125 100

Jasmine 98 78.4 6 4.8 1 0.8 20 16 125 100

Total 112 44.8 113 45.2 4 1.6 21 8.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Plucking provides a source of cuttings for propagation. Plucking can be done at any time of the year without hurting the plant. However, as noted above, late winter, and early spring have some advantages. If plucking is accidentally too heavy in places, the growth of spring will quickly cover up most mists. It is very difficult to describe how much to thin a plant. One should thin evenly over the entire surface of the plant and continue thin until the exterior texture or the plant is very loose. This looseness provides pathways for light and air.

Simply consistent plucking in strategic locations will change a plant to your desired size and shape with time. Table 5.14 shows the cost of plucking per acre. 11.2 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spends up to Rs. 2500 on

188

plucking. 85.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend Rs. 2501-5000. 2.4 per cent of Rose cultivator spend Rs. 5001-7500 and 0.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend above Rs. 7500.

78.4 per cent of the Jasmine cultivators spend cost up to Rs. 2500 on plucking. 4.8 percent of the cultivators spend Rs. 2501-5000 for plucking. 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend Rs. 5001-7500 and 16 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above Rs. 7500 for plucking.

The total number of the cultivators who spend upto Rs. 2500 is 44.8 per cent while the cultivators who spend from Rs. 2501-5000 are 45.2 per cent cultivators who spend above Rs. 7500 and 8.4 per cent.

Most of the farmers spend Rs. 501-1000 on plucking. This type of farmers spend Rs. 2501-5000 on plucking.

189

DIAGRAM – 5.14

COST OF PLUCKING PER ACRE

90 85.6

78.4 Rose 80 Jasmine

70

60

50

40 Percentage

30

20 16 11.2

10 4.8 2.4 0.8 0.8

0 Up to 2500 2501-5000 5001-7500 Above 7500 Plucking Cost

190

The third objective of the study is to identify the flower market channels in study area.

In the analysis of the market channels of flower. Table 5.15 brings out the type of market. Table 5.16 deals with the method of sales. Table 5.17 brings out the purchase of seedlings. Table 5.18 gives what type of transport is used.

Table 5.19 brings out the annual transport cost to market per farmer.

TABLE – 5.15

TYPE OF MARKET

Gandhi Market Srirangam Market Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Rose 38 28.8 89 71.2 125 100 Jasmine 35 28.0 90 72.0 125 100 Total 71 28.4 179 71.6 250 100 Source: Primary data.

Flowers are highly perishable by nature. Proper marketing channels are of great importance for their quick disposal. Generally, due to ignorance on the part of the growers regarding market trends/price etc., flower cultivation is not being taken up in a big way. The potential of a well planned and efficiently operated market should become the nucleus of a rural growth centre, besides facilitating the orderly marketing of the local production. It is now well recognized. Table 5.15 shows the difference in the sale of the Rose and

191

Jasmine in Gandhi and Srirangam markets. 28.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators prefer Gandhi market. 71.2 per cent of Rose flower cultivators prefer Srirangam market. 28 per cent of Jasmine cultivators prefer Gandhi market. 72 per cent of Jasmine cultivators prefer Srirangam market.

The total number of the cultivators who go to Gandhi market is 28.4 per cent while the cultivators who go to Srirangam market are 71.6

Srirangam market is dealing with flowers only Whereas Gandhi market deals with vegetables, flowers and so on. The farmers only Whereas Gandhi market deals with vegetables, flowers and so on. The farmers of Enathi,

Pudukkottai Ullur, and Nattuchalai villages mostly prefer Srirangam market, because Srirangam market is just about 20km from these villages mostly prefer

Srirangam market, because Srirangam market is just about 20km from villages.

Parakkalakkottai, T.Maravakkadu villagers prefer Gandhi market.

192

DIAGRAM – 5.15 TYPE OF MARKET

Rose 80 Jasmine 71.2 72

70

60

50

40

Percentage 28.8 28

30

20

10

0 Gandhi Market Srirangam Market Type of Market

193

TABLE – 5.16

METHOD OF SALE

Whole sale Flowers Number %

Rose 125 100

Jasmine 125 100

Total 250 100

Source: Primary data.

The greatest benefit of wholesaling is that a grower has an established market for the product and doesn’t have to spend a lot of time finding individual customers. There aren’t many growers who would choose to sell exclusively to a wholesaler. However, the prices just aren’t that good. Table

5.16 reveals the type of sales classification. 100 per cent of both Rose and

Jasmine flower cultivating farmers are prepared for whole sale method. Most of the farmers sell to whole salers.

194

TABLE – 5.17

THE PURCHASE OF SEEDLINGS

(in Kg.)

Flowers Pattukkottai Rameshwaram Total

Number % Number % Number %

Rose 125 100 - - 125 100

Jasmine - - 125 100 125 100

Total 125 100 125 100 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Table 5.17 shows the places where the farmers purchase the seedlings of

Rose and Jasmine. 100 per cent of Rose flower cultivators purchase seedlings from Pattukkottai area. Likewise 100 per cent of Jasmine flower cultivators buy seedling from Rameshwaram district. Rose seedlings are available in

Pattukkottai area and the seedlings are suitable to the climate and the soil of the villages. Likewise Jasmine seedlings which from Rameshwarm district are suitable to the villages.

195

TABLE – 5.18

TYPE OF TRANSPORT IS USED

(in Kg.)

Two wheelers Buses Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Rose 102 81.6 23 18.4 125 100 Jasmine 102 81.6 23 18.4 125 100 Total 204 81.6 46 18.4 250 100 Source : Primary data.

The new form of transport by motor vehicles has become more and more popular and useful only in the second decade of the present century. With this, the surface transportation entered a new space. As a result, the range of operation of bullock carts, horse drawn carriage etc, has significantly reduced with regard to the area covered, number of persons carried and the volume of goods transported.

Road transport in India is known from very early times. The great emperors of Maurya and Gupta periods had regular contacts with their dominions and the neighboring states. It was considered by them their primary duty to provide transport service to the general public. The Table: 5.18 shows the annual transport used. 81.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators prefer two wheelers. 18.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators prefer buses.

196

81.6 per cent of the total number of cultivators prefer two wheelers and

18.4 per cent cultivators prefer buses.

Mostly the farmers of both Rose and Jasmine prefer two wheelers because it is very quick and easy to reach the market. Most of the farmers preferred two wheelers only. The main reason is very quick sale and saving time. Some farmers preferred buses as its charge is lower than the cost of the use of the two wheelers.

197

TABLE – 5.19

ANNUAL TRANSPORT COST TO MARKET PER FARMER

(in Kg.)

Flower Up to Rs. 750 751-1500 Above 1500 Total Number % Number % Number % Number % Rose 23 18.4 102 81.6 - - 125 100 Jasmine 24 19.2 97 77.6 4 3.2 125 100 Total 47 18.8 199 79.6 4 1.6 250 100 Source : Primary data.

Transport systems are facing many requirements to increase their capacity and to reduce the costs of movements. All users (e.g. individuals, enterprises, instiutions, governments, ect.) have to negotiate the transfer of goods, people, information and capital because supplies, distribution systems, tariffs, salaries, locations, marketing techniques as well as fuel costs are changing constantly and thus require their transfer management. There are also costs required for gathering information, negotiating, an enforcing contracts and transaction which are often referred to as the cost of doing business.

Exchange processes involve transaction costs that all agents attempt to reduce since transaction costs account for a growing share of the resources consumed by the economy.

Table 5.19 shows the annual transport cost per acre. 18.4 per cent of

Rose flower spend up to Rs. 750 on annual transport. 81.6 per cent of Rose flowers cultivators spend Rs. 751-1500.

198

19.2 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend upto Rs. 750 on annual transport. 77.6 per cent of the cultivators spend Rs. 751-1500 for annual transport. 3.2 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above Rs. 1500 for annual transport.

The total number of the cultivators who spend upto Rs. 750 is 18.8 per cent while the cultivators who spend Rs. 751-1500 are 76.6 per cent whereas the cultivators who spend above Rs. 1500 are 1.6 per cent.

199

The fourth objective of the study is to analysis the profitability of floriculture in study area

In the analysis of the profitability of floriculture. Table 5.20 brings out annual yield details in kg. Table 5.21 deals with the flower price details per kg.

Table 5.22 brings out the annual income from land per acre. Table 5.23 gives the net income per acre. Table 5.24 gives the expenditure per acre.

TABLE – 5.20 DETAILS OF ANNUAL YIELD (in Kg.) Up to 10000 10001-20000 Above 20000 Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Number % Rose 1 0.8 117 93.6 7 5.6 125 100 Jasmine 7 5.6 112 89.6 6 4.8 125 100 Total 8 3.2 229 91.6 13 5.2 250 100 Source: Primary data.

The quality of the flowers produced in plants is also very good and it is readily accepted in the market. Srirangam and Gandhi markets function as main market. Similar facilities are also being extended to the other local markets in

Trichy. Table 5.20 shows the details of annual yield of Rose and Jasmine plants. 0.8 per cent of the Rose plants yield up to 10000 kgs. 93.6 per cent of

Rose plants yield 10001-20000 kgs. 5.6 per cent of Rose plants yield above

20000 kgs.

200

5.6 per cent of Jasmine plants yield up 10000 kgs. 89.6 per cent of plants yield 10001-20000kgs. 4.8 per cent of Jasmine plants yield above 20000 kgs. The production of Rose and Jasmine flowers increase every day. So the earing capacity of the farmers also increase.

201

TABLE – 5.21

DETAILS OF SELLING PRICE OF FLOWERS

Up to Rs. 15 15-25 Above 25 Toatal Flowers Number % Number % Number % Number %

Rose 25 20 100 80 - - 125 100

Jasmine 28 22.4 95 76 2 1.6 125 100

Total 53 21.2 195 78 2 0.8 250 100

Source : Primary data.

If the target market is a local wholesaler, the price may be less than what a retailer would pay, but is is likely the wholesaler would buy in bulk and more product would be utilized. A farmer’s market might command a higher price for the product. Table 5.21 shows the selling price of flower per kg. 20 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn up to Rs. 15.80 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 15-25.

22.4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn up to Rs. 15.76 per cent of the cultivators earn Rs. 15-25. 1.6 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn above 25 rupees. Both Rose and Jasmine flower cultivators earn an average price of Rs.

15-25 per kg by selling flowers.

202

TABLE – 5.22

ANNUAL INCOME PER ACRE

Up to 50001- 75001- Above Flowers Total 50000 75000 100000 100000 No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % Rose 2 1.6 58 46.4 60 48 5 4 125 100 Jasmine 12 9.6 84 67.2 28 22.4 1 0.8 125 100 Total 14 5.6 142 56.8 88 35.2 6 2.4 250 100 Source: Primary data.

Table 5.22 reveals the classification of annual income from land. 1.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn up to Rs. 50000. 46.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 50001-75000. 48 per cent of Rose cultivators earn

Rs. 75001-100000 lakhs. 4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn above Rs.

100000 lakh.

9.6 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn up to Rs. 50000. 67.2 percent of cultivators earn Rs. 50001-75000. 22.4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn Rs.

75001-100000 lakh. 0.8 percent Jasmine cultivators earn above Rs. 100000 lakh.

The total number of cultivators who earn upto Rs. 50000 is 5.6 per cent while the cultivators who earn from Rs. 50001-75000 are 56.8 per cent whereas the cultivators who earn form Rs. 75001-100000 are 35.2 per cent and the cultivators who earn from Rs. 75001-100000 are 35.2 per cent and the cultivators who earn above Rs. 100000 are 2.4 per cent.

203

TABLE – 5.23

NET INCOME PER ACRE

Up to 25001- 50001- Above Total Flowers 25000 50000 75000 75000

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Rose 11 8.8 78 62.4 31 24.8 5 4 125 100

Jasmine 37 29.6 68 54.4 19 15.2 1 0.8 125 100

Total 46 19.2 146 58.4 50 20 6 2.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Table 5.23 shows the classification of net income per acre. 8.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn up to Rs. 25000. 62.4 cent of Rose flower cultivators earn Rs. 25001-50000. 24.8 per cent of Rose cultivators earn Rs.

50001-75000. 4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators earn above Rs. 75000.

29.6 per cent of Jasmine earn up to Rs. 25000. 54.4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn Rs. 25001-50000. 15.2 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn Rs.

50001-75000. 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators earn above Rs. 75000 per acre as net income.

The total number of the cultivators who earn upto Rs. 25000 is 19.2 per cent while the cultivators who earn form Rs. 25001-50000 are 58.4 per cent whereas the cultivators who earn Rs. 50001-75000 are 20 per cent and the cultivators who earn above Rs. 75000 are 2.4 per cent.

204

TABLE – 5.24

EXPENDITURE PER ACRE

Up to 10001- 15001- Above Total Flowers 10000 15000 20000 20000

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Rose 4 3.2 117 93.6 1 0.8 3 2.4 125 100

Jasmine 16 12.8 91 72.8 10 8 8 6.4 125 100

Total 20 8 208 83.2 11 4.4 11 4.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Table 5.24 shows the classification of expenditure per acre. 3.2 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend up to Rs. 10000. 93.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend Rs. 10001-15000. 0.8 per of Rose cultivators spend Rs.

15001-20000 and 2.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators spend above Rs.

20000.

12.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend up to Rs. 10000. 72.8 per cent of cultivators spend Rs. 10001- 15000 8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend

Rs. 15001-20000 and 6.4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators spend above Rs.

20000.

Both Rose and Jasmine flower cultivators spend Rs. 10001-15000 which is high. A few farmers spend up to Rs. 10000 which is very low.

205

Analysis of the farmers’ initial stage of flower cultivation

In the analysis of the farmers’ initial stage of flower cultivation. Table

5.25 brings out the type of land. Table 5.26 deals with the type of soil. Table

5.27 brings out the new variety, Table 5.28 gives the flower cultivated area.

Table 5.29 brings out the distance between the plants. Table 5.30 gives what type of irrigation is used.

TABLE – 5.25

TYPE OF LAND

Flowers Wet land

Number %

Rose 125 100

Jasmine 125 100

Total 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Agriculture is the most extensive form of land use. Cultivated land refers to preparing the land for purpose of growing crops. Cultivated land means land that has been cleared, improved and prepared to raise agricultural crops. The pattern of land-use of a country at any particular time is determined by the physical, economic and institutional framework taken together. In other words, the existing land-use pattern in different regions in India has been

206

evolved as the result of the action and interaction of various factors, such as the physical characteristics of land, institutional framework, structure of other resources (capital, labour, etc.) available and the location of the region in relation to other aspects of economic development, e.g. those relating to transport as well as to industry and trade. The present pattern can, therefore, be considered to be in some sort of static harmony and adjustment with the other main characteristics of the economy of the region. In the dynamic context, keeping in view the natural endowments and the recent advances in technology, the overall interests of a country may dictate a certain modification of or a change in the existing land-use pattern of a region. A close study of the present land-use patterns and the trends during recent years will help to suggest the scope for planned shifts in the patterns.

Table 3.5.1 reveals wet land. 100 percent of both Rose and Jasmine flower cultivators prepared only land. Wet land is very suitable for flower cultivation, because the plants always need moisture.

207

TABLE – 5.26

TYPE OF SOIL

Red soil Flower Number % Rose 125 100 Jasmine 125 100 Total 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Soil preparation is very important, Humans have been cultivating soil for many thousands of years, and whole civilizations have been made possible by its improvements in efficiency and productivity. Yet, this is the most important resource. People have always known that some substances like fertilizer promote plant growth and increase yield without an appreciable increase in work or cost. In a world of rapidly increasing population and limited agricultural land, we need to increase yield without spoiling the earth, waterways. We need to retain the precious nutrients that feed the plants, and it is in this area that appreciable gains can be made.

Table 5.26 shows the soil condition of the lands in the villages. 100 per cent of both the Rose flower cultivators and Jasmine flower cultivators prefer red soil because red soil is very suitable for flower cultivation.

208

TABLE – 5.27

NEW VARIETY

No new variety Flower Number %

Rose 125 100

Jasmine 125 100

Total 250 100

Source: Primary data.

The varieties selected as winners each year must perform well of at least average in each trial. Characteristics of new variety may include insect or disease resistance, a new color, more compact growth, or longer bloom period.

The Table 5.27 reveals classification of the new variety. 100 per cent of both

Rose and Jasmine flower cultivating farmers do not like other variety.

209

TABLE – 5.28

FLOWER CULTIVATED AREA (ACRE) BY THE RESPONDENTS

Up to 1 acre 1 to 2 acres 2 to 3 acres Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Number %

Rose 123 98.4 2 1.6 - - 125 100

Jasmine 117 93.6 7 5.6 1 0.8 125 100

Total 240 96 9 3.6 1 0.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

Table 5.28 shows the classification of flower cultivated land. 98.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators cultivate upto 1 acre of land. 1.6 per cent of

Rose flower cultivators cultivate 1 to 2 acres.

93.6 per cent Jasmine cultivators cultivate upto one acre of land. 5.6 per cent of the cultivators cultivate 1 to 2 acres of land. 0.8 per cent of Jasmine cultivators cultivate 2 to 3 acres of land. Most of the Rose and Jasmine cultivators cultivate upto one acre of land.

210

TABEL – 5.29

DISTANCE BETWEEN PLANTS

5 feet 6-7 feet Total Flowers Number % Number % Number %

Rose 111 88.8 14 11.2 125 100

Jasmine 113 90.4 12 9.6 125 100

Total 224 89.6 26 10.4 250 100

Source: Primary data.

The distance of planting in beds is generally 5 feet between plants and rows. The best time for planting flower in most part of India is during

September-October after the rains. Except in the hills where planting is done during October-November or Feb-March. Proper distance between plants is very important to achieve the finished look you desire. Table 5.29 shows the classification of distance between plants. 88.8 per cent of Rose flower cultivators keep five feet distance between every plant. 11.2 per cent of Rose flower cultivators choose 6-7 feet.

90.4 per cent of Jasmine cultivators keep five feet distance between every plant. 9.6 per cent of the cultivators choose 6-7 feet.

211

TABLE 5.30 TYPE OF IRRIGATION IS USED Canal Well Total Flowers Number % Number % Number % Rose 2 1.6 123 98.4 125 100 Jasmine 2 1.6 123 98.4 125 100 Total 4 1.6 246 98.4 250 100 Source: Primary data.

Water in the early morning. What? Everyone knows you water in the evening. Not so, I’ m afraid. The leaves of the plants stay damp at night from evening watering. This makes them much more prone to disease and pests.

When plants are watered deeply in the early morning before the sun is hot enough to burn them, the leaves dry fairly quickly. These tips will help any gardener succeed, but the best advice is vigilance. The garden must be checked daily to catch problems early. Don’t forget to look at the undersides of leaves and the base of stems.

Table 5.30 shows the classification of irrigation used for cultivating

Rose and Jasmine flowers plants. 1.6 per cent of Rose flowers plants. 1.6 per cent of Rose flower cultivators follow canal irrigation. 98.4 per cent of Rose flower cultivators preferred well irrigation.

1.6 per cent of Jasmine cultivators follow canal irrigation. 98.4 per cent of the cultivators preferred well irrigation. Only in a few areas of land the

212

farmers are able to utilize the canal water. So, the rest of the farmers are badly in need of well water.

The first hypotheses is that floriculture has contributed significantly in enhancing the employment and income of all types of farmers.

Determinats of income from jasmine flower cultivation per acre

In order to identify the determinants of income from jasmine per acre, multiple regression analysis is carried out taking income per acre as the dependant variable and the independent variable and the independent variables as labour cost per acre, pesticide cost per acre, fertilizer cost per acre, and other cost per acre which includes plant and transportation cost.

The result of multiple regression analysis given below.

TABLE – 5.31

Adjusted Std. Error of the R R Square R Square Estimate .835 .697 .605 5871.08302

From the above model summary table the R2 value is 0.697 means that the variability in the income per acre is explained to extent of 69.7 per cent by the above said independent variables.

213

Model Unstandardized Standardized coefficients coefficients B Std. Error Beta t sig. (Constant) -1863.26 4981.609 -374 .709 Labour cost per acre .286 .770 .032 .372 .711 Fertilizer cost per acre 14.956 8.628 .408 4.122 .000 Pesticide cost per acre 7.271 2.957 .234 2.459 .015 Total cost per acre .831 .501 .137 1.622 .107 (plant –transport)

From the above table we observe that fertilizer cost per acre, and

pesticide cost per acre are significant variables. Thus, the multiple regression

becomes as y = -1863.286 + 14.956x 1 + 7.271x 2. In the above model x 1 is

fertilizer cost per acre x 2 is pesticide cost per acre. Further the partial regression

coefficient for fertilizer cost per acre is 14.956 which means that for every one

rupee invested in fertilizer cost, the income increases at the rate of 14.956

rupee.

Similarly the partial regression coefficient for pesticide cost is 7.271

which means that for every one rupee invested in pesticide cost. the income

increases at Rs. 7.271. Thus, from the above regression analysis, the

determinants of income from Jasmine per acre are fertilizer cost and pesticide

cost.

214

Determinants of income from rose flower cultivation per acre

Multiple regression analysis is carried out taking income per acre as the dependent variable and considered as independent variable labour cost per acre, pesticide cost per acre, fertilizer cost per acre and other cost per acre and includes plant transportation. cost.

The result of multiple regression analysis is given below.

TABLE – 5.32

Adjusted R Std. Error of R R Square Square the Estimate 0.873 0.762 0.705 275.30

From the above model summary table the R square value is 0.762 which means that the variability in the income per acre is explained to the extent of

76.2 per cent by the above said independent variables.

Unstandardized Standardized

Model coefficients coefficients B Std. Error Beta t sig. (Constant) -706 284.3 2.48 0.13 Labour cost per acre 10.51 0.853 .045 12.3 0.000 Fertilizer cost per acre 12.31 2.35 .308 2 0.009 Pesticide cost per acre 8.44 1.57 .145 5.23 0.008 Total cost per acre .615 .485 .025 1.26 0.115 (plant –transport)

215

From the above table we observed that fertilizer cost per acre, labour cost per acre and pesticide cost per acre are the significant variables. Thus, the multiple regression becomes as y = -706 + 10.51x 1 + 12.31x 2 + 8.44x 3. In the above model x 1 is labour cost per acre, x 2 is fertilizer cost per acre and x 3 pesticide cost per acre, Further the partial regression coefficient for labour cost per acre is 10.51 which means that for every one rupee invested in labour cost, the income increases at the rate of 10.51 rupees.

Similarly the partial regression coefficient for pesticide cost is 8.44 which means that for every one rupee invested in pesticide cost the income increases at 8.44.

The partial regression coefficient for fertilizer cost per acre is 12.31, which means that for every one rupee spent on fertilizer cost, the income increased at Rs. 12.31.

216

The second hypotheses is that Income from Floriculture is significantly related to seasons and various climatic conditions and as a consequence wild fluctuation in income and employment is found among the horticulturists.

Determinants of income and emploument from crop cultivation per acre

TABLE – 5.33 Employment per acre (No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking flowers Rose 15 30 12 4 20 18 Jasmine 20 35 16 8 24 25

From the above table 5.33 chi-square is carried out chi-square value is

0.815 and the corresponding table value for 5 degree of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 11.070. Thus, we conclude that there is no significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking crop Paddy 5 25 6 3 15 27 Flower cultivation requires more labour while paddy cultivation requires less labour.

217

TABLE – 5.34 Income per acre (in RS.)

Type of Up to 50001-75000 75001-100000 Above 100000 flowers Rs. 50000 Rose 2 58 60 5 Jasmine 12 84 28 1

From the above table 5.34 chi-square is carried out chi-square value is

26.206 and the corresponding table value for ten degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, we conclude that there is significant association between nature of crops and level of income.

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 crop Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 58 50 10 ----

The annual income from flower cultivation is very high while the annual income from cultivation is very low.

218

TABLE – 5.35

Employment per acre in Enathi Area

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking crop Rose 25 45 15 35 32 48 Jasmine 30 48 18 45 48 50

For the above table 5.35 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 1.85 and the corresponding table value for 5 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 11.070. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Harvesting crop Paddy 25 30 7 5 20 30

From the above table it is concluded that in Enathi area the number of labours required for flower cultivation is more than those required for paddy cultivation.

219

TABLE – 5.36

Employment per acre in Pudukkottai Ullur Area

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking crop Rose 27 42 22 30 35 50 Jasmine 35 45 27 48 43 45

For the above table 5.36 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 3.861 and the corresponding table value for 5 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significant is 11.070. Thus, it is concluded that there is no Significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Harvesting crop Paddy 20 27 5 3 25 20

From the above table it is concluded that in Pudukkottai Ullur area the number of labourers required for flower cultivation is more than those required for paddy cultivation.

220

TABLE – 5.37

Employment per acre in Nattuchalai Area

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking crop Rose 32 43 23 38 35 45 Jasmine 35 48 28 43 47 49

For the above table 5.37 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 0.657 and the corresponding table value for 5 degrees if freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 11.070.Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Havresting crop Paddy 27 25 8 4 23 25

From the above table it is concluded that in Posamptti area the number of labouresrs required for flower cultivation is more than those required for paddy cultivation.

221

TABLE – 5.38

Employment per acre in Parakkalakkottai Area

(No.of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking crop Rose 35 45 27 35 33 43 Jasmine 38 50 33 45 37 50

For the above table 5.38 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 0.393 and the corresponding table value for 5 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 11.070. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Harvesting crop Paddy 23 28 4 6 25 27

From the above table it is concluded that in Parakkalakkottai area the number of labourers required in flower cultivation is more than those required for paddy cultivations.

222

TABLE – 5.39

Employment per acre in T.Maravakkadu Area

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Plucking Flowers Rose 37 38 28 43 32 48 Jasmine 39 44 35 50 43 50

For the above table 5.39 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 0.940 and the corresponding table value for 5 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 11.070. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and employment in various activities of floriculture.

(No. of labours)

Type of Ploughing Digging Fertilizer Pesticide Weeding Harvesting crop

Paddy 21 25 8 5 23 29

From the above table it is concluded that in T.Maravakkadu area the number of labourers required for flower cultivation is more than those required for paddy cultivation.

223

TABLE – 5.40

Income per acre in Enathi Area

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 flowers Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Rose 27 35 27 6 Jasmine 32 45 15 3

For the above table 5.40 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 6.102 and the corresponding table value for 3 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and level of income.

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 crop Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 48 35 8 -

From the above table it can be derived that the annual income from cultivation in Enathi area is higher than the annual income from paddy cultivation.

224

TABLE – 5.41

Income per acre in Pudukkottai Ullur Area

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 flowers Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Rose 32 38 35 4 Jasmine 25 43 22 2

For the above table 5.41 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 3.386 and the corresponding table value for 3 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and level of income.

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 crop Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 45 35 8 -

From the above table it can be derived that the annual income from cultivation in Pudukkottai Ullur area is higher than the annual income from paddy cultivation.

225

TABLE – 5.42

Income per acre in Nattuchalai Area

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 flowers Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Rose 35 32 25 8 Jasmine 37 47 27 4

For the above table 5.42 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 3.283 and the corresponding table value for 3 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and level of income.

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 crop Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 50 38 7 -

From the above table it can be derived that the annual income from cultivation in Nattuchalai area is higher than the annual income from paddy cultivation.

226

TABLE – 5.43

Income per acre in Parakkalakkottai Area

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 flowers Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Rose 33 38 32 5 Jasmine 27 27 24 2

For the above table 5.43 chi-square is carried out and square is 0.736 and the corresponding table value for 3 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and level of income.

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 75,001- Above 50,001-75,000 crop Rs. 50,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 45 23 2 -

From the above table it can be derived that the annual income from cultivation in Parakkalakkottai area is higher than the annual income from paddy cultivation.

227

TABLE – 5.44

Income per acre in T.Maravakkadu Area

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 50,001- 75,001- Above flowers Rs. 50,000 75,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Rose 25 42 28 4 Jasmine 32 35 15 3

For the above table 5.44 chi-square is carried out and chi-square is 4.530 and the corresponding table value for 3 degrees of freedom, at 5 per cent of significance is 7.815. Thus, it is concluded that there is no significant association between the type of crop and level of income.

(in Rs.)

Type of Up to 50,001- 75,001- Above crop Rs. 50,000 75,000 1,00,000 1,00,000 Paddy 48 32 8 -

From the above table it can be derived that the annual income from cultivation in Pothaur area is higher than the annual income from paddy cultivation.

228

Comparison of house value

The t- test is used to compare average house value between the farmers who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t-test given below.

TABLE – 5.45

House Std. Error N Mean Std, Deviation value Mean Rose 125 65704.00 19558.02945 1749.323 Jasmine 125 54640.00 24455.15976 2187.336

From the above table 5.45 we understand that the average house value for Rose planting farmers is Rs. 65704 while it is Rs. 54640 for Jasmine planting farmers.

Levene’s test for

Equality t-test for Equality of Means of

variances Sig.(2- mean Std. F Sig t df tailed) Difference Error house value

Equal 6.308 variances .013 .3.950 248 .000 11064.000 2800.8161

assumed Equal variances not 3.950 236.570 .000 11064.000 2800.8161 assumed

From the above table, significance value is 0.000, which is less than

0.05 the level of significance, we conclude that the average house value differs significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine.

229

Comparison of female employment in weeding Activities

Here, t-test is used to compare number of females per acre for weeding between the farmers who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t-test is given below. TABLE – 5.46

No. of females Std, Std. Error per acre for N Mean Deviation Mean weeding Rose 125 19.1040 2.4124 .2158 Jasmine 125 19.0480 4.7538 .4252

From the above table 5.46 we understand that for number of females engaged in weeding Rose flowers and Jasmine flowers per acre is19.

Levene’s test for

Equality t-test for Equality of Means of variances Sig.(2- mean Std. Error F Sig t df tailed) Difference Difference house value

Equal 16.554 .000 .117 248 .907 .600E-02 .4768 variances

assumed Equal variances not .117 183.895 .907 .600E-02 .4768 assumed

From the above table, significance value is 0.907, which is more than 0.05 the level of significance, we conclude that the number of females per acre for weeding does not differ significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine.

230

Comparison of male employed in weeding activities

The t-test is used to compare number of female per acre for weeding between the farmers who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t-test is given below. TABLE – 5.47

No. of females per Std, Std. Error N Mean acre for weeding Deviation Mean

Rose 125 6.7920 2.8064 .2510

Jasmine 125 4.6752 3.4025 .3043

From the above table 5.47 we understand that the number of female per acre for weeding the Rose flowers is 7 (approximately) while it is 5 for Jasmine. Levene’s test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of variances Sig.(2- mean Std. Error F Sig t df tailed) Difference Difference house value

Equal 0.81 .777 5.366 248 .000 2.1168 .3945 variances

assumed Equal variances not 5.366 239.335 .000 2.1168 .3945 assumed From the above table, significance value is 0.000, which is less than 0.05 the level of significance, we conclude that the number of male per acre for weeding differs significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine.

231

Comparison of Income from Land

Here, t-test is used to compare from land per acre between the farmers

who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t-test is given below.

TABLE 5.48

Land income per N Mean Std, Deviation Std. Error Mean acre Rose 125 331192.0 300141.33380 26845.46 Jasmine 125 267457.7 60970.35082 5453.354

From the above table 5.48 we understand that the income from land per

acre from the Rose cultivated land is Rs. 331192.0 while it is Rs. 267457.7 for

Jasmine.

Levene’s test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Means variances Sig.(2- mean Std. Error F Sig t df tailed) Difference Difference

house value Equal 1.405 .237 2.327 248 .21 3734.320 7393.752 variances assumed Equal variances not 2.327 134.216 .021 3734.320 7393.752 assumed

From the above table, significance value is 0.021, which is less than 0.05 the level of significance, we conclude that the land income per acre differs significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine. Thus, Rose planters gained Rs. 3734 more than Jasmine planters.

232

Comparison of the Cost of Cultivation

The t-test is used to compare total cost of cultivation per acre between

the farmers who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t- test is given

below.

TABLE – 5.49

Total cost of Std. Error N Mean Std, Deviation cultivation per acre Mean Rose 125 4830.6000 3493.23203 312.44417 Jasmine 125 3627.1813 2795.91092 250.07355

From the above table 5.49 we understand that the total cost of cultivation per acre for Rose flowers is 4830.6000 while it is rupees 3627.18.13 for Jasmine.

Levene’s test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Means variances Sig.(2- mean Std. Error F Sig t df tailed) Difference Difference Total cost of cultivation per acre Equal .150 .699 3.007 248 .003 203.4187 00.19783 variances assumed Equal variances not 3.007 236.644 .003 203.4187 00.19783 assumed From the above table, significance value is 0.003, which is less than

0.05 the level of significance, we conclude that the total cost of cultivation per

acre differs significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine.

233

Comparison of yield

The t-test is used to compare yield per month per acre between the

farmers who cultivate Rose and Jasmine. The result of t-test is given below.

TABLE – 5.50

Yield per month N Mean Std, Deviation Std. Error Mean per acre

Rose 125 1276.2400 276.43953 24.72550

Jasmine 125 1264.9194 1025.73412 92.11364

From the above table 5.50 we understand that the yield per month per

acre from Rose cultivation is Rs. 1276.24 while it is 1264.91 for Jasmine.

Levene’s test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Means variances Sig.(2- mean Std. Error F Sig t df tailed) Difference Difference Total cost of cultivation per acre Equal 1.711 .192 .119 247 .905 11.3206 95.04246 variances assumed Equal variances not .119 140.639 .906 11.3206 95.37439 assumed From the above table, significance value is 0.905, which is more than

0.05 the level if significance, we conclude that the yield per month per acre

does not differ significantly between the farmers who plant Rose and Jasmine.

234

The fifth objective of the study is to examine the various problems of floriculturists and suggest suitable measures to mitigate them.

This section provides the analysis of constraints experienced by Rose flower cultivators in Pattukkottai Block. Table 5.51 deals with the overall rank order of the constraints experienced by Rose cultivators in the descending order of importance. Table 5.52 shows the resource constraints experienced by Rose cultivators. Table 5.53. explains the constrains in marketing experienced by

Rose flower cultivators. Table 5.54 deals with the constrains in plucking experienced by Rose flower cultivators. Table 5.55 denotes constraints in transport experienced by Rose flower cultivators. Table 5.56 explains the constrains in fertilizer and pesticide experienced by Rose flower cultivators.

5.57 deals with constraints in sales period experienced by Rose flower cultivators. 5.58 explains the constraints in cultivation period by Rose flower cultivators.

235

TABLE – 5.51 OVERALL RANK ORDER OF THE CONSTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS IN THE DESCENDING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE Percentage of S. No Constraints Rank respondents 1 Land 88 1 2 Capital 80 2 3 Labour 72 3 4 Weed control 64 4 5 Ploughing 56 5 6 Knowledge of cultivation 48 6 7 Problem in seed collection 40 7 8 Scent factory 36 8 9 Adoption of new technology 32 9 10 Lack of training facility 30 10 11 Insufficient price 28 11 12 Selling 26 12 13 High risk in production 24 13 14 Time 22 14 15 High temperature 20 15 16 Fuel 18 16 17 Maintenance 16 17 18 Demand 14 18 19 Over cost 12 19 20 Damage 10 20 21 Marketing facilities 8 21 22 Insect attack 6 22 23 Risk faced 4 23 24 Light 2 24 25 Disposal 1 25 Source : Primary Data Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

236

The problems or constrains faced by flower cultivators in the study area are ranked in Table: 5.51 in the descending order of importance. It is seen that

88 per cent of respondents are facing problems related to land constraints, associated with 80 per cent capital of the flower cultivators.

TABLE – 5.52 RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS (Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. Land 88 (1) 2. Capital 80 (2) 3. Labour 72 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The resource constraints faced by Rose flower cultivators in the present study are presented in Table 5.52 in the order of importance. Regarding Rose flower cultivators, land 88 per cent, capital 80 per cent and labour 72 per cent are the three constraints in the descending order of importance.

237

Table 5.53 CONSTRAINTS IN MARKETING EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. Insufficient Price 88 (1) 2. Marketing Facilities 80 (2) 3. Selling 72 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The constraints in marketing experienced by Rose flower cultivators (in percentages) are presented in Table 5.53 and they are detailed as marketing facilities, insufficient price and selling. Among Rose flower Rose flower cultivators insufficient price is 28 per cent. Marketing facilities is 8 per cent and selling 26 per cent.

Rose flower cultivators give the answer that when supply is high the price is low, in this situation. Rose flower cultivators faced less profit or loss.

The reason is lack of storage facilities and marketing facilities.

238

TABLE – 5.54 CONSTRAINTS IN PLUCKING EXPERIENCED ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS (Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower

1. Insufficient Price 88 (1)

2. Marketing Facilities 80 (2)

3. Selling 72 (3)

Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Table 5.54 descries the plucking experienced by Rose flower cultivators and they are detailed below in the order of ranking as time, light and insect attack. It is time 22 per cent, light 2 per cent and insect attack 6 per cent.

239

TABLE – 5.55 CONSTRAINTS IN TRANSPORT EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS (Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. Fuel 18 (1) 2. Maintenance 16 (2) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The constraints in transport as experienced by the cultivators (in percentages) are presented in Table 5.55 and they are detailed as fuel and maintenance problems for Rose

18 per cent of Rose flower cultivators expressed constraints regarding fuel problems and 16 per cent about maintenance of two wheelers.

It is found Rose flower cultivators face the problem of fuel and vehicle maintenance, this problem creates increase in the cost of Rose flower.

240

TABLE – 5.56 CONSTRAINTS IN FERTILIZER AND PESTICIDE EXPERIENCE BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. Demand 14 (2) 2. Over Cost 12 (3) 3. Damage 10 (4) 4. High Temperature 20 (1) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Table 5.56 shows the constraints in fertilizer and pesticide experienced by Rose flower cultivators. It is demand 14 per cent, over cost 12 per cent, damage 10 per cent and high temperature 20 per cent.

It is found that the cost of fertilizer and pesticide is high when there is demand.

241

TABLE – 5.57 CONSTRAINTS IN SALES PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. High Risk in Sales 24 (1) 2. Risk Faced 4 (2) 3. Disposal 1 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The Table : 5.57 refers to the problems relating to sales period of the cultivators. 24 per cent of the cultivators expressed high risk in production, risk faced by the flower cultivators is 4 per cent and 1 per cent of the cultivators disposal of flowers.

242

TABLE – 5.58 CONSTRAINTS IN CULTIVATION PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY ROSE FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Rose Flower 1. Weed Control 64 (1) 2. Ploughing 56 (2) 3. Knowledge of Cultivation 48 (3) 4. Problem in Seed Collection 40 (4) 5. Scent Factory 36 (5) 6. Adoption of New Technology 32 (6) 7. Lack of Training Facilities 30 (7) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Weed control is a serious problem in flower cultivation. At present weeding in flower crops is done manually which is quite labour intensive. No chemical weed control for flower crops is known to the growers. Vigorous research and extension efforts are required to develop and disseminate chemical weed control measures in flower crops.

The constraints in cultivation period experienced by Rose flower cultivators are presented in Table : 5.58 and they are detailed as weed control, ploughing, knowledge of cultivation problem in seed collection, scent factory, adoption of new technology and lack of training facilities. The first rank goes

243

to weed control with 64 per cent, ploughing 56 per cent, knowledge of cultivation 48 per cent, problem in seed collection 40 per cent and scent factory

36 per cent.

Analysis of constraints experienced by jasmine flower cultivators in

Pattukkottai

This section provides the analysis of constraints experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators in Pattukkottai Block. Table 5.59 deals with the overall rank order of the constraints experienced by Jasmine cultivators in the descending order of importance. Table 5.60 shows the resource constrains experienced by

Jasmine cultivators. Table 5.61 explains the constraints in marketing experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators. Table 5.62 denotes constraints plucking experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators. Table 5.63 explains the constraints transport experienced by Jasmine Flower cultivators. 5.64 devoted in constraints fertilizer and pesticide experience by Jasmine flower cultivators.

5.65 reveals constraints in sales period experienced by jasmine flower cultivators. 5.66 explains constraints cultivation period experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators.

244

TABLE – 5.59 OVERALL RANK ORDER OF THE CONSTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS IN THE DESCENDING ORDER IMPORTANCE

Percentage S.No Constraints Rank of respondents 1 Labour 92 1 2 Knowledge of Cultivation 88 2 3 Capital 80 3 4 Land 76 4 5 Scent factory 74 5 6 Problem in seed collection 70 6 7 Adoption of new technology 68 7 8 Lack of training facilities 66 8 9 Weed control 60 9 10 High risk in production 58 10 11 Insufficient price 56 11 12 Time 52 12 13 Selling 48 13 14 High temperature 40 14 15 Maintenance 36 15 16 Fuel 34 16 17 Over cost 32 17 18 Demand 28 18 19 Damage 26 19 20 Marketing facilities 24 20 21 Light 20 21 22 Risk Faced 18 22 23 Insect attack 14 23 24 Disposal 8 24 25 Ploughing 6 25 Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

245

The problems faced by flower cultivators in the study area are ranked in

Table 5.59 in descending order of importance. At the time of interview 92 per cent of flower cultivators faced problem of labour. It is seen that 88 per cent of flower cultivators faced knowledge of cultivation. The next order of rank shows the problems associated with capital 80 per cent.

246

TABLE – 5.60 RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS. (Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. Land 76 (3) 2. Capital 80 (2) 3. Labour 92 (1) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The resource constraints faced by Jasmine flower cultivators in the present study are presented in Table 5.60 in the order of importance. Regarding

Jasmine flower cultivators, land 76 per cent, capital 80 per cent and labour 92 per cent are the three constraints in the descending order of importance.

Jasmine flower cultivators face soil problem as well as capital and labour problem. The soil problem depends upon the condition of the soil from land of land while the capital problem varies among cultivators and the cultivators face the problem of scarcity of labour during season time.

247

TABLE – 5.61 CONSTRAINTS IN MARKETING EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. Insufficient Price 56 (1) 2. Marketing Facilities 24 (3) 3. Selling 48 (2) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The constraints in marketing experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators

(in percentages) are presented in Table 5.61 and they are detailed as marketing facilities, insufficient price and selling. In Jasmine flower cultivators 56 per cent suffer from insufficient price, 24 per cent in marketing facilities and 48 per cent in selling.

248

TABLE – 5.62 CONSTRAINTS PLUCKING EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. Time 52 (1) 2. Light 20 (2) 3. Insect Attack 14 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Table 5.62 shows the plucking experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators are presented and they are detailed below in the order of ranking as time, light and insect attack. The constraints are time 52 per cent, light 20 per cent and insect attack 14 per cent.

249

TABLE – 5.63 CONSTRAINTS TRANSPORT EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. FUEL 34 (2) 2. MAINTENANCE 36 (1)

Source : Primary Data.

Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The constraints in transport as experienced by the cultivators (in percentages) are presented in Table 5.63 and they are detailed as fuel and maintenance problems by Jasmine flower cultivators. 34 per cent of the

Jasmine flower cultivators expressed constraints regarding fuel problems and

36 percent about maintenance of the two wheelers.

250

TABLE – 5.64

CONSTRAINTS FERTILIZER AND PESTICIDE EXPERIENCE BY

JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. Demand 28 (3) 2. Over cost 32 (2) 3. Damage 26 (4) 4. High temperature 40 (1) Source : Primary Data Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Due to high temperature the flower crops sometimes get damaged. Low cost production technology in this direction should be developed.

Table 5.64 shows the constraints in fertilizer and pesticide experienced by Jasmine flower cultivators. It is demand 28 per cent, over cost 32 per cent, damage 26 per cent and high temperature 40 per cent.

251

TABLE – 5.65

CONSTRAINTS IN SALES PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE

FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. High Risk in Sales 58 (1) 2. Risk Faced 18 (1) 3. Disposal 8 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The Table 5.65 refers to the problems relating to sales period of the cultivators. 58 per cent of cultivators. 58 per cent of the cultivators expressed high risk in production, 18 per cent risk was faced by the flower cultivators and per cent of the cultivators disposal of flowers.

252

TABLE – 5.66 CONSTRAINTS CULTIVATION PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY JASMINE FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constraints Jasmine Flower 1. Weed Control 60 (6) 2. Ploughing 6 (7) 3. Knowledge of Cultivation 88 (1) 4. Problem in seed collection 70 (3) 5. Scent Factory 74 (2) 6. Adoption of New Technology 68 (4) 7. Lack of Training Facilities 66(5) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Flower growers mainly producing seeds of flower crops indicated this problem. At present no machine is available for collecting seed from flower crops. Seeds is collected manually. Sometimes much of the seed is wasted through this practice. Research efforts, therefore are required to develop low cost farm machinery for seed collection.

The constraints in cultivation period experienced by the Jasmine flower cultivators are presented in Table : 5.66 and they are detailed as weed control, ploughing, knowledge of cultivation, problem in seed collection, scent factory, adoption of new technology and lack of training facilities. The first rank goes to weed control with 60 per cent, ploughing 6 per cent, knowledge of cultivation 88 per cent, problem in seed collection 70 per cent, scent factory 74 per cent.

253

Analysis of constraints experienced by the overall flower cultivators in pattukkottai block

This section provides the analysis of constraints experienced by the overall flower cultivators in Pattukkottai Block. Table 5.67 deals with the overall rank order of the constraints experienced by the overall cultivators in the descending order of importance. Table 5.68 deals with the constraints in plucking experienced by the overall flower cultivators. Table 5.69 denotes constraints in transport experienced by the overall flower cultivators. Table

5.70 explains the constraints in fertilizer and pesticide experienced by the overall flower cultivators. 5.71 devoted in constraints sales period experienced by the overall flower cultivators. 5.72 devotes to the constraints cultivators period experienced by the overall flower cultivators.

254

TABLE – 5.67 OVERALL RANK ORDER OF THE CONSTRAINTS EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL FLOWER CULTIVATORS IN THE DESCENDING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE.

S.No Constraints Percentage of Rank respondents 1 Capital 94 1 2 Knowledge of Cultivation 90 2 3 Land 86 3 4 Scent factory 84 4 5 Problem in seed collection 80 5 6 Adoption of new technology 78 6 7 High risk in production 76 7 8 Weed control 74 8 9 Insufficient price 72 9 10 High temperature 70 10 11 Selling 68 11 12 Time 64 12 13 Maintenance 62 13 14 Demand 60 14 15 Marketing facilities 56 15 16 Over cost 52 16 17 Fuel 50 17 18 Damage 46 18 19 Light 44 19 20 Risk faced 40 20 21 Insect attack 36 21 22 Disposal 34 22 23 Ploughing 30 23 24 Labour 26 24 25 Lack of training facilities 20 25 Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

255

The problems faced by flower cultivators in the study area are ranked in

Table 5.67 in descending order or importance. At the time of interview 94 per cent of flower cultivators faced problem of capital. It is seen that 90 per cent of the flower cultivators faced knowledge of cultivation. The next order of ranking shows the problems associated with land 86 per cent.

The constraints in marketing experienced by the overall flower cultivators (in percentages) are presented in Table: 5.68 and they are detailed as marketing facilities, insufficient price and selling. In overall flower cultivators

72 per cent of the insufficient price, 56 per cent about marketing facilities and

68 per about selling.

256

TABLE – 5.68 CONSTRAINTS IN PLUCKING EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constrains Overall 1. Time 64 (1) 2. Light 44 (2) 3. Insect Attack 36 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Table 5.68 the plucking experienced by overall flower cultivators are presented and they are detailed below in the order of ranking as time, light and insect attack. The constraints are time 64 per cent, light 44 per cent and insect attack 36 per cent.

257

TABLE – 5.69 CONSTRAINTS IN TRANSPORT EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constrains Overall 1. Time 64 (1) 2. Light 44 (2) 3. Insect Attack 36 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The constraints in transport as experienced by the cultivators (in percentages) are presented in Table 5.69 and they are detailed as fuel and maintenance problems by overall flower cultivators. 50 per cent of the overall flower cultivators expressed regarding fuel problems and 62 per cent about the maintenance of the two wheelers.

258

TABLE – 5.70 CONSTRAINTS IN FERTILIZER AND PESTICIDE USED TIME EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL FLOWER CULTIVATORS.

(Percentage of respondents) S.No Constrains Overall 1. Demand 60 (2) 2. Over cost 52 (3) 3. Damage 46 (4) 4. High Temperature 70 (1)

Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

Table 5.70 shows the constraints in fertilizer and pesticide experienced by the overall flower cultivators. It is demand 60 per cent, over 52 per cent, damage 46 per cent and high temperature 70 per cent.

259

TABLE – 5.71

CONSTRAINTS SALES PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL

FLOWER CULTIVATORS

(Percentage of respondents) S. No Constrains Overall 1. High Risk in Sales 76 (1) 2. Risk Faced 40 (6) 3. Disposal 34 (3) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

The Table 5.71 refers to the problems relating to sales period of the cultivators. 76 per cent of the cultivators expressed high risk in production, 40 per cent risk faced and 34 per cent of the cultivators disposal of flower.

260

TABLE – 5.72 CONSTRAINTS CULTIVATORS PERIOD EXPERIENCED BY THE OVERALL FLOWER CULTIVATORS. (Percentage of respondents) S.No Constrains Overall 1. Weed Control 74 (5) 2. Ploughing 30 (6) 3. Knowledge of Cultivation 90 (1) 4. Problem in Seed Collection 80 (3) 5. Scent Factory 84 (2) 6. Adoption of New Technology 78 (4) 7. Lack of Training Facilities 20 (7) Source : Primary Data. Note : Figures in Parentheses indicate the ranking.

At present technical guidance to flower growers in being given by the state agricultural university and state department of horticulture, Tiruchirappali

District through practical demonstration on farmer’s field and through organizing training camps at village level. However, more efforts are required on the part of promoting agencies such as setting up of a pilot project on floriculture at Thanjavur District agricultural university, so as to acquaint flower growers with the latest development in the production technology of flower crops.

The constraints in cultivation period experienced by the overall flower cultivators are presented in Table: 5.72 and they are detailed as weed control,

261

ploughing, cultivation knowledge, problem of seed collection, scent factory, adoption of new technology and lack of training facilities. The first ranking goes to weed control with 74 per cent, ploughing 30 per cent, knowledge of cultivation 90 per cent, problem in seed collection 80 per cent, scent factory 84 per cent.

Chapter - VI

Findings, Policy Implications and Suggestions

262

CHAPTER - VI

FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS, CONCLUSION AND AREA FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

In this concluding chapter, a brief summary of the findings of the study and an account of policy implications and suggestions are given.

MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The study of flower cultivation at Pattukkottai Block, Thanjavur District has led to the following findings.

‹ The present study found out that in the study area (Pattukkottai

Block) there is an identical structure and systematic pattern of

religion and caste system. In the study area almost all the

respondents are Hindus and belong to backward community.

‹ This study shows that among the three religions Hindu, Muslim and

Christian, the Hindus constitute a major portion of Rose yielding that

is 78.4 per cent of Rose cultivators, and they are large in number.

‹ Education of flower cultivators depends upon the income. Rose

flower cultivators are getting more profit than Jasmine cultivators.

So their standard of education is comparatively high.

263

‹ Most of the flower cultivators live in tiled house, because their

income and expenditure is very moderate.

‹ The running of buses is very useful for flower cultivators for taking

the flowers to the markets.

‹ The cultivation cost of plucking of Rose flower is comparatively

low.

‹ Most of the farmers are engaged in this field for the past 20-25 years

and at present contribution of young farmers is increasing.

‹ Due to lack of literacy the farmers cannot adopt any modern

techniques, they cultivate flowers.

‹ Regarding the nature of ownership the study also found out that 80

percent of the farmers have own cultivation, and remaining 20

percent are the owner cum tenant cultivators.

‹ Even one acre of land is enough to start a flower garden.

‹ The annual net return from flowers is very high. This seems to be

very attractive compared with the performance of food crops.

‹ The study also found out that flower crops require huge amount of

labour. Hence it is highly labour intensive. Therefore it provides

more employment opportunities to rural men, women. children are

also employed and there is no age limit for labourers in this field.

‹ From the study it is also found out that women workers constitute a

greater per cent age.

264

‹ All cultivators sell their flowers in the wholesale market.

‹ Among the two flowers it is found out that the Rose showed a higher

benefit. This is mainly due to low cost of cultivation. Jasmine shows

higher gross returns.

‹ Farmers of this village do not have a strong union or organization.

Financial institutions or the Government provides finance to the

farmers.

‹ Flower yield depends upon the climatic condition, and pest

management.

‹ Though roses can be cultivated on open lands, when cultivated under

controlled conditions in a garden, they show the best quality

attributes required for the export market.

‹ Roses can grow in red soil. If the soil has good drainage, yield and

quality would be high.

‹ That some floriculture activities are already going on in that area; the

area is well-connected with road and other marketing infrastructure;

and assured irrigation facilities are available.

‹ Non-availability of regular and reliable export oriented marketing

information service and high air-fright charges.

‹ Absence of pre-cooling, cold-storage and refrigerated transport

facilities.

265

‹ Floriculture requires high-quality plants. Hence, priority should be

given to nurseries in rural areas, which also have a high employment

potential.

‹ Lack of organized marketing facilities.

‹ Women are getting low wage compared to the male.

SUGGESTIONS

Floriculture is fast developing into an important economic activity. The world wide demand for flowers and flowers and flower products is also increasing due to the GDP increase in-many countries. Though, India’s participation in the world trade is very successful. Unlimited opportunities are created by the global trade deficit and the liberal policies of the country. The producer and the country should stand to gain in the process of developing this economic pursuit as also the consumer. The following suggestions are given below:

V Having done a brief analysis of Pattukkottai Block farmers’

performance, the next step is to find ways and means of improving

the situation which would mean helping the farmers to reach their

goal at maximization of production and profits.

V To help farmers for large-scale cultivation of flowers, they could be

provide liberal loans to meet initial cost.

V The loan should be recovered only after expiry of the pay-off period.

266

V Small and medium growers have a great scope for taking up

specialized products and some of the infrastructure and services

required for pre and post-harvest inputs may be acquired on a co-

operative basis.

V A co-operative flower growers’ society may be set up with

scientifically developed infrastructure to minimize spoilage and to

regulate supply of flowers on demand.

V To accelerate the rate of adoption of modern techniques of flower

production, demonstration should be laid in the fields of small flower

growers by extension workers to state horticulture department in

collaboration with extension department of agriculture university.

V Further the flowers lose their freshness within a few hours of harvest,

therefore it is necessary to develop technologies for extending the

freshness to enable the farmers to sell flower to distant markets.

V Wholesaler and retailer of flower should be provided with modern

storage facilities, advancing loan at subsidized rates through

financial institution to regulate the supply of flowers in relation to

demand.

V The government should take the necessary step to safeguard the

interest of flower growers as well as consumers. Training

programme should be conducted at the village level.

267

V The government should give frequent financial support and subsidies

to the farmers.

V A regulated market for flowers may be established. The regulated

market can provide cold storage facilities, chemical processing unit

and auction facilities apart from accurate measurements.

V The study reveals that different flowers are grown in Pattukkottai

block of the district because of the diverse agro-climatic conditions

prevailing within the district. Further, the climate is said to be most

favourable for Rose and Jasmine flowers. The season for Rose and

Jasmine is extended by two months.

V The study reveals that the farmers were not aware of the use of

chemicals to prolong the self – life of the flowers. not did the

merchants have knowledge of the use of specially insulated trucks or

refrigerated vans.

V The study also reveals that price fluctuation is very common and the

change can be observed from one day to another. Though merchants

keep the farmers informed, there is a lack of authenticity in the

absence of a farm price policy.

V The study also revealed that during plucking season additional hands

were employed in large numbers.

268

V Flower cultivators can adopt new technology such as making poly

houses and glass houses. This will help the flower growers in areas

like plucking, preservation and transportation in fresh condition.

V The government should invite foreign investment in floriculture,

particularly in the areas of refrigerated storage and transportation

facilities. It will enhance the production of flowers.

V The Indian marketers export flowers either by rail or by air. The

freight charge is high. So the government should provide subsidy to

the air freight charges and low rate for electricity to the cultivation.

This help increases flower cultivation.

V If the flower cultivators strengthen the quality of flowers. It will give

benefit to the flower cultivators.

V Nowadays floriculture sector is experiencing a rapid change in the

world. The consumption of flower is increasing and thus per capita

income also is increasing.

V The cost of investment in flower cultivation is comparatively higher

than that of its competing crops.

V In recent time floriculture has been recognized as a lucrative

profession with much higher returns than most field crops.

269

CONCLUSION

The analysis indicates that the floriculture offers promising opportunities even on smallholdings on sound economic lines. This is more feasible because the initial investment requirements for floriculture is low.

Floriculture in the district is only in the nascent stage and there is great scope to transform it on commercial lines. This also helps in utilizing underemployed or employed family labourers especially women labourers to involve floriculture practices. This will be ideally suited for generation of employment and income generation not only in the village but also throughout the world. The traditional flowers widely cultivated in this district are said to have good market in the middle east apart from the wide domestic market it enjoys. There also seems to be a shift to floriculture in the occupational pattern of the people. Floriculture has the scope of providing employment to the rural folk throughout the year.

Thus it will eliminates unemployment and poverty if it is done on professional lines.

AREA FOR THE FURTHER RESEARCH

i) It is found from the study that people have been getting more benefits

particularly from flowers. Thus, there can be a separate study related

to floriculture sector in block level or district level.

ii) This study about flower cultivation has been carried out in dry land that

is, in Pattukkottai block. And a further study can be conducted by

270

comparing both the wet and dry land flower cultivation in block level

or taluk level. iii) The present study says that income from flowers has been playing an

important role for the rural people. Can be conducted on by

comparing Rose and Jasmine. Pulse, Paddy, Banana Cultivation,

Versus Jasmine, Rose cultivation.

Appendix - I

Bibliography APPENDIX – I BIBLIOGRAPHY

JOURNALS

Ahilandeshwari, A. (2012), Small Farmers : An Assessment of Effective

Production through Mixed Farmers, Southern Economist, ISSN 0038-4046,

51 st year of Publication Volume 51 Number 2.

Amit Dixit, N. Agrawal and H.G. Sharma. (2004) “popularizing flower

cultivation for export” Agro bios, Vol. No. 2., Issue No. 10, March, P.34.

Ashok Dhillon and R.K Khatkar (2003) “Area And Production of Major

Flowers Grown In Haryana” Agriculture Situation In India, Vol.LX. No. 2,

May, P.93.

Bal. H.K and Bal.H.S. (1997) “Flower Power In Punjab”. Indian Journal

of Agriculture Economics, Vol.52,No.3, July-September, P.639.

Balasubramaniyan. (2004) “Export of Flowers” Kison World vol.31,

No.7, July, p.52.

Bhinu.V.S. (1996). “Flori-Potency”. Kison Worls, Vol.23, No.9,

September, P.36.

Brijendra Singh (1997) “Floriculture: An Emerging Industry In India”,

Indian Horticulture. Vol.42, No.2, July-Sep, P.47.

Chahal.S.S. and Amandeep kaur (1998). “Adoption of Mechanical

Handling Units In Cereals”. Kisan World, Vol.25, No.1, January, p.51. Dadalani. N.K.(2002) ‘Promoting Floriculture Business In India’ Indian

Horticulture. Vol. 46, No.4. Jan-Mar, P.39.

Dharmaraj.E. (1996) “Export Outlook For Floriculture Products”. Kisan

World, Vol. 23. No.5, May, P.31.

The Editorial (2002), “Floriculture Needs A Big Boost” Southerm

Economist, Vol.41, No.13, November, P.1.

Gandhi.G.P.(2005). “Opportunities Galore For Floriculture Exports”. Fact

For You, Vol. 25, No. 8, May, P.11.

Gill.A.P.S, Dhiman.J.S, Kushal Singh and Mandhir Singh. (1988), “In

The North-Eastern Planis of India: Tips For Growing Roses For

Commerce”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.33, No.3, October-December.P.19

Govindasamy.T.N. (2001) “Blossoming Avenues In Floriculture”. Kisan

World , Vol.28,No.4, April, P.27.

Guled Gudda.S.S., Hosamani. S.B. and Bhat. (1998) “Importance of

Jasmine Cultivation”. Kisan World, Vol.25.No.2, February, P.54.

Kehar Singh and Virendra snigh. (2001). Economics of Cultivation and

Distillation of Damask Rose: A Case Study In Palampur (Himachal

Pradesh). Indian Journal of Agriculture Economics, Vol.56,No.4, October-

December, P.696.

Maiti. R.G. (1995) ‘Flower – A Non Conventional Commodity of Modern

Commercial Agriculture’, Kurukshetra, Vol. XLIV, No.3., December, P.39. Malik, R.S Dadlani N.K, (1984). “Three Decades of Research on

Floriculture In India”. Indian horticulture. Vol..29, No.2.July-September,

P.27.

Manmohan Attarvar (1993). “Producted Cultivation of Ornamental

Crops” Indian Horticulture, Vol.38, No.1, April-June, P.19.

Mishra.A.K. Mishra L.N.(2004) “Internet In Floriculture Industry” Indian

Horticulture, Vol.48, No.4, January-March, P.20.

Misra. R.L. and Dhankhar.B.S. (2002) “Producing Flowers In Non-

Conventional Areas”. Indian Horticulture, January-March, Vol.46.No.4,

January-March, p.37.

Misra.R.L. and Pathania.N.S.(2000) “Hi-Tech Greenhouse And

Production Strategies For Cut Flowers” Indian Horticulture,

Vol.No.45,No.1, April-June, P.8.

Nagarajan. S.S. (2002). “Colorful Roses Exported From Hosur” Kisan

World, Vol.29, No.7, July, p.58.

Pathania. N.S., Subodh Chander adn N.Pathak (1998). “Floriculture

Industry In India”. Kisan World, Vol.25, No.2, February, p.48.

Prafulla K.Das. (1984). “Flower Export Constraints And Prospects”.

Indian Horticulture, Vol.29, No.3, December, p.13.

Rajeevan P.K.and Sathees Babu.K. (1997), “Cultivating Bush Jasmine A

Promising Enterprise For Small Holders. Indian Horticulture, Vol. 41.No.4,

January-March,P.20. Ritu Garg And Sharma. J.L. (1999). “Technological Constraints In

Floriculture Farming In Punjab”. Agriculture Situation In India, Vol.LIV,

No.8, November, P.472.

Satya Sundaram .I. (2005). “Changing Lifestyle Encouraging

Floriculture”. Fact For You, Vol..25, No.5, February, P.9.

Satya Sundaram I (2002) “Floriculture Yet To Bloom” Facts For You.

Vol.22, No.6, March, P.5

Satya Sundaram. I. (1997), “Floriculture Coming To Bloom”. Facts For

You, Vol.19.No.8. May, P.26.

Satya Sundaram.I. (2003) “Floriculture: Fluctuating Fortunes”. Fact For

You, Vol.23, No.11, August P.10.

Selvaraj.A. (2001) “Role of Socio-Economic Characters of Growers in

Flower Cultivation” Indian Journal of Marketing, Vol. xxxi, No. 3-4,

March-April, P.28.

Sindhu. S.S. and Misra.M.L(1997), “Problems And Prospects of Flowers in India”. Indian Horticulture, Vol.42,No.2, July-September, P.55.

Sindhu.S.S. and Misra.R.L. (1997). “Problem And Prospects of Flowers in India”, Indian Horticulture, Vol.42.No.2, July-September, P.52.

Sindhu.S.S. (2003). “Popularizing Flower Cultivation For Export”. Indian

Horticulture, Vol.48, No.1, April-June, P.41.

Singh .H.P. (1993). “Export Markets For Cut-Flowers”. Kisan World,

Vol.20, No.10, October, p.30. Singh, H.P. (2005) “Floriculture Industry Development In Asia”. Indian

Horticulture, Vol.50, No.30, October-December, P.27.

Singh. H.P., Jose Samuel. C. (2000). “Bio Fertilized And Bio Pesticides

For Horticulture Crops. Indian Horticulture, Vol. 45, No.1, April-June,

Pp.52-53.

Singh. R.B, Prasad. R.N, Nigam.H.K (1997) “ Economic of Flower

Production In District Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh”. Indian Journal of

Agriculture Economics, Vol.52, No. 3, July-Septemer, P.621.

Sridhara. C.J. (1995) “Jasmine Cultivation For Esential oil”. Kisan World,

Vol.22, No.7, P.59.

Subba Rao.P. (2000). “Comprehensive Floriculture Insurance” Indian

Horticulture, Vol.No.45, No.3, October-December, P.4.

Trivedi.P.P (1990), “Traditional Indian Flowers Need A Trade Back-Up”

Indian Horticulture, Vol.34,No.4, January-March, P.31.

Vinod Kumar and Bhattacharjee. S.K. (2003) “Exploring Cut Greens For

Florist Trade” Indian Horticulture, Vol.47, No.4, January-March, P.4.

Vishnu Swarup (1984), “Export of Ornamental Problems And Prospects”.

Indian Horticulture, Vol.29, No.2, July-September, p.55.

BOOKS

Chris Ward (2002) “Floriculture” Ministry of Agriculture And Forestry,

Te Manatu Ahuwhenua, Ngaherehere, New Zealand. De Groot N.S.P. “Floriculture Worldwide” Agriculture Economics

Research Lot Agricultural Economics Research Insitute (LEI-DLO)

P.O.Box 29703, NL-2502 LS The Hague, The Netherlands.

Dhanasekera. D.M.U.B. (1995) “Cut Flower Production In Sri Lanka”

Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Mahalakshmi (2001) “Tata Economic Consultancy Service Study Moots

Steps for Floriculture Revival” The Indian Express online Media (Pvt) Ltd,

C-6, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi-110016, India.

Prasad. S. and Kumar.U. “Commercial floriculture”, Agrobios (India)

Agro House, Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopasani Road, Jodhpur-342 002.

Pp 7-8.

Rangaswami.G. (1997) Project Director, Prepared for the World Academy of Art & Science by The Mother’s Service Society, Pondicherry, India.

The Editor “Tamil Nadu Industry And Business Directory Floriculture

Policy”. No. 30, Bhavani Plaza II Floor, Opp. Ramar Kovil, Nethaji Road,

Hosur – 635109, Tamil Nadu.

Toto Sutater and Kusumah Effendie. “Cut Flower Production In Indonesia”

Research Institute for Ornamental Plants, Central Research Institute for

Horticulture, Agency for Agricultural Research and Development, Jakarta,

Indonesia.

Vishnu Swarup. (1997). “Floriculture Trade – Global Scene And Indian

Prospects”. Ornamental Horticulture, Published By Rajiv Beri For Macmillan Indian Limited, 2/10 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-

110002, P.426.

Yang Xiaohan, Liu Guangshu and Zhu Lu. “Cut Flower Production In

China”. Institute of Vegetables and Flwoers, Chinese Academy of

Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.

NEWSPAPER

Archana Jayakar (2000). “A Floral Enterprise”. The Hindu opportunities,

India’s National News Paper, Wednesday, August.

Dhall S.C. (1999) “Flowers Mean Business Now”, Agriculture Tribune,

Monday, November – 15.

Manish Kapoor (2001) “Floriculture – a promising forex earner” The

Tribune online Edition, chandigrah, India.

P.S. Sundar (2004). “Tamilnadu Government Has big Plan to make

Nilgiris a Floriculture District”. Business Line, India’s National News

Paper, Friday, Dec 03,

Pushpa Surendra (2003), “Flowers or Food”. The Hindu, Inia’s National

Newspaper, Sunday, September 14, P.4.

Radhakrishanan.D (2004) “Polygreen House Concept Catching on in

Nilgiris” The Hindu, India’s National Newspaper, Vol.127. October-3.

P.12. Rajesh Ahuja (2004) “Flower Auction Center To Be Set Up AT Gurgaon”.

The Hindu Business Line, August.

Special Correspondent (2002) Horticulture Crops the Best Alternative for

Thanjavur, The Hindu National News paper, Tueday, Octeber 29, p..3.

Special correspondent, (2003) Signed for Nilgiris, Theni agri export

zones, The Hindu, India’s National Newspaper, February’ 6.P.4.

Special correspondent, (2003). “Vast Scope for Improvement of

Horticulture and Floriculture” The Hindu, India’s National Newspaper,

October-12.

Staff report (2001) “Floriculture Center likely In Bangalore”. The Hindu,

India’s National News Paper, Friday, December-28.

Staff Report (2004) “Flower Power: Bengal Plans Export Zone For

Floriculture” The Economic Times, July 14, 2004.

The Editor (2005) “Floriculture In Big Boom of State Agro-Economic

Development” Indian Express Newspapers (Mumbai) Ltd.

INTERNET

Balaji S Kulkarni. “Floriculture Is A Great Option For Progressive

Farmers”. www. alltheweb.com.

Christy Adams. (2002) “The Science And Practice of Growing,

Harvesting, Storing, Designing And Marketing Flowering Plants.”, www.

All the Web. com. Geert Ritsema. “Export Flowers From Indian”. www.google.com

Pradip Bhattacharya. “Jasmine-the Fragrance of Madurai” www.google.com

Samuel H_Henao. “Floriculture.”. www.askjeeves.com

Staff Report (2005) “Bangalore To Host International Flora Expo”. Indo-

Asian News Service, June. www.ians.in .

The correspondent (2005) “Floriculture, INdia’s Upcoming Profitable

Alternative” India News, Webindia123.com

Wilson .M.J. “Indian Agriculture Export Opportunity Retrospect And

Prospect”.www.yahoo.com.

Appendix - II

Interview Schedule APPENDIX – II SEASON AND CROP REPORT OF TAMIL NADU 2003-04 ( in. ha ) FLOWERS Name of the ROSE JASMINE MULLAI JADHI MALLI District Un Un Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total irrigation. irrig. irrig. irrig. 1. Chennai 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. Kancheepuram 47 0 47 115 0 115 5 0 5 4 0 4 3. Thiruvallur 127 0 127 361 0 361 30 0 30 12 0 12 4. Cuddalore 31 0 31 139 0 139 319 0 319 0 0 0 5. Villupuram 9 0 9 156 0 156 52 0 52 13 0 13 6. Vellore 24 0 24 344 0 334 798 0 798 370 0 370 7. Thiruvannamalai 40 0 40 105 0 105 65 0 65 43 0 43 8. Salem 41 0 41 441 0 441 7 0 7 1 0 1 9. Namakkal 14 0 15 49 0 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 10. Dharmapuri 180 0 180 119 0 119 85 0 85 35 0 35 11. Krishnagiri 304 0 304 519 0 519 59 0 59 22 0 22 12. Coimbatore 46 0 46 438 0 438 267 0 267 89 0 89 13. Erode 4 0 4 721 0 721 56 0 56 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirapalli 19 0 19 382 0 382 19 0 19 18 0 18 15. 4 0 4 125 0 125 0 0 0 17 0 17 16. Perambalur 0 0 0 21 0 21 20 0 20 0 0 0 17. Pudukottai 9 0 9 216 0 216 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. Thanjavur 92 0 92 31 0 31 34 0 34 0 0 0 19. Thiruvarur 30 0 30 7 0 7 5 0 5 0 0 0 20. Nagapattinam 22 0 22 99 0 99 67 0 67 2 0 2

FLOWERS Name of the ROSE JASMINE MULLAI JADHI MALLI District Un Un Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total irrigation. irrig. irrig. irrig. 21. Madurai 690 0 69 843 0 843 20 0 20 0 0 0 22. Theni 10 0 10 110 0 110 0 0 0 0 0 0 23. Dindigul 268 0 268 733 0 733 215 0 215 42 0 42 24. Ramanathapuram 20 0 20 64 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 25. Virudhunagar 5 0 5 425 0 425 1 0 1 1 0 1 26. Sivagangai 0 0 0 6 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 27. Tirunelveli 18 0 18 905 29 934 55 0 55 0 0 0 28. Thoothukudi 31 0 34 176 0 176 1 0 1 1 0 1 29. The Nilgiris 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30. Kanyakumari 15 0 15 92 0 92 25 0 25 0 0 0 TOTAL 1482 4 1486 7732 29 7761 2205 0 2205 670 0 670

FLOWERS Name of the CROSSANDRA CHRYSNTHIMUM CHEVANTHI ARALI District Un Un Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total irrigation. irrig. irrig. irrig. 1. Chennai 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. Kancheepuram 45 0 45 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. Thiruvallur 47 0 47 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. Cuddlore 82 0 82 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. Villupuram 105 0 105 52 0 52 0 0 0 0 0 0 6. Vellore 222 0 222 201 0 201 15 0 15 1 0 1 7. Thiruvannamalai 49 0 49 60 0 60 0 0 0 12 0 12 8. Salem 181 0 181 364 0 364 21 2 23 133 0 133 9. Namakkal 32 0 32 15 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 10. Dharmapuri 177 0 177 112 0 112 1 0 1 0 0 0 11. Krishnagiri 64 0 64 606 0 606 34 0 34 11 0 11 12. Coimbatore 30 0 30 12 0 12 20 0 20 10 0 10 13. Erode 46 0 46 4 0 4 11 0 11 0 0 0 14. Tiruchirapalli 44 0 44 34 0 34 135 0 135 59 0 59 15. Karur 5 0 5 12 0 12 64 0 64 23 0 23

FLOWERS Name of the CROSSANDRA CHRYSNTHIMUM CHEVANTHI ARALI District Un Un Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total irrigation. irrig. irrig. irrig. 16. Perambalur 16 0 16 22 0 22 5 0 5 2 0 2 17. Pudukottai 15 0 15 4 0 4 38 0 38 0 0 0 18. Thanjavur 15 0 15 16 0 16 7 0 7 0 0 0 19. Thiruvaur 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20. Nagapattinam 36 0 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21. Madurai 15 0 15 16 0 16 19 0 19 23 0 23 22. Theni 108 0 108 20 0 20 75 0 75 1 0 1 23. Dindigul 583 0 583 102 0 102 119 0 119 323 0 323 24. Ramanathapuram 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25. Virudhunagar 59 0 59 14 0 14 17 0 17 7 0 7 26. Sivagangai 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 27. Tirunelveli 12 0 12 32 0 32 21 0 21 55 0 55 28. Thoothukudi 17 0 17 2 0 2 22 0 22 38 0 38 29. The Nilgiris 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30. Kanyakumari 3 0 3 9 0 9 15 0 15 30 0 30 TOTAL 2013 0 2013 1724 0 1724 639 2 641 728 0 728

(in ha ) FLOWERS Name of the MARY GOLD OTHERS TOTAL FLOWERS District Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Un irrig. Total irrigation. irrig. 1. Chennai 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. Kancheepuram 0 0 0 70 0 70 289 0 289 3. Thiruvallur 0 0 0 34 0 34 621 0 621 4. Cuddalore 0 0 0 2 0 2 574 0 574 5. Villupuram 0 0 0 36 0 36 423 0 426 6. Vellore 0 0 0 49 0 49 2014 0 2014 7. Thiruvannamalai 0 0 0 171 0 171 545 0 545 8. Salem 9 0 9 14 0 14 1212 2 1214 9. Namakkal 0 0 0 15 0 15 125 1 126 10. Dharmapuri 0 0 0 242 0 242 951 0 951 11. Krishnagiri 3 0 3 56 0 56 1678 0 1678 12. Coimbatore 0 0 0 95 0 95 1007 0 1007 13. Erode 0 0 0 637 105 742 1479 105 1584 14. Tiruchirapalli 22 0 22 36 0 36 768 0 768 15. Karur 24 0 24 259 0 259 533 0 533

FLOWERS Name of the MARY GOLD OTHERS TOTAL FLOWERS District Un Un Un Irrigation Total Irrigation Total Irrigation Total irrigation. irrig. irrig. 16. Perambalur 0 0 0 6 0 6 92 0 92 17. Pudukottai 0 0 0 15 0 15 297 0 297 18. Thanjavur 0 0 0 2 0 2 197 0 197 19. Thiruvarur 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 0 45 20. Nagapattinam 0 0 0 0 0 0 226 0 226 21. Madurai 30 0 30 161 2 163 1196 2 1198 22. Theni 17 0 17 8 0 8 349 0 349 23. Dindigul 34 0 34 400 0 400 2819 0 2819 24. Ramanathanpuram 0 0 0 0 0 0 86 0 86 25. Virudhunagar 0 0 0 40 0 40 569 0 569 26. Sivagangai 0 0 0 1 0 1 8 0 8 27. Tirunelveli 5 0 5 250 103 353 1353 132 1485 28. Thoothukudi 8 0 8 45 0 45 344 0 344 29. The Nilgiris 0 0 0 11 17 28 11 20 31 30. Kanyakumari 0 0 0 12 0 12 201 0 201 ToTal 152 0152 2667 227 227 2894 20012 262 20274 Source : Government of Tamil Nadu Department of Economics and Statistics. Season and Crop Report 2003-04.

Area and Production of flowers in India during 1999-2000

Production Cut flowers State Area (ha) Loose flowers (lakh (in tonnes) numbers) Andhra pradesh 18,087 126,609 - Delhi 3,450 21,007 - Haryana 2,250 40,500 760.00 Jammu & Kashmir 42 7 17.40 Karnataka 20,801 124,440 - Madhya pradhesh 1,387 832 - Maharashtra 6,600 28,336 - Rajasthan 2,353 2,389 - Tamil nadu 18,120 142,250 - West Bengal 13,227 14,644 5,678.00 Others 4,390 8,179 350.60 Total 88,607 509.193 6,806.00 Source : Monthly Statistics of India’s Foreign Trade. INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. General Information : a) Name of the respondents : b) Age : c) Religion : Hindu/Christian/Muslim d) Community : B.C/S.C/S.T

2. Size of Household:

Income Relation Educational (in S.No Name Sex Age with Occupation level annual) respondent Rs.

Total

3. Asset Ownership: a) House Ownership Present S.No Type of houses Rented Leased Own value Rs.

1. Thatched 2. Tiled 3. Terrced

Total b) Land ownership pattern:

Type of Canal Well Canal S.No Rained land irrigated irrigated and well

1. Own

2. Leased

3. Mortgaged

Total operational land

4. Other assets: S. No Type of asset Numbers Present value in Rs. 1. Livestock : i) Cow ii) Buffolow iii) Goat iv) Sheep v) Poultry 2. Farm equipment : i) Crowbar ii) Cart iii) Tractor 3. Two wheelers 4. Jewels 5. Bank balance 6. Others Total 5. Source of income and expenditure: a) Income per annum: S.No Source Rs. 1. Land 2. Livestock 3. Rental 4. Govt.job (net.y) 5. Business 6. Private sector 7. Others Total b) Expenditure per annum: S. No Source Amount spend Rs. 1. Food 2. Clothing 3. Rent 4. Medical 5. Education 6. Electricity 7. Vehicle maintenance 8. Festival and religious function 9. Petrol charge 10. Entertainment 11. Cultivation cost

Total

6. Plants cost:

Cost Land No.of of Total Transport Labour S. No Plants Total (in acre) plants per cost cost cost plants

Total

7. Ploughing cost: S.No Plants Land (in acre) Labour cost

Total

8. Weeding cost: Land (in No.of workers Cost per head Total Total S.No acre) Male Female Male Female Male Female

Total

9. Plucking cost:

Land (in No.of workers Cost per head Total Total S.No acre) Male Female Male Female Male Female

Total

10. Fertilizer cost:

Land in S.No Name Quantity Price Total acre

Total

11. Pesticide cost: Land in S.No Name Quantity Price Total acre

Total

12. Sales Income:

Income Land in Quantity Price Total S.No Flowers per acre per day per Kg Price month

Total

13. Yield : Yield per Yield per Yield in S.No Flowers acre day month

Total

14. The use of seeds: a) Do you seeds/ get from your crop? b) What are the new variety of seeds used now?

15. What kinds of soil are used by you for flower cultivation? S.No Type of soil flowers Total per acre

16. Land use pattern:

S.No Type of land Flowers Total acre

17. What type of sales method is used?

Total cost S.No Flowers Whole sale Retail sale in Rs.

18. What type of transport is used?

Total cost Two S.No Flowers Buses Others per month wheelers in Rs.

19. Which market do you prefer?

Trichy Gandhi Srirangam S.No Flowers market market

20. How many acres are you cultivating?

Acres of flowers Expenditure per S.No Flowers cultivating acres

21. How do you manage in the low or no rain period? 22. How do you manage during the period of over production? 23. How do you manage during low production period? 24. Optimum distance required and actually manitanined?

Distance to be S.No Flowers Actual distance maintained

25. Method of sale:

Through S.No Flowers Auction Contract Self agent

Paper Published