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DEVELOPMENT OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE REUSE OF MALAYSIAN DREDGED MARINE SEDIMENTS

ZARINA BINTI SHAHRI

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

MAY 2016

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Special for:

Beloved mother Siti Zubaidah Abas

Siblings Suriazana, Nurehan, Taufik, Haniff and Akmal

Family Mak Ngah, Pak Andak and Mak Andak

Supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chan Chee Ming

Co-supervisors Assoc. Prof. Dr. Angzzas Sari Mohd Kassim Dr. Norshuhaila Mohamed Sunar

Supporting friends Junita Abd Rahman, Amira Azhar, Nurasia Mira Anuar, Nadzirah Roslan, Siti Nuraen Jaharudin, Nurdiana, Nurul Fariha, Rashiedah, Hartini, Nurasyikin, RECESS and FKAAS team and my dearest best friends, Rosfarina Roslan, Mohd Akmal Abu Bakar and Khairudin Sakury

Love all of you

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious and Merciful.

Alhamdulillah, first of all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr.Chan Chee Ming for her invaluable guidance, advices, supports, encouragements, knowledge, ideas and time. Without her interest and encouragement, this study would never be completed. Thank you to my co-supervisors, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Angzzas Sari Mohd Kassim and Dr. Norshuhaila Mohamed Sunar for advices, knowledge and guidance for this study.

Mdm Siti Zubaidah Abas, thank you very much for the pray, motivation, strength and scarification during my study is the most valuable things in my life.

Special thanks to my family for their support. The willingness in any kind of helps make this journey of study unforgettable. Thanks to all my friends, laboratory staff and technician for knowledge sharing and help during this study. Last but not least, I would like to thank to all people who have directly and indirectly contributed to the successful completion of this research. v

ABSTRACT

Dredged marine sediments (DMS), product of dredging activities, is classified as a waste and usually disposed off at sea. However, certain DMS is contaminated and sea disposal can significantly affect water quality and marine ecosystem. This can be mitigated and controlled by appropriate DMS management. The aim of this study is to develop an environmental management framework for sustainable reuse of Malaysian DMS. The DMS was retrieved from four dredging sites: Lumut, Melaka, Tok Bali and Pasir Gudang. There are six components in this framework: physical properties, chemical properties, biological properties, treatment, beneficial uses and disposal. The framework begins with DMS physical properties. Assessment DMS with > 50 % of particles with sizes less than 2 mm are subjected to the chemical and biological properties. DMS dominated by coarse particles are suitable for beneficial reuse without further treatment. Fines with contaminant levels below the permitted levels could be directly reused, while those with high levels would undergo treatment. After treatment, those with reduced contaminant levels fulfilling the stipulated limits would be considered suitable for reuse. Treated DMS with residual high contaminant levels exceeding the limits would be assigned to suitable disposal sites. Laboratory experiments were carried out to identify the physical, chemical and biological properties according to British Standards (BS 1377 and BS 6068). All the DMS were mainly silt and clay. There were six heavy metals detected namely arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc in all DMS. Based on Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG), As, Cr, Pb and Ni in Lumut DMS exceed the TEL values. Arsenic and nickel concentration in Melaka DMS was exceeded both guideline, ERL and TEL. The concentration of Cr, Cu and Pb in Melaka was also higher than TEL limits. The DMS of Tok Bali contained two trace metals (As and Pb) that higher than ERL and TEL. The Pasir Gudang DMS was high concentration of As and Cr. From the biological property assessment test, Serratia plymuthic, Vibrio alginolyticus and Corynebacterium genitalium were detected in Lumut DMS, while Serratia marcescens, Vibrio vulnificus, Edwardsiella tarda, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli were in Melaka DMS and 14 bacteria detected in Tok Bali DMS. All the inhabitant bacteria were classified as Risk Group level 2. Based on the results obtained, treatment is necessary for all DMS prior to consider for reuse or disposal.

Keywords: Dredged marine sediments, environmental management framework, properties, contaminant, beneficial reuse vi

ABSTRAK

Mendakan marin kerukan (DMS), produk daripada aktiviti pengerukan, diklasifikasikan sebagai bahan buangan dan lazimnya dibuang ke laut. Walaubagaimanapun, sebahagian DMS adalah tercemar dan pembuangan ke laut boleh memberi kesan kualiti air dan ekosistem marin. Kesan ini boleh dikurangkan dan di kawal dengan pengurusan DMS yang betul. Matlamat kajian ini adalah untuk membangunkan sebuah rangka kerja pengurusan alam sekitar bagi membolehkan DMS Malaysia diguna semula secara mampan. DMS telah diperoleh dari empat tapak kerukan: Lumut, Melaka, Tok Bali dan Pasir Gudang. Terdapat enam komponen di dalam rangka kerja ini: sifat fizikal, sifat kimia, sifat biologi, rawatan, kegunaan berfaedah dan pembuangan. Rangka kerja ini bermula dengan sifat fizikal DMS. DMS yang mengandungi > 50 % daripada partikel bersaiz kurang dari 2 mm adalah tertakluk kepada sifat kimia dan biologi. DMS yang didominasi dengan partikel kasar adalah sesuai untuk diguna semula tanpa rawatan lanjut. Partikel halus dengan tahap bahan pencemaran di bawah tahap yang dibenarkan boleh diguna semula secara terus, manakala mendakan yang melepasi tahap tinggi akan melalui rawatan. Selepas rawatan, mendakan dengan tahap pencemaran yang berkurangan yang memenuhi had yang ditetapkan akan dianggap sesuai untuk penggunaan semula. DMS yang dirawat, dengan tahap pencemaran yang tinggi, melebihi had yang akan ditentukan, akan ke tapak pelupusan yang sesuai. Ujian makmal yang telah dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti fizikal, kimia dan biologi adalah mengikut British Standards (BS 1377 dan BS 6068). DMS dari tiga lokasi pensampelan mempunyai kandungan utama kelodak dan tanah liat. Terdapat enam logam berat dikesan iaitu arsenik, kromium, tembaga, plumbum, nikel dan zink. Berdasarkan Garis Panduan Kualiti Mendapan (SQG), arsenik dalam semua sampel DMS dan nikel di Melaka DMS adalah di atas paras yang mungkin memberi kesan. Dari ujian taksiran biologi, Serratia plymuthic, Vibrio alginolyticus dan Corynebacterium genitalium dikesan di Lumut DMS, manakala marcescens Serratia, Vibrio vulnificus, Edwardsiella tarda, Bacillus cereus berada di Melaka DMS dan 14 bakteria dikesan di Tok Bali DMS. Semua bakteria diklasifikasikan sebagai Kumpulan Risiko 2. Berdasarkan kepada keputusan yang diperoleh, rawatan adalah keperluan untuk semua DMS sebelum diguna semula atau dibuang.

Kata kunci: Mendakan marin kerukan, rangka kerja pengurusan alam sekitar, sifat- sifat, bahan cemar, guna semula secara bermanfaat

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE i DECLARATION ii DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF TABLES xvi LIST OF SYMBOLS AND xviii ABBREVIATION CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Background of study 1 1.3 Problem statement 4 1.4 Research aim and objectives 5 1.5 Scope of research 5 1.6 Limitation of Study 6 1.7 Significance of Study 6 1.8 Organization of the thesis 6 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Dredging 8 2.3 Dredging marine sediments (DMS) 9 2.3.1 Properties of DMS 9 2.3.1.1 Physical characteristic 10 2.3.1.2 Chemical characteristic 10 2.3.1.3 Biological characteristic 12 viii

2.4 Contaminants of DMS 13 2.4.1 Heavy metals 14 2.4.1.1 Sources of heavy metals 16 2.4.1.2 Effects of heavy metals 17 2.4.1.3 Interaction of heavy 17 metals with dredged marine sediment 2.4.1.4 Assessment of heavy 17 metals 2.4.2 Biological contaminants 21 2.5 Management of dredged marine 22 sediments 2.5.1 International Dredged Marine 27 sediment Guidelines 2.6 Beneficial uses of DMS 36 2.6.1 Engineering uses 36 2.6.1.1 Beach Nourishment 36 2.6.1.2 Land reclamation 37 2.6.1.3 Landfill cover 37 2.6.1.4 Landfill liner 38 2.6.2 Environmental Enhancement 39 2.6.2.1 Wetland Habitat Creation/ 39 Enhancement 2.6.3 Agricultural 40 2.6.3.1 Manufactured Topsoil 40 2.6.4 Product making 40 2.6.4.1 Bricks and ceramic 40 making 2.7 Treatment of dredged marine sediment 41 2.7.1 Soil Washing 41 2.7.2 Composting 42 2.7.3 Bioremediation 42 2.7.4 Solidification 42 ix

2.7.5 Thermal Desorption 42 2.7.6 Electrochemical Remediation 43 2.7.7 pH adjustment 43 2.8 Disposal 43 2.8.1 Open water disposal 43 2.8.2 Confined disposal 44 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Development of environmental 47 management framework (EMF) 3.2.1 Basic Steps in Planning Process 48 (National Dredging Team, 1998) 3.2.2 Review and compare the existing 50 frameworks 3.2.3 Selection of components to make 51 the EMF compatible with Malaysian needs 3.3 DMS properties tests 51 3.3.1 Samples collection 51 3.3.2 Physical properties tests 53 3.3.2.1 Particle size distribution 53 3.3.2.2 Natural moisture content 54 3.3.2.3 Atterberg limits 55

3.3.2.4 Specific gravity, Gs 56 3.3.2.5 Morphology 57 3.3.3 Chemical properties 58 3.3.3.1 Loss on ignition (LOI) 59 3.3.3.2 pH value 59 3.3.3.3 Chemical composition 60 3.3.3.4 Electrical conductivity 61 (EC) 3.3.3.5 Mineralogy 62 3.3.3.6 Heavy metals 63 x

3.3.4 Biological characteristic 63 3.3.4.1 Bacteria identification 64 3.3.4.2 Escherichia coli (E.coli) 64 and Total coliform Test 3.3.4.3 Media agar preparation 64 3.3.4.4 Sample preparation 64 3.3.4.5 Dilution technique 65 3.3.4.6 Pour plate test method 66 3.3.4.7 Counting bacteria 66 3.4 Applicability of the developed 66 framework CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Developing an environmental 67 management framework 4.2.1 Overview 67 4.2.2 Key considerations in designing an 68 environmental management framework for dredging marine sediments 4.2.2.1 Physical properties 70 4.2.2.2 Chemical properties 71 4.2.2.3 Biological properties 72 4.2.2.4 Beneficial uses 73 4.2.2.5 Treatment 73 4.2.2.6 Disposal 73 4.3 Verification of the framework 77 applicability 4.3.1 Physical properties 78 4.3.1.1 Particle size distribution 78 4.3.1.2 Moisture content 81 4.3.1.3 Atterberg limits 83 4.3.1.4 Specific gravity 86 xi

4.3.1.5 Soil morphology 89 4.3.2 Chemical properties 92 4.3.2.1 Loss on ignition (LOI) 92 4.3.2.2 pH value 96 4.3.2.3 Chemical composition 97 4.3.2.4 Electrical conductivity 98 (EC) 100 4.3.2.5 Soil mineralogy 101 4.3.2.6 Heavy metals 111 4.3.3 Biological Properties 111 4.3.3.1 Bacteria identification 114 4.3.3.2 Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliform test 4.4 Treatment 114 4.5 Beneficial reuse 116 4.6 Disposal 116 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND 117 RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Conclusions 117 5.3 Recommendations 119 REFERENCES 120 APPENDIX 137 VITA

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE NO. 1.1 Map of Malaysia with highlight the sampling point. 2 2.1 Dredging stages 23 2.2 The structure of dredged material framework 33 (DMAF) (LC, 1972). 2.3 Steps to be considered in assessing permits 34 application for sea disposal (Helsinki Commission (HELCOM), 2007). 2.4 Steps to be considered in assessing permits 35 application for sea disposal (Oslo-Paris (OSPAR) Convention, 2009). 2.5 Beach nourishment at Alicante, Spain, before 36 replenishment (left) and after (right) (IADC, 2005) 2.6 Land reclamation at Dubai (www.iadc- 37 dredging.com 2.7 Landfill cover and construction of a centre for 38 sediments located in Belgium (http://www.jandenul.com) 2.8 DMS created wetland in Louisiana 40 (http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/) 2.9 Brick of DMS (Mezencevova et al., 2012) 41 2.10 Open water disposal (USEPA and USACE ,2004) 44 2.11 Contaminant pathway for open water disposal 44 (USEPA and USACE, 2004). 2.12 Confined disposal facilities (USEPA and USACE, 45 2004). xiii

2.13 Contaminant pathways for upland CDF (USEPA 45 and USACE, 2004). 3.1 Basic steps in planning process 48 3.2 Steps in developing the EMF 50 3.3 Location map of sampling sites 52 3.4 Trailing suction hopper dredger (TSHD) (Lumut, 52 Perak) 3.5 Backhoe dredger (BHD) (Marina Melaka, Melaka) 53 3.6 Dredged marine sediments in the TSHD 53 3.7 Dredged marine sediments in the BHD 53 3.8 Cone penetration instrument 55 3.9 The cup size for the LL test 55 3.10 Samples being rolled into a thread 56 3.11 Empty density bottle with stopper 56 3.12 The density bottle filled with kerosene 57 3.13 FESEM instrument 58 3.14 Coated sample on a mould (top view) 58 3.15 Mould size 58 3.16 Sample after being heated at 440 ˚C 59 3.17 pH meter 60 3.18 The XRF mechanism (Verma, 2007) 61 3.19 Sample for XRF test 61 3.20 X-ray fluorescence instrument 61 3.21 Electrical conductivity probe 62 3.22 Mechanism of XRD (Mitchell and Ramirez, 2010) 63 3.23 Sample for XRD test 63 3.24 Chromocult preparation 65 3.25 Serial dilution technique (www.physics.csbsju.edu) 65 4.1 Environmental management framework for 69 Malaysian dredged marine sediments. 4.2 Particle size distribution 80 4.3 Relationship between clay content and moisture 82 content. xiv

4.4 Relationship between fines content and the moisture 83 content of the DMS. 4.5 Plasticity chart of dredged marine sediments. 84 4.6 Relationship between plastic limit and clay content. 86 4.7 Relationship between plastic limit and fines 86 content. 4.8 Relationship between specific gravity and clay 88 content. 4.9 Relationship between specific gravity and fines 88 content. 4.10 Morphology of dredged marine sediments with 90 different magnifications. 4.11 Relationship between loss on ignition and clay 94 content. 4.12 Relationship between loss on ignition and fines 95 content. 4.13 Relationship plastic limit and organic matter. 96 4.14 Comparison elements oxide in dredged marine 98 sediments. 4.15 Relationship between electrical conductivity and 99 clay content. 4.16 Relationship between electrical conductivity and 100 fines content. 4.17 Arsenic concentrations in dredged marine 105 sediments. 4.18 Chromium concentrations in dredged marine 105 sediments. 4.19 Copper concentrations in dredged marine 105 sediments. 4.20 Lead concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106 4.21 Nickel concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106 4.22 Zinc concentrations in dredged marine sediments. 106 4.23 Geoaccumulation index of dredged marine 108 xv

sediments. 4.24 Contamination factor of dredged marine sediments. 109 4.25 Degree of contamination factor of dredged marine 110 sediments. 4.26 Potential ecological risk factor of dredged marine 111 sediments.

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE NO. 2.1 International definitions of DMS. 9 2.2 DMS properties. 11 2.3 Bacteria in dredged marine sediments. 13 2.4 Metals in DMS. 15 2.5 Summary of Effects-Range Guidelines (Long and Morgan, 1990 and MacDonald, 1994). 18

2.6 Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in sediment (Muller, 1979). 19

2.7 Contamination factor (Cf) (Hakanson, 1980). 20

2.8 Degree of contamination (Cd) (Hakanson, 1980). 20

2.9 Geochemical background concentration (Bn), i reference value (Mb) and toxocity coefficients (T r) of heavy metals in sediments (Hilton et al., 1985). 20 i 2.10 Terminology used to describe the risk factor E r and risk index (RI) as suggested (Hakanson ,1980). 21 2.11 Classification of biohazardous agents by Risk Group (RG), and Pathogenicity (MBCH, 2010). 22 2.12 Possibilities of the different types of dredgers 24 2.13 Dredging related rules and regulations in nations and 25 their problems (Manap and Voulvoulis., 2015) 2.14 Comparison of London Convention, OSPAR and 27 HELCOM Guideline (Sapota et al., 2012). 2.15 Level of Sanitary Landfill System 46 4.1 Comparison of London Convention, OSPAR, 74 HELCOM Guideline and EMF. xvii

4.2 Physical properties of dredged marine sediments. 78 4.3 Comparison of particle size distribution of dredged 80 marine sediments. 4.4 Comparison of moisture content of dredged marine 81 sediments. 4.5 Comparison of LL, PL, PI, LI and A of dredged 84 marine sediments. 4.6 Specific gravity of dredged marine sediments. 87 4.7 Chemical properties of dredged marine sediments. 93 4.8 Loss on ignition of dredged marine sediments 94 4.9 pH value of dredged marine sediments. 97 4.10 Comparison of chemical composition of dredged 98 marine sediments 4.11 Comparison of mineralogy of dredged marine 101 sediments 4.12 Heavy metals of dredged marine sediments. 102

4.13 Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in 108 dredged marine sediments 4.14 Contamination factor and degree of contamination of 109 dredged marine sediments. i 4.15 The potential ecological risk factor (E r) and risk 111 index (RI) 4.16 Bacteria found in dredged marine sediments 112

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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION

% percent  angle  wavelength -4 (SiO4) silica tetrahedrons µm micrometer A Activity AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Al aluminium

Al2O3 aluminium oxide As Arsenic ASTM American Society for testing and Materials International Standard BHD Backhoe dredger

Bn geochemical background concentration BS Bristish Standard C Concentration CaO calcium oxide CaO lime

Cc coefficient of curvature RECESS Research Centre for Soft Soils Cd cadmium

Cd degree of contamination CDF confined disposal facilities

Cf contamination factor CH High Plasticity Clay CILAS Particle Size Analyzer cm centimeter cm/sec centimeter per second

Cn measured concentration of heavy metal in sediments Cr Chromium

Cr2O3 chromium (III) oxide Cu Copper

Cu uniformity coefficient Cv Coefficient of consolidation xix

D Diameter

D10 diameter at which 10 % of the soil particles are finer than the size

D60 60 % of the soil particles are finer than the size DID Department of Irrigation and Drainage DMS Dredged marine sediments DOE Department of Environment DOER Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Programme DOF Department of Fisheries Malaysia dS/m desiSiemens per meter E.coli Escherichia coli e.g. For example EC Electrical conductivity EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy i E r Potential ecological risk EMF Environmental management framework ERL Effect range low ERM Effect range median et al and other people etc and others EU European Union FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection Fe iron

Fe2O3 iron oxide FESEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope g Gram

Gs Specific gravity HELCOM Helsinki Commission Hg Mercury i.e. In other words i.e. that is IADC International Association Dredging Companies

Igeo geoaccumulation index ISO International Standard Organization kg Kilogram kN Kilo Newton kPa Kilo Pascal kV kilo volt L Length LC London Convention LI Liquidity index LL Liquid limit LOI Loss on ignition LT Lumut xx m meter

Mb reference value for metals MBCH Malaysia Biosafety Clearing House mg/kg milligram per kilogram MgO magnesium oxide MH High Plasticity Silt ML Low Plasticity Silt ml mililiter MM Melaka mm Milimeter Mn mangan mS/cm miliSiemens per centimeter Ni nickel nm nanometer NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NZFSA New Zealand Food Safety Authority oC degree celcius OSPAR Oslo-Paris Convention PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Pb plumbum Pb Lead PCB polychlorinated biphenyls PEL Probable effect level PG Pasir Gudang PHAC Public Health Agency of Canada PI Plasticity index PIANC Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress PL Plastic limit RG risk group RI ecological risk index SEM Scanning electron microscopy

SiO2 silica dioxide SO3 sulfur dioxide SQAG Sediment Quality Assessment Guideline SQG Sediment Quality Guideline TB Tok Bali TEL threshold effect level i T r toxocity coefficients TMTC too many too count TSHD trailing suction hopper dredger USA United State of America USACE United State Army Corps of Engineers USCS unified soil classification systems USEPA United State Environmental Protection Agency xxi

UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia w moisture content XRD X-Ray diffraction XRF X–Ray fluorescence Zn Zinc ZnO zinc oxide

ρL density of the liquid ρs particle density 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Dredging is important to remove materials from the bottom of rivers, harbours and other water bodies. Dredging activities are needed to maintain or enlarge river and port channel, flood control, waterfront construction and access to harbours (Dubois et al., 2009). Sediment is the materials that settle at the bottom of a water body. It principally derives from natural processes (i.e. erosion of soil and weathering of rock) and anthropogenic activities (i.e. agricultural practices and construction activities). The term dredged marine sediment refers to the sediment that has been dredged from a water body (Permanent International Association of Navigation Congress (PIANC), 2006). Dredged marine sediments (DMS) are predominantly clean and usable products. It can be used for beach nourishment, wetland restoration, construction material and wildlife habitat development. However, DMS are also reported to be contaminated with chemical and biological contaminants which will be discussed in detailed in the next sections.

1.2 Background of study

Malaysia is a coastal nation located between Thailand in the north and Singapore in the south. The country has two distinct parts; Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (i.e. Sabah and Sarawak). Peninsular Malaysia is separated from East Malaysia by the South China Sea and separated from Indonesia by the Straits of Malacca (Sarkar et al., 2014) (Figure 1.1). Since Peninsular Malaysia is surrounded by the sea, 2 dredging activities is inevitably necessary to maintain the navigation channel depth at their designed dimensions. In this study, the DMS were retrieved from 4 dredging sites located on the east and west coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, i.e. Lumut (Perak), Marina Melaka (Melaka), Tok Bali (Kelantan) and Pasir Gudang (Johor). Lumut and Marina Melaka are situated on the west coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, where the dredging activities were at within the Straits of Malacca. Tok Bali (Kelantan) is located on the east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia with the dredging activities facing the South China Sea. Pasir Gudang (Johor) is located at the southern top of Peninsular Malaysia, near the Straits of Tebrau.

Tok Bali

Lumut

Pasir Gudang Marina Melaka

iqahaziqah.tripod.com Figure 1.1: Map of Malaysia with highlight the sampling point ( ).

Dredged marine sediment (DMS), which are products of dredging activities, consists mainly of clays, silts and sands. It is mingled with rocks, debris, large obstacles and organic matter (Millrath et al., 2002). DMS is often contaminated with organic and inorganic contaminants, as well as pathogenic bacteria (Meegoda and Perera, 2001 and Ihejirika et al., 2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) are examples of organic pollutants. The inorganic pollutants are mainly heavy metals (cadmium, mercury, lead and nickel), nitrates, phosphates and salts (Zoubeir et al., 2007). Common pathogenic bacteria in sediment are Escherichia coli, Salmonella thypi and Shigella (Indest, 2003 and Ihejirika et al., 2011).

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In Malaysia, DMS are commonly disposed off in the open sea without evaluation on the properties of the material. The DMS were disposed offshore in designated dumping sites with deep at least 20m and 10 nautical miles (1 nautical mile = 1.852 km) from the shoreline. It is to minimize disruption to the surrounding waters (Marine Department of Malaysia, personal communication, 2013). This routine could spread the contaminants to the surrounding waters of the disposal site and adversely affect the marine ecosystem (Mulligan et al., 2001). However, this risk can be controlled and minimized by adopting proper DMS management. The poor engineering properties aside, DMS have the potential to be reused as an acceptable geo-material. Some DMS may also be good as raw materials for beneficial uses such as brick and tile making. However, as mentioned above, DMS could be contaminated, hence in a way limiting the material’s potential to be reused. DMS need to be characterized and the contaminant risk ascertained. The results would be the key to make informed decision on the reuse area, either with or without treatment. If the DMS is found risky for reuse even post-treatment, the DMS material would need to be disposed of using suitable disposal methods. Therefore, an environmental management framework is important to assess the suitability of the DMS to be reused or disposed. However, Malaysia has yet to establish such a management framework for DMS, to serve as guideline for determining the best option of second lives for the DMS (Kaliannan et al., 2015). In a dredging project, there are many stakeholders involved, i.e. client, dredging contractor, national and local agencies, port authorities, environmental consultant and the public (Cutroneo et al., 2014). In Malaysia, the stakeholders include Marine Department Malaysia, Department of Environment (DOE), Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), Department of Fisheries Malaysia (DOF), port administrator, dredging companies, environmental consultants and the public. The framework is developed to provide a standard reference and guideline to ensure consistent approach for DID, Marine Department Malaysia and DOE in evaluating the best options for the DMS. It would help facilitate decision-making among the authorities. Besides, with the framework, DMS deemed suitable for reuse would help conserve the marine environment and ecosystem by reducing the amount of DMS disposed offshore. In DMS management, information on its properties, (e.g. physical, chemical and biological properties) is essential to the selection of the suitable management 4 option, i.e. disposed or reused (Harrington and Smith, 2013). According to Mink (2007), decisions on the dredging methods, treatment options and environmental effects are mainly dependent on the DMS properties.

1.3 Problem statement

To date, Malaysia does not have an established environmental management framework (EMF) for DMS. It affects the DMS handling process as the DMS are not considered for reuse due to the unknown properties and conditions of the material, and hence disposed off back to the sea without further evaluation. According to Chan (2014), disposal is the most common DMS management practice in many countries including Malaysia. The DMS was dispose of without confirmed, either it was cleaned or contaminated. Open water disposal of contaminated DMS could transfer the contaminants to the marine ecosystem. The contaminants would adhere to small organisms like worms and insect larvae, which habitat is at the bottom of the water body. The small organisms are eaten by fish, while the fish are consumed by human. This food chain inevitably transfers the contaminants to human through ingestion (Mulligan et al., 2001). Instead of treating DMS as a waste, the material can be reused for a variety of applications, such as beach nourishment, habitat restoration and landfill cover (Parson and Swafford, 2012). DMS can be a valuable material if properly applied in a beneficial manner. The cost for buying raw material can be reduced based on the DMS suitability to the possible uses. This can be realized with proper DMS management. The evaluation on DMS properties is required before making decision either to reuse or dispose it. Treatment may even be necessary to make the contaminated DMS suitable for reuse. If still found unsuitable or unsafe for reuse, the disposal methods should also be carefully determined based on the DMS properties. Hence, an environmental management framework for Malaysian DMS is important to manage the DMS in proper way with environmental consideration. Since Malaysia has yet not have DMS framework, this study is found to be a useful tool for the authorized department in decision making.

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1.4 Research aim and objectives

The aim of this research is to propose environmental management framework (EMF) for Malaysia dredged marine sediment (DMS). It considers the DMS properties, level of DMS contaminant, beneficial uses and safety for dispose to the sea as the last resort. The three objectives of this study are; i. To develop an environmental management framework (EMF) for sustainable reuse of Malaysian dredged marine sediment. ii. To identify and quantify the physical, chemical and biological properties of dredged marine sediment from Malaysian waters. iii. To verify the applicability of the developed framework on Malaysian DMS characterization in objective 2.

1.5 Scope of research

The study directed at on the development of an environmental management framework (EMF) for sustainable reuse of Malaysian dredged marine sediments. The framework was developed by referring to London Convention (LC), Oslo and Paris (OSPAR) Convention and Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) Guidelines (LC, 1972, HELCOM, 2007 and OSPAR, 2009). The EMF for DMS is focused on material characterization, contaminant assessment, treatment suitability, potential beneficial reuse and disposal method. The actual sample characterization and contaminant assessment were used to validate the framework. The verification of the framework is necessary in order to ensure its workability and suitability in the Malaysian context. The DMS used in this study were retrieved from Lumut (Perak), Melaka (Melaka), and Tok Bali (Kelantan). The physical, chemical and biological properties of all samples were identified. The physical properties test included particle size distribution, specific gravity, Atterberg limits and moisture content. The loss on ignition, pH value, heavy metals, electrical conductivity, chemical composition and mineralogy were the chemical properties measured. The biological properties examined were bacteria identification, enumeration of Escherichia coli (E.coli) and total coliform. Florida Sediment Quality Assessment Guidelines (SQAG) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Sediment Guideline 6 were used to assess the level of heavy metals in the soil (Long and Morgan, 1990 and MacDonald, 1994). On the other hand, Risk Group of Malaysia Biosafety Clearing House (MBCH) was used to assess the pathogenecity of inhabitant bacteria (MBCH, 2010).

1.6 Limitation of Study

The dredging projects were assigned by Marine Department. The DMS samples were taken from dredging sites with permission from Marine Department. The sampling time and location were as advised by the department. Therefore, the weather condition and sampling points during sampling process were depends on the condition during the dredging activities.

1.7 Significance of Study

The establishment of an environmental management framework (EMF) of DMS is important to guide the authorities in DMS handling. The framework should include the DMS characterization (physical, chemical and biological properties) and contamination level (heavy metal and pathogens) leading to informed decisions of the suitable reuse areas, with or without pretreatment. Disposal is the last option if application elsewhere even after treatment is found risky. An EMF as this would provide a systematic evaluation of DMS in the Malaysian marine environment context, avoiding indiscriminate open sea dumping of the potentially reusable material.

1.8 Organization of the thesis

Chapter one summarizes the general information about the study. It contains the background of study, problem statement, research objectives, scope of research, significance of study and organization of the thesis. In Chapter two, a review of literature on the related topic is presented, i.e. historical background and information about the (DMS), especially on the physical, chemical and biological properties, contaminants and existing management systems. Chapter three discusses the research methodology adopted for the study, 7 including the basis and procedural development of the environmental management framework, identification and quantification of the physico-chemical properties and determination of the bio-characteristics of the DMS samples. The first section describes the processes involved in developing the EMF while the second section explains on the determination of physical, chemical and biological properties of the DMS. The second section also gives details of the assessment on the chemical and biological contaminants (i.e. sediment quality guidelines, contamination indices and risk group of pathogens). In Chapter four, the EMF is designed and developed. The information obtained from other DMS management guidelines adopted by other countries is adopted and adapted to fit Malaysian environment via adoption when applicable and adaption when deemed unsuitable. The framework began with physical properties determination. Based on the physical properties, if a DMS sample contains more than 50 % of coarse particles, it would proceed for beneficial reuse. If not, it would be subjected to chemical and biological characterization. Key geotechnical elements are added in this EMF; i.e. Atterberg Limits, moisture content, soil morphology, electrical conductivity, chemical composition, mineralogy, pH and inhabitant bacteria. These elements are served to identify suitable reuse areas for the DMS. The characterizations of DMS together with assessment of the heavy metals level are given due consideration in the EMF development. The verification of the EMF is based on the samples collected from 4 different dredging sites in Peninsular Malaysia. In the last chapter, conclusions of the findings are presented and recommendations for future research are highlighted.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

According to Boutin (1999), several 100 million tons of materials are dredged around the world each year. These materials, ranging from rocks to clays, can contain a variable amount of organic matter, different types and levels of contaminants. According to the European Waste Catalogue, dredged marine sediments are classified as waste materials and required to be dispose off (Hamer and Karius, 2002).

2.2 Dredging

The maintenance of waterways requires dredging on a regular basis to prevent flooding, facilitate navigation and allow for use of a given water system (Bert et al., 2012). Dredging works also involve the periodic removal of accumulated bottom sediments from waterways (Pebbles and Thorp, 2001). According to Bortone and Palumbo (2007), the main reason for dredging is maintenance of waterways for shipping and water discharge, capital dredging and remediation of contaminated sites. All the major ports in the world have periodically required new dredging works known as capital dredging. Capital dredging is to enlarge and deepen access channels, provide turning basins and achieve appropriate water depths along waterside facilities. Subsequently, these channels would require maintenance 9 dredging to remove sediments which have accumulated at the bottom of the channels (International Association Dredging Companies (IADC), 2005). Dredging is an important way of providing sands and gravels for construction and reclamation projects too. Dredged aggregates have a wide range of uses including land reclamation and construction materials. Dredging is also often undertaken to create underwater foundations, facilitate the emplacement of pipelines or immersed tunnel elements and to construct flood control such as dams. It is also improved the discharge capacity of watercourses and create storage capacity in water supply reservoirs (IADC, 2005). Dredging is also beneficial to the environment. It is to remove contaminated sediments, thus improving water quality and restoring the health of aquatic ecosystem. This remediation dredging is used in waterways, lakes, ports and harbours which was near to industrialized or urbanized areas. The removed materials may be treated and reused or disposed under strict environmental controls (IADC, 2005).

2.3 Dredged marine sediments (DMS)

DMS are material that dredged out from harbour and waterways. Table 2.1 gives some common definitions of DMS.

Table 2.1: International definitions of DMS (Owens, 2008). International organization Definition Oslo-Paris Convention (OSPAR) Sediments or rocks with associated water, organic matter etc., removed from areas that are normally or regularly covered by water, using dredging or other excavation equipment. International Standard Organization (ISO) Materials excavated during maintenance, construction, reconstruction and extension measures from waters. London Convention Material dredged that is by nature similar to undisturbed sediments in inland and coastal waters.

2.3.1 Properties of DMS

The DMS properties are mainly focus on its physico-chemical characteristics, along with biological influence. DMS properties are different with space and time; and 10 closely to the past and present land uses in the watershed (Pebbles and Thorp, 2001 and Mulligan et al., 2001). Dredging location will affect the mineralogy, morphology and composition of the DMS. The soils are heterogeneous and can be characterized by grain size distribution, density, water and organic matter contents (Mulligan et al., 2001). Table 2.2 shows some of its properties from several published works. The comparison shows that DMS may have a variety of moisture content, specific gravity, plastic limit, liquid limit, pH and organic matter.

2.3.1.1 Physical characteristic

The primary physical characteristics of DMS were particle size distribution, water content, engineering properties, permeability characteristic, Atterberg limits and organic content (Harrington and Smith, 2013).The DMS are predominantly a clean and usable material. DMS are categorized into five sediment types; rock, gravel and sand, consolidated clay, silt or clay and a mixture of rock, sand, silt and clay (IADC, 2005). According to Grubb et al. (2008), the moisture content of fresh DMS from a dredging scow or barge is between 100 to 200 %. The higher moisture content of DMS is reflecting the particle size of the DMS. Fine particles (silt and clay) have the ability to retain water due to the arrangement of the particle. According to Martinez et al. (2008), fine sediment was correlated with contamination level, as it increased with high fine particle content. The greater surface area of fine particle which tend to adhere the contaminants (Herut and Sandler, 2006).

2.3.1.2 Chemical characteristic

Chemical characteristic of DMS is necessary in understanding the condition of the DMS. According to Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Programme of United State (DOER) (1999), the primary chemical characteristic are organic content, pH value, salinity, nutrient content and contaminant (e.g. PAH and heavy metals). pH value is important because it affects chemical properties of dredged marine sediments including a) surface charge of organic matter, clay or mineral particles, b) solubility, mobility and toxicity of contaminants, c) relative binding of 11

12 positively charged ions to the cation exchange sites, d) calcium carbonates equivalents (liming requirements) and e) nutrient availability (Winfield and Lee, 1999). A high acid content may be found in some natural soils, especially those containing sulphides or sulphate-reducing bacteria or high alkali content in limy soils (Whitlow, 2001). Organic matter content in the marine sediment originates from marine and terrestrial sources. Chemical compounds of marine sediment are predominantly proteins (amino acids), carbohydrates (sugars) and lipids, while terrestrial organic matter consists of living biomass, plant litter and soil organic matter (Bastami et al., 2015). Soil plasticity has correlation with organic matter where the limits of liquidity and plasticity increase with the amount of organic matter (Dubois, 2006; Thiyyakkandi and Annex, 2011). Salinity of a soil where measured by electrical conductivity (EC) test is related with plant growth. Generally, plants respond in the following ways to EC: EC < 2, negligible response, 2 ≤ EC < 4, slight reduction in yield sensitive plants, 4 ≤ EC < 8 reduced yield in most plants, 8 ≤ EC < 16 satisfactory yield only in salt tolerant plants and EC > 16 satisfactory yield only in plants that are extremely salt-tolerant (Winfield and Lee, 1998). Marine clay is microcrystalline in nature. The clay minerals like chlorite, kaolinite and illite and non-clay minerals like quartz and feldspar are present in the soil (Rao et al., 2012). One of soil mineral in DMS is quartz. Quartz is a space-lattice -4 silicate composed of silica tetrahedrons, (SiO4) linked together by primary valence bonds to form a three dimensional network with the formula SiO2. There is no isomorphous substitution in quartz and each silica tetrahedron is firmly and equally braced in all directions. As a result quartz has no planes of weakness and is very hard and highly resistant to mechanical and chemical weathering. Quartz or amorphous silica is frequently present in colloidal (1 to 100 nm) and molecular (<1 nm) dimensions (Terzaghi et al., 1996).

2.3.1.3 Biological characteristic

The coastal environment contains a mixture of microorganisms capable of metabolizing organic wastes. The microorganisms in the coastal waters include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa rotifers, crustacean, worms and insect larvae 13 depending upon environmental conditions. High concentrations of toxic metal ions or toxic chemicals and extreme temperature can decrease or exterminate the activity of the microorganism (Omiema and Ideriah, 2012). Table 2.3 shows the bacteria commonly found in DMS from published works. Escherichia coli, klebsiella mobilis, shigella dysenteriae, salmonella typhi, proteus vulgaris, enterobacter cloacae, and citrobacter freundii were detected in Nworie River dredged sediments of Nigeria (Ihejirika et al., 2011).

Table 2.3: Bacteria in dredged marine sediments

References Location Type of soil Microorganisms Details Li et al., Pacific Arctic 14% (2009) Ocean Sediment Acidobacteria Actinobacteria Small proportion Bacteroidetes 15 % Deltaproteobacteria 12 % Betaproteobacteria 40 % Alphaproteobacteria 17 % Gammaproteobacteria 76 % Kouridaki et Northeastern 23.3 % al., (2010) Pacific Ocean Sediment Gammaproteobacteria Deltaproteobacteria 13.6 % Actinobacteria 12.1 % Luna et al., Donghae 78.4 % of explained Total prokaryotes (2010) Sediment variance 49.2 % of explained Fecal coliforms variance Schippers et Black Sea Subsurface 107-108 cell /ml al., (2012) marine sediments sediment Bacteria 7 8 Archaea 10 -10 cell /ml sediments

2.4 Contaminants of DMS

Many waterways are located close to industrial and urban areas. Wastes from industrial, domestic and port enter the waterways by surface runoff (Meegoda and Perera, 2001). Due to different urban, industrial and agricultural activities, the DMS have contaminated with various organic contaminants (e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and mineral oils), inorganic contaminant (e.g. heavy metals) and pathogens (vibrio cholerae, vibrio vulnificus, salmonella spp., shigella spp. and escherichia coli) (Brettar et al., 2007 and Bert et 14 al., 2012). There are four type of chemicals that are considered to be the most harmful to the aquatic environment; heavy metals, organotin compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) as they are toxic and bioaccumulate in the food chain (Harrington and Smith, 2013). The type and level of contaminants concentration are different with the dredging location (Millrath, 2002). Inorganic contaminant gets more concern due to its properties, non- biodegradable contaminant. Heavy metals are unlike organic pollutants, cannot be chemically degraded or biodegraded by microorganisms. The properties of DMS, made it possible to entrap contaminants (Meegoda and Perera, 2001).

2.4.1 Heavy metals

Heavy metals are known to be serious components of inorganic contaminant in aquatic sediments due to its ability to accumulate for long period of time (Dong et al., 2011 and Guven and Akinci, 2013). According to Yin et al. (2014), marine sediments are often rich in heavy metals due to accumulation and resistivity to biodegradation. Heavy metals in the water usually transfer into sediments by physical, chemical and biological processes including ion-exchanging, precipitation, adsorption and flocculation. Marine sediments are good indicators for the assessment of various contaminants in aquatic environments because they act as major repository of metals, leading to the contaminants of coastal zone (Ghannem et al., 2014). Table 2.4 shows metals in DMS. Metals are used in automobiles, pesticides, paints, photographic papers, photo chemicals, textiles, electroplating and mining industries (Lohani et al., 2008). Certain metals play important roles in biological metabolism at very low concentrations, i.e. copper, iron, zinc, manganese and cobalt. In aquatic environment, the minute quantities of some metals such as copper, zinc, iron, manganese and nickel are essential for biological systems to function. However, when excess the limit, its can disturb biochemical functions in both humans and animals (Sany et al., 2013). Chromium, lead, cadmium and mercury can be toxic even at low concentration (Nguyen et al., 2005).

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2.4.1.1 Sources of heavy metals

Human activities had increased heavy metals concentrations in marine ecosystem (Ra et al., 2013). The main sources of these trace metals are related to different local coastal activities and development, such as land filling and dredging for coastal expansion, maritime activities, crude oil pollution, shipping processes, industrial discharge, agricultural activities and lack of public awareness (Al-Rousan et al., 2012). In marine environment, heavy metals can result from geologic weathering, land runoff, industrial effluents, atmospheric deposition, coastal waters and waste products (Gopinath et al., 2010). Contamination of marine sediments also occurred through shipyards, ships and industrial activities near the coast. Nearshore sediments can therefore be a repository for marine pollution (Goldsmith et al., 2001). Heavy metals are rapidly associated with the sediment via adsorption onto surface particles, hydrolysis and co-precipitation. Adsorption is usually the predominant process because metals have strong affinities for iron and manganese hydroxides, particulate organic matter and extent to clay minerals. Consequently, metals tend to accumulate in bottom sediments (Rezayi et al., 2011). Only small portion of free metal ions can be found dissolved in water (Sultan and Shazili, 2009). Metals of anthropogenic origin introduced into aquatic media are generally present in ionic or particulate forms. Then it incorporated into organic-metallic compounds or some mineral phases. They subsequently become part of the suspended matter transported in the water column and finally decant into sediments (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2000). The Current European Union regulations (EU, 2006) consider plumbum,(Pb), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) metals to be dangerous for human beings. Chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) are good indicators for industrial contamination. The presence of Pb, copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are generally good indicators for a variety of human activities, domestic, agricultural or industrial. The elements that normally present high concentrations in sediments are aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and mangan (Mn) up to percentage level. They are not considered to be an indicator for contamination and their possible variations are usually related to mineralogical changes (Tapia et al., 2014).

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2.4.1.2 Effects of heavy metals

Trace metals remain in the environment unchanged for years and bioaccumulate increase the concentration as they go up the food chain. The toxic metals pose a long- term public health risk for the human population which relies on fish for proteins where heavy metals accumulated in tissues and organs of aquatic organisms (Gopinath et al., 2010).

2.4.1.3 Interaction of heavy metals with dredged marine sediment

According to Gopinath et al. (2010), the nature of the sediment like particle size, organic content and mineralogy influenced concentration of trace metals in sediments. The concentration of pollutants was stored in sediments, which affected by sediments mineralogy, dimension and distribution. Trace elements are adsorbed by organic substances like carbohydrates, and minerals like Fe and Mn oxides. The adsorption capacity increases with decreasing particle sizes. The overall process is dependent on pH and redox potential, hence the absorbed trace metals can be released again in the water body (Bartoli et al., 2012). The metals tend to adhere to the fine particles in aquatic sediments, due to their greater relative surface area (Herut and Sandler, 2006). The distribution of heavy metals is also influenced by nature of parent materials and their relative mobility depending on sediment parameter such as mineralogy, texture and classification of sediment (Bramha et al., 2014).

2.4.1.4 Assessment of heavy metals

A) Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG)

Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG) is used to evaluate the patterns of contaminant in sediments. The primary purpose of SQG is to protect animals living in or near to sediment from the adverse effects associated with contaminated sediment. Two of the most widely applied SQGs for estuarine and marine ecosystems are Florida Sediment Quality Assessment Guidelines (SQAG) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Sediment Guideline (Long and Morgan, 1990 and 18

MacDonald, 1994). The effects-range guidelines by NOAA and SQAG are the effect range low (ERL)/effect range median (ERM) and the threshold effect level (TEL)/probable effect level (PEL) values respectively (Table 2.5). Concentrations below the ERL/TEL are rarely associated with adverse effects, concentrations between the ERL/TEL and ERM/PEL are occasionally associated with adverse effects, and concentrations above the ERM/PEL are frequently associated with toxicity.

Table 2.5: Summary of Effects-Range Guidelines (Long and Morgan, 1990 and MacDonald, 1994).

NOAA Guidelines SQAG Heavy metals (mg/kg) ERL ERM TEL PEL Arsenic (As) 8.2 70 7.24 41.6 Cadmium (Cd) 1.2 9.6 0.68 4.21 Chromium (Cr) 81 370 52.3 160 Copper (Cu) 34 270 18.7 108 Lead (Pb) 46.7 218 30.2 112 Mercury (Hg) 0.15 0.71 0.13 0.7 Nickel (Ni) 20.9 51.6 15.9 42.8 Zinc (Zn) 150 410 124 271

B) Contaminant Indices

Contaminant indices are another tool to assess the pollution level of heavy metals in soils and sediments. These indexes e.g. geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (Cf) and degree of contamination (Cd) rely on geochemical background for an element in order to calculate an enrichment or contamination factor. The background value chosen can either be a feature of the area of interest (for example a measurement taken upstream of a contamination point source), the value from the sample with the lowest concentration, the concentration value at the base of a core sample or an accepted background value. In the absence of geochemical background data of the area studied, the average shale values reported by Turekian and Wedephol (1961) are often used as background reference values (Hamdoun et al., 2015).

The geoaccumulation index (Igeo) (Table 2.6) was introduced by Muller (1979) may contribute to the estimation the degree of the sediment contamination and these results reflect the effect of lithogenic sources (Nobi et al., 2010 and Sany et al., 19

i 2013). Potential ecological risk (E r) is an index used in ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in sediment. The ecological risk index (RI) as diagnostic tools for determining the degree of pollution and to assess the effect of multiple metals pollution in the sample (Hakanson, 1980 and Gao et al., 2013).

Table 2.6: Index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) of heavy metal in sediment (Muller, 1979).

Igeo Class Sediment accumulation Pollution Intensity

0 Igeo ≤ 0 Unpolluted 1 0< Igeo < 1 Unpolluted to moderately polluted 2 1< Igeo < 2 Moderately polluted 3 2< Igeo < 3 Moderately to highly polluted 4 3< Igeo < 4 Highly polluted 5 4< Igeo < 5 Highly to very highly polluted 6 Igeo > 5 Very highly polluted

The geo-accumulation index (Igeo) was estimated using the equations 2.1,

퐼푔푒표 = log2 (Cn /1.5Bn ) (Eq. 2.1)

where Cn is the measured concentration of heavy metal in sediments and Bn is the geochemical background concentration of the same metal in average shale. The constant 1.5 was introduced to consider the possible variations of the background values due to the lithological variations. The contamination factor (Cf) and the degree of contamination (Cd) were estimated based on the average concentration values of metals following the method of Hakanson (1980). The applied equations are presented in equations 2.2 and 2.3.

퐶푓 = 퐶푛 /푀푏 (Eq. 2.2) 푛 퐶푑 = 푖=0 퐶푓 (Eq. 2.3) where Cn is the metal concentration in the sediment, Mb is a reference value for metals. According to Hakanson (1980), the following terms were used to describe contamination factor (Table 2.7) and the degree of contamination (Table 2.8). Table i 2.9 shows the reference value (Mb) and toxocity coefficients (T r) of heavy metals in sediments (Hilton et al., 1985).

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Table 2.7: Contamination factor (Cf) (Hakanson, 1980).

Contamination factor Description

1 < Cf Low contamination

1 < Cf <3 Moderate contamination factor

3 < Cf < 6 considerable contamination factor

Cf > 6 Very high contamination factor

Table 2.8: Degree of contamination (Cd) (Hakanson, 1980).

Degree of contamination Description Cd < 8 Low degree of contamination

8< Cd<16 Moderate degree of contamination

16 < Cd < 32 Considerable degree of contamination

Cd > 32 Very high degree of contamination

Table 2.9: Geochemical background concentration (Bn), reference value (Mb) and i toxocity coefficients (T r) of heavy metals in sediments (Hilton et al., 1985).

Heavy metals Hg Cd As Cu Pb Cr Zn

Bn 0.25 1 15 50 70 90 175

Mb (mg/kg) 0.2 0.5 15 30 25 60 80

i T r 40 30 10 5 5 2 1

i Ecological risk (E r) is an index widely used in ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in sediment (Equation 2.4). Risk index (RI) is the sum of all ecological i risk by using Equation 2.5 and 2.6. Terminology used to describe the risk factor E r and risk index (RI) as tabulated in Table 2.10 (Hakanson ,1980).

i i E r = T r Cf (Eq. 2.4) i RI =∑E r (Eq. 2.5)

RI = sum of all risk factor for heavy metal i E r = monomial potential ecological risk factor i T r = toxic-response factor

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i Table 2.10: Terminology used to describe the risk factor (E r) and risk index (RI) as suggested (Hakanson ,1980).

Potential ecological risk for single Ecological risk Ei RI r regulator for all factors i E r <40 Low RI <150 Low

i 40 < E r <80 Moderate 150< RI <300 Moderate

i 80 < E r <160 Considerable 300< RI <600 Considerable

i 160 < E r <320 High RI >600 Very High Ei > 320 Very high r

2.4.2 Biological contaminants

Pathogen is one of biological contaminants in DMS. Physical properties such as structure and texture of the soil environment influence the microbial community. Clay soils, compared to sandy soils, have a greater capacity for retaining carbon in the soil organic matter component because the carbon is protected in smaller pore spaces. Clayey soils also have greater surface area for organic matter to bind to clay particles. In addition, soils with higher clay content have enhanced biomass retention after substrate addition for the following reasons: lower turnover rate of microbial products, increased retention of microbial biomass and organic matter, increased nutrient adsorption, and greater protection from microbial predators. Microbes are protected in clay soil aggregates, which increase efficiency of microbial utilization of substrates. Risk Group (RG) is used to classify the risky level of microorganisms. There are 4 level of RG; RG1, RG2, RG3 and RG4 and the details as tabulated in Table 2.11 (MBCH, 2010).

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Table 2.11: Classification of biohazardous agents by Risk Group (RG), and Pathogenicity (MBCH, 2010).

Risk Group (RG) Pathogenicity Features RG 1 A microorganism that is unlikely to cause human disease or animal low individual and disease of veterinary importance. community risk

RG 2 A pathogen that can cause human or animal disease but it is unlikely moderate individual risk, to be a serious hazard to laboratory workers, the community, limited community livestock livestock or the environment. Laboratory exposure may cause serious or environment risk infection. Infection risk via direct contact, ingestion or inhalation. Effective treatment, preventive and control measures are readily available and can be implemented to control disease transmission. Risk of spread to a community is limited.

RG 3 Organism, which may be an exotic or indigenous agent with potential high individual, low to transmit disease mainly via aerosols. disease caused is severe and community risk may result in death. It could present a risk if spread in the community however effective treatment, preventive and control measures are available.

RG4 Organism, which may be an exotic agent or new agent usually able to high individual and cause life-threatening human disease. The infectious disease is community risk readily transmissible from one individual to another. Infectious disease may be transmitted via aerosol or via unknown route. effective treatment, preventive and control measures are not readily available.

2.5 Management of dredged marine sediments

Management generally is the role that manages people‟s efforts to achieve their goals using available resources efficiently and effectively. The principles of management are planning, organizing, command, coordination and control (Fayol, 1976). A framework serves as tool concepts that guide research. DMS management framework is important and necessary for sustainable reuse of DMS as there are no proper guidelines for it in Malaysia. It is essential to have this management framework because DMS potentially poses health and environmental effect (Kaliannan et al., 2015). In dredging activities, there are three main stages involved; excavation, transport and disposal (Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015) (Figure 2.1). Dredging activities was started with excavation of sediments. The sediment was removed by using different types of dredger which depends on the depths and sediment‟s physical as in Table 2.12. The dredging equipment can be divided into two types; mechanical 23 and hydraulic dredgers. The differences between these two types‟ dredgers are the technique to excavate the sediment either mechanical or hydraulic. The mechanical dredgers were bucket ladder dredger, dipper and backhoe dredger and grab dredger. Trailing suction hopper dredger, cutter dredger and plain suction dredger are example of hydraulic dredgers (Vlasblom, 2003). According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2015), trailing suction hopper dredger, backhoe dredger and cutter suction dredgers are frequently used to date.

Transport • Using hydraulic • Open water or mechanical • Hopper barges • Land cutter dredger • Pipelines Excavation Disposal

Figure 2.1: Dredging stages

The dredged sediments were transferred into barges or pipelines as transportation to the selected disposal site. According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2015), there were several methods in disposed the dredged sediment; agitation dumping, side casting, dumping in rehandling basins, sump rehandling operations and direct pumping ashore. Open water disposal is the most economical and widely used method. During open disposal, the dredged sediments are barged to the designated dumping site and disposed through its bottom gate. Another technique is the use of pipelines to pump the dredged sediments onto land. The sediments were transported through pipelines by loading the sediments into the hopper and pumped them ashore (Kizyaez et al., 2011 and Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015). According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2015), silt curtains or booms were used during open disposal to prevent diffusion and help sedimentation. A boom is a heavy structure comprising a plastic cover, connectors, skirt, tension member and ballast 24 weight which is hooked to an air or solid float (Dreyer, 2006). A submerged or floating silt curtain consists of a tension member, ballast weight, anchor and curtain. However, there is concern regarding their use due to the risk of contamination leakages and contaminated sediments is not permitted for open disposal (Dreyer, 2006 and Manap and Voulvoulis, 2015).

Table 2.12: Possibilities of the different types of dredgers. Bucket Grab Backhoe Suction Cutter Trailer Hopper dredger dredger dredger dredger dredger dredger dredger Dredging yes yes yes yes yes yes yes sandy materials Dredging yes yes yes no yes yes no clayey materials Dredging yes no yes no yes no no rocky materials Anchoring yes yes no yes yes no yes wires Maximum 30 >100 20 70 25 100 50 dredging depths (m) Accurate yes no yes no yes no no dredging possible Working no yes no yes no yes yes under offshore conditions possible Transport via no no no yes yes no no pipelines Dredging in yes yes yes no limited no no situ densities possible

According to Manap and Voulvoulis (2014), dredging is performed in a highly contaminated site but has not been identified as a risk, such as in Malaysia. There was lacks of efficient tools and practises to access the environmental risks of dredging. Therefore, the need remains for an efficient tool or guideline to be developed in order to identify possible risks of dredging (Manap and Voulvoulis, 2014). Manap and Voulvoulis (2014) had introduces an Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) framework to identify dredging-related risks in a dredging area. The methods were only focused on the level of contaminants in the water, groundwater, air and the behaviour of environmental indicators during monitoring of historical dredging.

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