Gold Mining Related Conflict in Tumpang Pitu East

Joharotul Jamilah1, Muhammad Ismail1 and Edwin Syarif1 1Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta,

Keywords: Conflict, Escalation, Gold Mine, Qualitative

Abstract: This paper examines the existence of gold mining in Tumpang Pitu Banyuwangi which impact community conflict. The presence of a gold mining company transforms the natural landscape of Tumpang Pitu from protection and water catchment areas into extractive quarry areas. The protracted conflict which involves many actors, creating tidal dynamics and escalation of the conflict like peacetime, tension, and violence, through pre-conflict, confrontation, crisis, post-conflict, and conflict. This study uses the qualitative method to obtain in-depth data about the picture of the conflict in the community. The conflict occurred as a result of gold mining companies causing degradation of the protected forests that cause water resources polluted and reduced in the communities. There is pollution of seawater and soil due to the disposal of gold waste, resulting in decreased agricultural yields and fish catch for farmers and fishers. This conflict involves various parties such as corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, farmers, fishers and tourism activists. The period 1995-2006 is a pre-conflict that occurs between communities, companies, and governments. In 2006- 2014 the confrontation phase, 2015 crisis and the peak of the conflict were anarchism, 2016-2017 stages of post-conflict and consequences of unrest and violence that harm the company and the community.

1 INTRODUCTION Conflict of natural resources is relatively rampant in gold mining in Tumpang Pitu, for example, conflict The study of natural resource management conflicts over water resources in (Cole, 2012) and in several regions in Indonesia exists everywhere, Sukabumi (Fitri, 2014); conflict in conservation areas namely the perspective of regional authorities in (Kuswijayanti, Dharmawan, & Kartodihardjo, 2007) managing these natural resources. There are two and agrarian conflicts in Urutsewu (Cahyati, 2014); schools in analysing the perspective of natural and conflict over the curse of diamonds (Nashih, resource governance, the anthropocentric perspective 2014). As quoted by Cahyati (2014), the relationship and ecological perspective (Jati, 2012). between conflict and natural resources is through Anthropocentric perspectives see that natural three ways, according to Alao (2007), namely resources exist to meet human needs so that people resources as a cause of conflict, resources as factors can use them as much as possible. However, an that extend conflict, and resources as means to ecological perspective sees that natural resources are overcome conflict. created, which requires a balance between the needs When referring to Le Billon (2001) (Paivi, of nature and humans because both creatures need Gleditsch, & Gilmore, 2005) and O'Lear (2005) each other. (Billon, 2001), the abundance or scarcity of resources The conflict includes the acquisition of can create conflict. Conflict arises due to the lust of communal-based natural resources from the people in greed to get the maximum benefit from abundant the name of increased income and economic growth. resources; conflict can also be the cause of struggle So at this level, the regime acts oligarchical repressive for scarce resources to survive. by trying to prioritize the interests of the elite Tumpang Pitu in Banyuwangi has the economy rather than the economic interests of potential of natural resource wealth in the form of society. The implication that arises is that the gold and copper. However, the emergence of disputes economic resources of the community get the or social conflicts followed the abundance of gold in recognition in the economic development. Tumpang Pitu. The conflict occurred involving

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Jamilah, J., Ismail, M. and Syarif, E. Gold Mining Related Conflict in Tumpang Pitu Banyuwangi . DOI: 10.5220/0009933216431650 In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Recent Innovations (ICRI 2018), pages 1643-1650 ISBN: 978-989-758-458-9 Copyright c 2020 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. All rights reserved

ICRI 2018 - International Conference Recent Innovation various parties such as the local government (district 2 THEORETICAL STUDIES AND and district DPRD), mining companies and communities around Tumpang Pitu. LITERATURE REVIEW The existence of gold mining in Tumpang Pitu has an impact on changes in the natural landscape and the 2.1 Conflict potential for socio-economic impacts on the lives of the surrounding communities. Changes in the natural Fisher et al. (2000) interpret conflict as a relationship landscape can be seen from changes in the Tumpang between two people/groups who have different goals. Pitu area and its surroundings which initially included Unlike conflict, violence in the form of actions, protected forest and limited production forest as the words, and behavior that cause physical, extractive mining areas. This change in the natural psychological, social and environmental damage. landscape is not only a change in the status of a According to Ritzer (2005) three main ideas that region, but the operation of mining has the potential underlie conflict: (1) society is always in a process of to cause environmental pollution in coastal and change that is marked by a continuous conflict marine areas. Environmental pollution will have an between its elements; (2) each element will contribute impact on the activities or livelihoods of fishers and to social disintegration; and (3) the order contained in tourism activists. The operation of mining is society is caused by pressure or force from above by suspected to result in disruption of the availability of the ruling class. Fisher (2000) divides the factors that water resources and the occurrence of drought for cause conflict, namely: (1) Power is power, farmers. Therefore, one of them appears to be a legitimacy, authority or the ability to force others. rejection of mining operations. Power can be derived from authority, access to Conflict over the existence of mining in Tumpang resources, networks, abilities/expertise, information Pitu began in 2006. In 2006, the permission Tumpang and resources caused by one's personality; (2) Culture Pitu area exploration was published and planned the determines how people think and act. Cultural scheme of the exploitation phase. This exploitation differences often cause conflict; (3) Identity. Conflict condition keeps paradoxical damage to natural often arises due to the imposition of or not the resources in the surrounding environment which are recognition of a particular identity to a person or increasingly severely damaging. It is the source of the group of people or because of the appearance of conflict phenomenon because the community does prejudice; (4) Gender is a difference between men not maximally enjoy the distribution of natural and women who are socially constructed which resources. There are many conflicts over the results in power differences between men and ownership of natural resources which involve many women. It tends to cause conflict potentially, and (5) trinities of actors such as government, people in Rights are dimensions of social and political conflict. business, and the local community. Therefore, this Similarly, Fisher et al. (2000) explained that conflict research is to examine the dynamics of gold mining changes every time, through different stages of conflicts, relations between the parties related to activity, intensity, tension, and violence. Fisher et al. resources or the environment, and environmental (2000) describe five stages in a conflict that generally changes and their impact on the surrounding arise after a group or individual can identify the cause community. of conflict. Based on the problems described above, the The long-standing conflict of parties in Tumpang research questions are as follows: Pitu will be analyzed through conflict escalation so 1. How did the history of Tumpang Pitu that the dynamics of conflict will surface. conflict arise? 2. How do the conflict and the escalation occur 2.2 Political Ecology with the presence of gold mining in Tumpang Pitu? Blaikie and Brookfild (1987) define political ecology, 3. Whom did the actors involve in the conflict as quoted by Afiff (2009) (O'Lear, 2006), as the at Tumpang Pitu? concerns of ecology and political economy in a broader sense "(an analysis that concerns ecology and what is known as political economy). The political ecology approach examines politized environment by understanding environmental changes referring to political and economic processes (Fisher, Andi, Ludin, Smith, Williams, & Williams, 2000).

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According to Robbins (2004) as explained by the true presence of natural resources to bring Cole (2012) there are four dominant narratives in prosperity, instead, presents rivalry and suffering. political ecology, namely: (1) Degradation and The weakening function of the state towards marginalization; (2) environmental conflicts; (3) corporations and markets creates resistance from the Control and conservation; and (4) environmental public to rise up against these injustices. identity and social movements. Political ecology The Tumpang Pitu gold mining research was positions power as a key concept, besides involving analyzed using conflict theory, especially regarding actors such as the state, multilateral institutions, conflict escalation. Because the gold mining conflict business people, environmental NGOs lasted relatively long and long so it was important to (environmental nongovernmental organizations), and see the dynamics of the conflict. To sharpen the local actors (grassroots actors). Bailey, 2007) With analysis of natural resource conflicts in Tumpang Pitu the power of one actor can control the environment of a political ecology approach is also used. This other actors. How to control actors against the approach is to see environmental problems / changes environment of other actors through: (1) controlling such as pollution and so on, and their impact on the diversity of environmental resources by society. Likewise, political ecology deepens the monopolizing valuable environmental resources; (2) relationship between parties or actors related to controlling the priority of environmental projects and natural resources or the environment.Therefore, this programs carried out by the state to overcome ecological-political study has always criticized and problems; (3) control through discourse or ideas. questioned the concept of political economy in Therefore according to Bryant (1998) research on develop mentalism which has a significant role in political ecology prioritizes understanding the environmental change. Both nature and humans have political dynamics surrounding the material struggle been in a binary opposition relationship where and environmental discourse. In this research, humans as regulators of natural resources in the political ecology approaches to analyze changes in universe, are always acting arbitrarily against the natural resources / environment and relations between environment and damage it. factors related to the environment so that this research attempts to trace the occurrence of environmental 2.3 Literature Review degradation and conflict and marginalization. Therefore, this ecological-political study has Some of the literature that researchers managed to always criticized and questioned the concept of find related to social conflict due to the struggle for political economy in developmentalism which has a natural resources, research on the picture of social major role in environmental change. Both nature and culture and economics in Tumpang Pitu Pesanggaran humans have been in a binary opposition relationship Banyuwangi and conflict management in resolving where humans who are considered as regulators of conflicts in natural resource conflicts, especially natural resources on this planet always act arbitrarily mining. against the environment so that they become Research by Robby Firman Syah and Miftah Adhi damaged. Ikhsanto (2013), entitled "Mining Gold in the Land of In reading cases of natural resource conflicts in Using: Power and Conflict Management at the Pitu the local sphere, developmentism based on the Gold Overpass in Banyuwangi District" shows the management of traditional resource governance is results of conflict management efforts formed by the still the main thinking orientation. The logic of Regent Abdullah Azwar Anas in managing gold developmentism that bases on the economic growth mining conflicts Overlapping Pitu in 2011-2013. The that permeates, but seeps it not to the bottom is the problem in this study is that the Tumpang Pitu gold general pattern that occurs in these various con icts. mining natural resources revenue sharing requires There are not many regions in Indonesia that policies and rules that are part of development in implement ecological management in governance . The theory used in this study because it is the same as wasting themselves into rich refers to the concept of authority on Ralf Dahrendorf's areas. The demand to raise local revenue (PAD) is the conflict theory and the concept of conflict main motivation for governance itself to be absolutely management. The research method in this study uses state and corporate property? The implication that a case study method. The results of the study show arises later is that there is a structural income that the mining problems of Tumpang Pitu arise as a inequality in which the government gets richer while result of interactions between actors that are social, the people suffer even more. This phenomenon is cultural and economic. Changes that occur include often referred to as the curse of natural resources that capital decomposition (a change in the share structure

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that puts the Banyuwangi Regency Government in Meanwhile the research that examines the possession of a 10% non-dilution share free of research area, namely Tumpang Pitu, was also carried charge). The decomposition of the workforce shows out by Moerad, et al., Which was titled "Mapping the that the cooperation that has been built between the Potential and Economic Impact of Communities in community and the corporation through the opening the Bukit Mining Area of Tumpang Pitu of access and community empowerment. The Banyuwangi". This research has a purpose to see how emergence of a new middle class with the increasing socio-economic changes occur in Sumberagung economic capacity of the people in the mining area of Village community due to the Tumpang Pitu gold Tumpang Pitu. Based on the strategies and policies in mining. This study uses quantitative methods. The dealing with the problem of Tumpang Pitu gold results of the study indicate a change in economic mining management, it can be concluded that the potential. Starting from the type of livelihood, Regent Abdullah Azwar Anas succeeded in placing community income, to the pattern and daily lifestyle. consensus among actors involved and in direct Sumber Agung village no longer reflects inland contact with the Tumpang Pitu gold mining. Regent villages but rather shows the tourist village. The Abdullah Azwar Anas built authority from conflicts settlement of the villagers has changed its function to of interest towards community-based sustainability become a Homestay, and Guest House is a private development in the management of the Tumpang Pitu mining employee. gold mine in Banyuwangi Regency. Subsequent research is a study from Moerad et al. (2014), with the title Mapping Socio-Cultural Society 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY of Sumber Agung Village, Pesanggaran Subdistrict, Banyuwangi Regency "has the purpose of research The researcher uses a qualitative approach in this intended for; To obtain data on mapping study. It is a process of scientific research to (identification and inventory) of sociocultural understand human problems in a social context by communities in the area of potential mining; and creating a comprehensive and complex picture that looking for a community-based management model reports detailed views of the source of information, for the potential of the Mining area. The results of this and carried out in a scientific setting without any qualitative descriptive study show that the level of intervention from researcher (Barney, 1992, 11) education of respondents is relatively moderate, (Bryant & Bailey, 1997), (Creswell, 1994, 11-12) namely the high school level, with an active (Barney, 1992), (Strauss, 1996, 6) (Strauss & Corbin, participatory level without any rejection of the 1996)The data collection uses primary data and presence of a mining company, provided that the local secondary data. Suyanto (Creswell, 2009, 263) community participates in its management. The (Strauss & Corbin, 1996) stated that in collecting conclusion of the study that the characteristics of the primary data, researchers obtained the data from the community that need support for the presence of a field or research location through results with mining company is active participation by involving observations, unstructured interviews, and all norms, values and habits that have been running in documentation. the research area. The interviews that the researchers used as the Other research related to natural resource conflict data collection in this study were some informants is Baiquni & Rijanta's research on "Conflict in who could interview researchers, namely the Gold Environmental and Resource Management in the Era Mine environment community who were in pro and of Community Autonomy and Transition contra about the existence of the mine, village chief, (Theoretical Understanding and Empirical Meaning)" member of the Second Regional Parliament in which resulted in a policy of regional autonomy Banyuwangi Regency, village environmental security launched in the midst of a multidimensional crisis and apparatus, employees and former employees and the transition of civil society , bringing a number of NGOs. Data collected by researchers is primary data implications and complications in its implementation that is not written in the form of words and actions, as at various levels. Regime reforms and sudden policy well as secondary data in the form of written data on changes from centralization to decentralization took books, photocopies, photographs, and video place in situations of uncertainty marked by economic recordings and news broadcast by the mass media and crises, social conflicts and political turmoil. other documentation. The data process used Meanwhile tensions, disputes, conflicts and even categorizing technique by looking at the theory in this conflicts with violence are still taking place in various study to find suitable findings to answer the research parts of Indonesia. questions. To ensure the validity of the data the

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researcher had carried out examination techniques 2006 that a Certificate of Review Permit (SKIP) and based on specific criteria, namely extension of Mining Proxy for General Investigation have been participation, the persistence of observation, issued to PT IMC and subsequently in 2007 an triangulation, examination colleagues, member Exploration Mining Authority in the name of PT IMN checking, and referential adequacy. For the part of was issued in 2008 issued Exploitation Mining analysing and interpreting data, researchers organized Authority. In 2010, along with the enactment of Law and sorted the data into patterns, categories, and basic No. 4 of 2009 concerning Mineral and Coal Mining, unit descriptions so that the theme can exist. the Exploitation KP of PT IMN is adjusted to become The process of data analysis in this study began a Production Operation Mining Permit (IUP). Then in by examining all available data from various sources, 2012, IMN submitted an IUP deduction to PT Bumi namely from observations, interviews, and Suksesindo (BSI) to date. documentation. Next, the researcher reduced the data, Since 2000 the community around the Tumpang made an abstraction that could connect the categories Pitu hill, Banyuwangi Pesanggaran has been aware of and then compiled in units of information to the existence of a gold mine, and many of them are determine and define the categories of units and then trying to switch from agricultural activities, farming, categorized in the next step. The categorization was and fishers to traditional gold miners. The gold mine carried out simultaneously with coding (Surya, 2009). in Tumpang Pitu is estimated to have a very high gold After this stage was complete, then the content and can produce around 70 tons per year interpretation stage of the data commenced in (ICDHRE Foundation, 2008: 2). processing the interim results into substantive theory In 2006, investors entered PT. Indo Multi Niaga using specific methods (IMN) which was granted permission by the Banyuwangi Regent (Ratna) in 2008-2014 to conduct gold mining exploration in the forest area with an area 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS AND of 11,621.45 Ha. Some cover conservation forest areas in Siliragung and Pesanggaran Districts. Data DISCUSSION from Pesanggaran District (2011), initially the number of traditional miners reached 12 thousand 4.1 Research Findings people from the local area as well as from outside the city such as Jember, Situbondo, Bali, and Solo. Many Tumpang Pitu mountain area is located in Immigrants worked as gold miners from outside the Sumberagung Village, Pesanggaran Subdistrict, Banyuwangi area even from abroad. Banyuwangi Regency. Tumpang Pitu area is a Based on the survey in the field and reinforced by mountainous region which is a protected forest and news in Kompas Media in July 2012, since the mining production forest in Banyuwangi Regency. Mount project in the Tumpang Pitu hill area, Pesanggaran, Tumpang Pitu is surrounded by three National Parks, people's lives have changed, they are no longer safe namely in the west is Meru Betiri National Park, in and harmonious instead compete with each other so the east is , and in the north that their households become messy. It is because is Baluran National Park. In addition, the region also family heads as traditional miners invest their capital has three forest cutting areas (KPH) such as the West in participating in exploration, with the aim of earning Banyuwangi KPH, North Banyuwangi KPH, and more income than as a farmer and cultivator. South Banyuwangi KPH. Gunung Tumpang Pitu is However, for years, what they hoped would not come, estimated to have a very high gold content and can they must meet the needs of their families. The produce around 70 tons / year. business of traditional gold miners which is Gold exploration activities in Banyuwangi have considered illegal is also forcibly closed by the local changed mining companies from 1991 to 1994 by PT government through the local authorities. So there Gamasiantara (Golden Eagle Indonesia), then was a social conflict in the District of Pesanggaran continued by Korea Toosun Holding from 1994 to especially the Bukit Tumpang Pitu area, between the 1997. Then, conducted by Golden Valley Mines community and the company and the local (1997), Placer Dome (1999-2000). and the Hakman government. The conflict began to raise because Group JV. In 2006, PT Indo Multi Cipta (IMC) residents thought that exploitation by PT. IMN was changed its name to PT Indo Multi Niaga (IMN) to permissible while the traditional gold mining continue exploration activities. community was not allowed to be chased and The licensing process for the management of gold imprisoned because it was considered damaging to mining has been quite long, it has been recorded since the environment. Thus, the number of traditional gold

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miners reduced to around 250 people. However, later, approved changes to the share ownership IMN sold 80 percent of its shares to four corporations composition. %). MSJ gave a 10% stake to the so that the Banyuwangi government could negotiate Banyuwangi Regional Government. The decision of with the corporation (Kompas, July 2012). the dispute resulted in an agreement that PT IMN The communities around Tumpang Pitu mainly provided compensation of US $ 80 million for come from farmers, fishers, traders, laborers, and Intrepid IMN Ltd. others who only rely on small boat and nets as well as On February 19, 2014, the Australian company makeshift agricultural land to make ends meet. Since announced that it had reached an agreement to settle the existence of a gold mine in Tumpang Pitu, they a dispute in the ownership of the Tumpang Pitu gold have the opportunity to change jobs to become and copper mine. Intrepid was willing to release 80% traditional miners who are more promising results. of the shares, and instead, they got the US $ 80 Therefore, many people change their profession to million in cash. On the official intrepid website, become gold miners. intrepid leader Ian McMaster stated, in the settlement The conflict emerged due to the negative agreement, the company agreed to end all claims and ecological impacts of this mining, changes, and disputes over the proposed Seven Hill project. damage to the environment around Tumpang Pitu. With the announcement, a hot conflict of the gold Tumpang Pitu was a source of water for the mine between Intrepid Mines, BSI, and the surrounding community, and it reduced even Banyuwangi Regency Government ended. The two contaminated with waste from the mining. The companies signaled that there was no more polemic community's agriculture is also damaged, such as the regarding mining permits in Tumpang Pitu, peeling of dragon fruit crops, and fishermen's fish Sumberagung Village. With that decision, all claims catches are reduced, due to seawater contamination of were deemed to be invalid. The agreement came out, the waste. Another impact was the damage to the establishing BSI through Merdeka Serasi Jaya as the village roads that were passed by the transportation manager of the gold mine and the Banyuwangi equipment which carried heavy equipment for district government got a 10% golden share from the mining. Coupled with the conflict that occurred Tumpang Pitu gold mine. between residents who worked in mining companies and those who refused, because they did not meet the 4.2 Discussion of Research Results requirements of the mining company. In 2010, along with the enactment of Law No. 4 Based on the 2016 Agrarian Reform Consortium of 2009 concerning Mineral and Coal Mining, the report, 450 cases of land conflicts almost doubled Exploitation Mining Authority of PT IMN is adjusted from 2015. The conflict covered a land area of to become a Production Operation Mining Permit 1,265,027 hectares or tripled from 2015. The 2016 (IUP). Then in 2012, IMN submitted an IUP conflict involved 86,745 families, while in 2015, deduction to PT Bumi Suksesindo (BSI) to date. there were 108,714 families. The process of transferring IUP from IMN to BSI The social conflict occurred at the Tumpang Pitu had caused problems. The reason is, Intrepid Mines village gold mine Sumberagung district Pesanggaran Ltd, an Australian company that used to work with Banyuwangi district, was a conflict about the IMN, sued the Banyuwangi Regent, Abdullah Azwar differences in interests between the community Anas, to State Administrative Court. The (farmers, fishers, traders,), NGOs, Bumi Suksesindo lawsuit dated March 14, 2013, demanded the (BSI) mining management company, and revocation of the BSI exploration and production Banyuwangi district government. People want the IUP. Intrepid, all this time has felt disadvantaged in Tumpang Pitu Mountain not to be exploited to extract the exploration of the Tujuh Bukit mine, gold and minerals contained in it because Tumpang Banyuwangi. In the project, Intrepid IMN has Pitu is a source of water and their lives. Also, the collaborated with Intrepid Mines Ltd with 80% share community around Tumpang Pitu is worried that their ownership. However, without the knowledge of environment will be damaged due to mining waste Intrepid, IMN sold IUPs to BSI. The decision of the that is harmful to their lives. Meanwhile, the company Banyuwangi Regent gave the approval of the transfer has an interest in Tumpang Pitu Mountain because of of the IUP for exploration and operation, considered business benefits, while the government has an to be legally flawed. In the Minerva Act, Article 93 interest in improving the regional economy and the paragraph 1 states that IUP holders cannot transfer welfare of its citizens. IUP to other parties. The decision of the Banyuwangi Thus, the social conflict that occurred in the Regent was legally flawed including the policy that Tumpang Pitu gold mine, Pesanggaran, is relevant

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when examined with Fisher's conflict theory so that it actors create conflict and escalation of conflict. shows how the conflict arises. The conflict escalated Conflict escalation experienced ups and downs of from pre-conflict to post-conflict, and it also revealed relations between parties such as periods of peace, the dynamics and the actors who were involved in the tension and violence. One party, such as the conflict. community and NGOs, maintains arguments about The emergence of social conflict in the Tumpang environmental sustainability and people's livelihoods Pitu gold mine, when traced from the chronology of so that there is a rejection of gold mining. While other the discovery of the gold mine, has been quite a long parties such as companies and regional governments time from 1995-1996 to 2017. The period 1995-2006 aim to increase Regional Original Revenues and was a pre-conflict stage that occurred between the profits of the company so that gold mining is needed. community, company, and government. Since 2006- After the end of the conflict with violence, there 2014 the stage of confrontation, 2015 was a crisis was negotiation between the company, the period and was the peak of the conflict. This year community and the government. Corporate Social there was anarchism by the community who opposed Responsibility (CSR) is one solution to this conflict the existence of mining by burning company issued by the company to the surrounding community facilities/infrastructure and police violence as through education, economic, health and government officials against the protesters with environmental assistance programs. Whereas with the shootings and arrests on the protesters. 2016 -2017 Banyuwangi district government, the company stages of the consequences and post-conflict of riots provided a free 10% non-diluted share capital and violence that harm the company and the structure. Although violent conflict ended which community. The company suffered material losses caused losses on two sides (company and due to the burning of facilities and infrastructures, community), latent conflict between the people who while the people who were shot and detained by the continued to reject gold mining continued until this police suffered physical (shot) and non-physical time (trauma) losses. With the riots and violence that occurred in this conflict, the Banyuwangi district government, in this case, the Regent Azwar Anas held REFERENCES an open dialogue with the community around Tumpang Pitu and the company to reach an Barney, G. G. 1992. Emergence vs. Forcing: Basics of agreement and end the conflict. Grounded Theory Analysis. Sociology Press: Mill The actors who involved in this social conflict are Valley. from the community; there are farmers, fishermen, Billon, P. L. 2001. The Political Ecology of War. Political traders, tourism activists, NGOs, mining companies, Geography, 561-584. Perhutani, Banyuwangi district government, Ministry Bryant, R. L., & Bailey, S. 1997. Third World Political of Forestry, Ministry of Environment and AMDAL, Ecology. Routledge: New York. DPRD and East Java Governor. All of these actors Cahyati, D. D. 2014. Konflik Agraria di Urutsewu: joined in direct conflict with each other, and some Pendekatan Ekologi Politik. STPN Press: Yogyakarta. were indirectly in conflict. Cole, S. 2012. A political ecology of water equity and Regarding political ecology, the Tumpang Pitu tourism: A case study from Bali. Annals of Tourism gold mining is experiencing degradation and Research. deforestation. As a result of the exploitation of gold Fisher, S., Andi, D. I., Ludin, J., Smith, R., Williams, S., & and other minerals, the Tumpang Pitu mountain area Williams, S. 2000. Mengelola Konflik: Keterampilan which was initially a protected forest, then obtained dan Strategi Untuk Bertindak. The British Council part of the permit into production forest so that it can Indonesia. be explored and exploited. Thus the protected forest Fitri, N. E. 2014. Kontestasi Aktor dan Kepentingan in Tumpang Pitu experienced deforestation and Terhadap Sumber Daya Air di Sukabumi. Institut degradation due to the logging of the trees to be Pertanian Bogor: Bogor. excavated by the soil, as well as the previous Jati, W. R. 2012. Manajemen Tata Kelola Sumber Daya Alam Berbasis Ekologi-Politik. Jurnal Politika, 98- excavation of the soil leaving gaping holes. 111. Furthermore, the ecological damage around Tumpang Kuswijayanti, E. R., Dharmawan, A. H., & Kartodihardjo, Pitu is caused by gold waste (tailings) which can H. 2007. Krisis - Krisis Socia-Politico-Ecology di pollute rivers, seas, and land if the authorities solve Kawasan Konservasi: Studi Ekologi Politik di Taman the waste to be environmentally friendly. Relatively Nasional Gunung Merapi. Jurnal Sodality, 41-66. long and long-standing conflicts involving many

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Nashih, A. 2014. Tanah Pesisir Urutsewu: Tanah Milik, Tanah Desa, ataukah Tanah Negara? (Konflik Tanah Pesisir di Kebumen, Jawa Tengah). Kertas Kerja Sajogyo Institute: Bogor. O'Lear, S. 2006. Resources concerns for territorial conflict. GeoJurnal, 297-306. Paivi, L., Gleditsch, N. P., & Gilmore, E. 2005. A diamond curse? Civil war and a lootable resource. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 538. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. 1996. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory. Sage Publication. Surya, A. 2009. Pendekatan Ekologi Politik: Sebuah Pengantar. Jurnal Tanah Air.

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