SAGE BENCHMARKS IN COMMUNICATION

CRISIS COMMUNICATION

VOLUME I Origins of Crisis Communication

Edited by W. Timothy Coombs

(§)SAGE O- Los Angeles | London | New Delhi Singapore I Washington DC Contents

Appendix of Sources xiii Editor's Introduction: Crisis Communication - A Field Emerges W. Timothy Coombs xxv

Volume I: Origins of Crisis Communication

Introduction: Origins of Crisis Communication W. Timothy Coombs xlv

A. Rhetorical Origins of Crisis Communication

Overview to Crisis Communication

1. Crisis Communication: A Developing Field 3 W. Timothy Coombs 2. Crisis Communication 19 William Crandall, John Parnell and John Spillan 3. Crisis Communication 41 W. Timothy Coombs

Corporation Apologia

4. CBS vs Mobil Oil: Charges of Creative Bookkeeping in 1979 47 George N. Dionisopoulos and Steven L. Vibbert 5. Apologies and Public Relations Crises at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo 57 Keith Michael Hearit 6. Corporate Apologia: When an Organization Speaks in Defense of Itself 71 Keith Michael Hearit 7. Corporate Publics and Rhetorical Strategies: The Case of Union Carbide's Bhopal Crisis 89 Richard Ice 8. Treachery by Any Other Name: A Case Study of the Toshiba Public Relations Crisis 105 Jeffrey D. Hobbs

Image Restoration

9. Image Restoration Theory 125 William L. Benoit vi Contents

10. A Theory of Image Restoration William L. Benoit 11. A Critical Analysis of USAir's Image Repair Discourse William L. Benoit and Anne Czerwinski

Impression Management

12. Legitimation Endeavors: Impression Management Strategies Used by an Organization in Crisis Myria Watkins Allen and Rachel H. Caillouet 13. Managing Organizational Legitimacy: Communication Strategies for Organizations in Crisis Joseph Eric Massey

Focusing Event

14. ValuJet Flight 592: Crisis Communication Theory Blended and Extended Donald A. Fishman

B. Wider View of Strategy

15. Communicating through Crisis: A Strategy for Organizational Survival David L. Sturges 16. Crisis Communication Strategies in the Media Coverage of Chemical Accidents Sherry J. Holladay 17. Crisis Situations, Communication Strategies, and Media Coverage A Multicase Study Revisiting the Communicative Response Model Yi-Hui Huang 18. Communications Strategies in Crisis Patrick Lagadec 19. Communicating in a Crisis - Choosing the Right Vehicle Valerie Noel 20. Communicating with Stakeholders during a Crisis: Evaluating Message Strategies Keri K. Stephens, Patty Callish Malone and Christine M. Bailey

C. Marketing Ties to Crisis Communication

21. Consumer Reaction to Negative Publicity: Effects of Corporate Reputation, Response, and Responsibility for a Crisis Event Dwane Hal Dean 22. Further Information on Consumer Perceptions of Product Recalls John C. Mowen 23. Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumers' Attributions and Brand Evaluations in a Product-Harm Crisis Jill Klein and Niraj Dawar Contents vii

Volume II: Theory Development in Crisis Communication

Introduction: Theory Development in Crisis Communication W. Timothy Coombs ix

A. Contingency Theory

24. Making Sense Sensibly in Crisis Communication: How Publics' Crisis Appraisals Influence Their Negative Emotions, Coping Strategy Preferences, and Crisis Response Acceptance 3 Yan Jin 25. Emotions Matter in Crisis: The Role of Anger and Sadness in the Publics' Response to Crisis News Framing and Corporate Crisis Response 37 Hyo J. Kim and Glen T. Cameron 26. The Effects of Threat Type and Duration on Public Relations Practitioner's Cognitive, Affective, and Conative Responses in Crisis Situations 69 Kin Jin and Glen T. Cameron 27. Integrated Crisis Mapping: Toward a Publics-Based, Emotion- Driven Conceptualization in Crisis Communication 95 Yan Jin, Augustine Pang and Glen T. Cameron

B. Situational Crisis Communication Theory

28. Choosing the Right Words: The Development of Guidelines for the Selection of the "Appropriate" Crisis-Response Strategies 109 W. Timothy Coombs 29. Restoring Reputations in Times of Crisis: An Experimental Study of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory and the Moderating Effects of Locus of Control 133 An-Sofie Claeys, Verolien Cauberghe and Patrick Vyncke 30. Helping Crisis Managers Protect Reputational Assets: Initial Tests of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory 145 W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay 31. The Negative Communication Dynamic: Exploring the Impact of Stakeholder Affect on Behavioral Intentions 161 W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay 32. An Empirical Analysis of Image Restoration: Texaco's Racism Crisis 175 Timothy Coombs and Lainen Schmidt 33. Stakeholder Attributions in Crises: The Effects of Covariation Information and Attributional Inferences on Organizational Reputation 191 Andreas Schwarz viii Contents

34. Message Strategies and Forgiveness during Crises: Effects of Causal Attributions and Apology Appeal Types on Forgiveness 219 Bitt Beach Moon and Yunna Rhee 35. Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) 237 W. Timothy Coombs

C. Rhetorical Arena

36. Apologizing in a Globalizing World: Crisis Communication and Apologetic Ethics 243 Finn Frandsen and Winni Johansen

D. Discourse of Renewal

37. Effective Crisis Management through Established Stakeholder Relationships: Maiden Mills as a Case Study 263 Robert R. Ulmer 38. Expanding the Parameters of Crisis Communication: From Chaos to Renewal 281 Matthew W. Seeger, Timothy L. Sellnow and Robert R. Ulmer

E. Complexity

39. Symmetry, Contingency, Complexity: Accommodating Uncertainty in Public Relations Theory 299 Priscilla Murphy

F. Practitioner Focus

40. How Do the News Media Frame Crises? A Content Analysis of Crisis News Coverage 317 Seon-Kyoung An and Karla K. Gower 41. Stormy Weather: Testing "Stealing Thunder" as a Crisis Communication Strategy to Improve Communication Flow between Organizations and Journalists 329 Laura M. Arpan and Donnalyn Pompper 42. Crisis Response and Crisis Timing Strategies; Two Sides of the Same Coin 349 An-Sofie Claeys and Verolien Cauberghe 43. Crisis Planning and Preparedness in the United States Tourism Industry 359 Lori Pennington-Gray, Brijesh Thapa, Kyriaki Kaplanidou, Ignatius Cahyanto and Elaine McLaughlin 44. The Role of Human Resource Development Competencies in Facilitating Effective Crisis Communication 375 Anne H. Reilly 45. Public Relations and Crisis Communication: Organizing and Chaos " 395 Matthew W. Seeger, Timothy L. Sellnow and Robert R. Ulmer Contents ix

Volume III: Crisis Communication Connects with Other Strategic Communication Fields

Introduction: Crisis Communication Connects with Other Strategic Communication Fields W. Timothy Coombs vii

A. Issues Management

46. An Integrated Symmetrical Model for Crisis-Communications Management 3 Alfonso Gonzalez-Herrero and Cornelius B. Pratt 47. Issue Management as a Post-crisis Discipline: Identifying and Responding to Issue Impacts beyond the Crisis 29 Tony Jaques 48. Issue Management and Crisis Management: An Integrated, Non-linear, Relational Construct 43 Tony Jaques 49. Extract from Strategic Issues Management: Organizations and Public Policy Challenges 61 Robert L. Heath and Michael J. Palenchar 50. Anticipatory Model of Crisis Management: A Vigilant Response to Technological Crises 99 Bolanle A. Olaniran and David E. Williams

B. Risk Communication

51. Anticipating or Precipitating Crisis? Health Agencies May Not Be Heeding Best Practice Advice in Avian Flu Press Releases 123 Elizabeth Johnson Avery and Sora Kim 52. Effective Communication during an Influenza Pandemic: The Value of Using a Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication Framework 133 Barbara Reynolds and Sandra Crouse Quinn 53. Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication in a Pandemic: A Model for Building Capacity and Resilience of Minority Communities 141 Sandra Crouse Quinn 54. Toward a Synthesis Model for Crisis Communication in the Public Sector: An Initial Investigation 153 J. Suzanne Horsley and Randolph T. Barker 55. Crisis and Risk Approaches to Emergency Management Planning and Communication: The Role of Similarity and Sensitivity 181 Robert L. Heath, Jaesub Lee and Lan Ni 56. Strategic Risk Communication: Adding Value to Society 199 Michael J. Palenchar and Robert L. Heath x Contents

C. Reputation Management and CSR

57. Agenda-setting Effects of Business News on the Public's Images and Opinions about Major Corporations 217 Craig E. Carroll and Maxwell McCombs 58. Protecting Organization Reputations during a Crisis: The Development and Application of Situational Crisis Communication Theory 231 W. Timothy Coombs 59. Sustainability: A New and Complex 'Challenge' for Crisis Managers 249 W. Timothy Coombs 60. Unpacking the Halo Effect: Reputation and Crisis Management 265 W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay 61. Media Reputation as a Strategic Resource: An Integration of Mass Communication and Resource-based Theories 283 David L. Deephouse 62. Effects of Apologies and Crisis Responsibility on Corporate and Spokesperson Reputation 309 Joost W.M. Verhoeven, Joris J. Van Hoof, Han Ter Keurs and Mark Van Vuuren

D. Crisis Leadership

63. Linking Crisis Management and Leadership Competencies: The Role of Human Resource Development 317 Lynn Perry Wooten and Erika Hayes James

Volume IV: Crisis Communication Evolves - Digital Channels, Globalization, and Critiques

Introduction: Crisis Communication Evolves - Digital Channels, Globalization, and Critiques W. Timothy Coombs vii

A. Digital Channels

Web Sites

64. Internet-based Communication in Crisis Management 3 Danielle C. Perry, Maureen Taylor and Marya L. Doerfel 65. Diffusion of Traditional and New Media Tactics in Crisis Communication 23 Maureen Taylor and Danielle C. Perry Contents xi

Social Media

66. Intention to Comply with Crisis Messages Communicated via Social Media 35 Karen Freberg 67. Is the Medium the Message? Perceptions of and Reactions to Crisis Communication via Twitter, Blogs and Traditional Media 47 Friederike Schultz, Sonja Utz and Anja Goritz 68. How Publics Use Social Media to Respond to Blame Games in Crisis Communication: The Love Parade Tragedy in Duisburg 2010 61 Andreas Schwarz 69. Effects of Narratives, Openness to Dialogic Communication, and Credibility on Engagement in Crisis Communication through Organizational Blogs 77 Sung-Un Yang, MinjeongKang and Philip Johnson 70. Crisis in a Networked World: Features of Computer-mediated Communication in the April 16, 2007, Virginia Tech Event 97 Leysia Palen, Sarah Vieweg, Sophia B. Liu and Amanda Lee Hughes 71. Examining the Role of Social Media in Effective Crisis Management: The Effects of Crisis Origin, Information Form, and Source on Publics' Crisis Responses 113 Yan Jin, Brooke Fisher Liu and Lucinda L. Austin

Paracrisis

72. The Paracrisis: The Challenges Created by Publicly Managing Crisis Prevention 135 W. Timothy Coombs and J. Sherry Holladay 73. Paracrisis 151 W. Timothy Coombs

B. Globalization and Crisis Communication

74. When in Rome? The Effects of Spokesperson Ethnicity on Audience Evaluation of Crisis Communication 155 Laura M. Arpan 75. Six Years and Counting: Learning from Crisis Management at Bhopal 179 Falguni Sen and William G. Egelhoff 76. Crisis Communication as a Multilevel Game: The Muhammad Cartoons from a Crisis Diplomacy Perspective 195 Kristina Lindholm and Eva-Karin Olsson 77. After the Tsunami: Crisis Communication in Finland and Sweden 213 Nigel Jackson 78. Crisis Communicative Strategies in Taiwan: Category, Continuum, and Cultural Implication 217 Yi-Hui Huang, Ying-Hsuan Lin and Shih-Hsin Su xii Contents

79. Audience-oriented Approach to Crisis Communication: A Study of Hong Kong Consumers' Evaluation of an Organizational Crisis 229 Betty Kaman Lee 80. Flying Different Skies: How Cultures Respond to Airline Disasters 245 Marion K. Pinsdorf

C. Critical Views of Crisis Communication

81. Liability Means Never Being Able to Say You're Sorry: Corporate Guilt, Legal Constraints, and Defensiveness in Corporate Communication 269 Lisa Tyler 82. What Is a Public Relations "Crisis?" Refocusing Crisis Research 289 Michael L. Kent

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