Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles

Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research Vol. 34, December 2009, pp. 384-399

Review Article

Application of natural dyes on textiles

Ashis Kumar Samanta a & Priti Agarwal Institute of Jute Technology, 35 Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, India Received 18 August 2009; accepted 22 September 2009

This paper reports the studies available on the characterization and chemical/biochemical analysis of natural dyes; extraction of colorants from different natural sources; effects of different mordants and mordanting methods; conventional and non-conventional methods of natural dyeing; physico-chemical studies on dyeing process variables and dyeing kinetics; development of newer shades and analysis of colour parameters for textiles dyed with natural dyes; and test of compatibility for application of binary mixture of natural dyes. The chemical modification of textile substrate for improving dyeability, attempts for improvement in overall colour fastness properties and survey of some traditional processes of natural dyeing in different parts of India have also been discussed.

Keywords: Cationic dye fixing agent, Colour fastness, Dye characterization, Natural dye, UV absorber

1 Introduction significant importance due to the increased Natural dyes are known for their use in colouring environmental awareness in order to avoid some of food substrate, leather as well as natural protein hazardous synthetic dyes. However, worldwide the fibres like wool, silk and cotton as major areas of use of natural dyes for the colouration of textiles has application since pre-historic times. Since the advent mainly been confined to artisan / craftsman, small of widely available and cheaper synthetic dyes in scale / cottage level dyers and printers as well as to 1856 having moderate to excellent colour fastness small scale exporters and producers dealing with properties, the use of natural dyes having poor to high-valued ecofriendly textile production and moderate wash and light fastness has declined to a sales 6,7 . Recently, a number of commercial dyers and great extent. However, recently there has been revival small textile export houses have started looking at the of the growing interest on the application of natural possibilities of using natural dyes for regular basis dyes 1,2 on natural fibres due to worldwide dyeing and printing of textiles to overcome environmental 3,4 consciousness. Although this ancient environmental pollution caused by the synthetic art of dyeing with natural dyes withstood the ravages dyes 8. Natural dyes produce very uncommon, of time, a rapid decline in natural dyeing continued soothing and soft shades as compared to synthetic due to the wide availability of synthetic dyes at an dyes. On the other hand, synthetic dyes are widely economical price. However, even after a century, the available at an economical price and produce a wide use of natural dyes never erode completely and they variety of colours; these dyes however produce skin are still being used. Thus, natural dyeing of different allergy, toxic wastes and other harmfulness to human textiles and leathers has been continued mainly in the body. decentralized sector for specialty products alongwith For successful commercial use of natural dyes, the the use of synthetic dyes in the large scale sector for appropriate and standardized dyeing techniques need general textiles/apparels owing to the specific to be adopted without scarifying required quality of advantages and limitations of both natural dyes and dyed textiles materials. Therefore, to obtain newer 5 synthetic dyes . shades with acceptable colour fastness behaviour and The use of non-allergic, non-toxic and ecofriendly reproducible colour yield, appropriate scientific natural dyes on textiles has become a matter of techniques or procedures need to be derived from scientific studies on dyeing methods, dyeing process ______aTo whom all the correspondence should be addressed. variables, dyeing kinetics and compatibility of E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected] selective natural dyes. A need has also been felt to SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 385

reinvestigate and rebuild the traditional processes of contain toxic / carcinogenic amines which are not natural dyeing to control each treatment and pre- ecofriendly 11, 12 . Moreover, the global consumption of dyeing process (preparation, mordanting) and dyeing textiles is estimated at around 30 million tonnes, process variables for producing uncommon shades which is expected to grow at the rate of 3% per with balanced colour fastness and eco-performing annum. The colouration of this huge quantity of textiles. textiles needs around 700,000 tonnes of dyes which India is rich in natural wealth and there are ample causes release of a vast amount of unused and unfixed scope to explore and revive application of natural synthetic colourants into the environment. This dyes on textiles, having more and more scientific practice cannot be stopped, because consumers knowledge base available, as is evidenced from the always demand coloured textiles for eye-appeal, studies reported 9,10 with the objectives, such as to decoration and even for aesthetic purposes. Moreover, know the chemistry of dyes and interaction between such a huge amount of required textiles materials mordant dyes and fibres; to get maximum yield of cannot be dyed with natural dyes alone. Hence, the colourant and reproducible shades; to have use of eco-safe synthetic dyes is also essential. But a commercial availability of extracted natural dyes in certain portion of coloured textiles can always be powder form; to improve the dyeing methods/ yields; supplemented and managed by eco-safe natural dyes 6, 7 . to optimise dyeing conditions; to develop newer However, all natural dyes are not ecofriendly. There shades; and to improve dyeability with natural dye. may be presence of heavy metals or some other form In spite of the better performance of synthetic dyes, of toxicity in natural dye. So, the natural dyes also recently the use of natural dyes on textile materials need to be tested for toxicity before their use. has been attracting more and more scientists for study The present paper reports the studies carried out so on this due to the following reasons: far on the chemistry and application of natural dyes

• Wide viability of natural dyes and their huge on textiles to understand the science of natural dyeing potential. as well as to focus the problem areas, difficulty and • Availability of experimental evidence for allergic probable measures to overcome them.

& toxic effects of some synthetic dyes, and non- 2 Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles toxic & non-allergic effects of natural dyes. • 2.1 Characterization and Chemical/ Biochemical Analysis of To protect the ancient and traditional dyeing Natural Dyes technology generating livelihood of poor artisan/ 2.1.1 Macro- and Micro-chemical Analysis dyers, with potential employment generation Saidman et al .13 , Gulrajani et al .14 and Mohanty 9 facility. have reviewed the chemistry, chemical composition • To generate sustainable employment and income and chemical based classification of natural dyes for the weaker section of population in rural and having anthraquinone 13 (madder), alpha sub-urban areas both for dyeing as well as for napthoquinones (henna), flavones 13,14 (weld), non-food crop farming to produce plants for such indigoids (indigo and tyrian purple), carotenoids natural dyes. (annatto, saffron), etc. which give a basic • To study the ancient dyeing methods, coloured understanding of chemical nature of such colourants. museum textiles and other textiles recovered by Madder dyes are hydroxyl-anthraquinones which are archaeology for conservation and restoration of extracted from the root bark of various Rubiaceae , heritage of old textiles. e.g. from madder root ( Rubia tinctorum ). The root • Specialty colours and effects of natural dyes contains approximately 1.9% of dye, present in the produced by craftsman and artisans for their free form or bound as the glucoside. Annato 14 pulp is exclusive technique and specialty work. rich in tannin but contains mixture of eight colourants • Availability of scientific information on chemical of carotenoid group such as nor-bixin and bixin. Both characterizations of different natural colorants, these components have the properties of Vitamin A. including their purification and extraction. Indigoid dyes are perhaps the oldest natural dyes used • Availability of knowledge base and database on by man. It is found as the glucoside indican in the application of natural dyes on different textiles. plant Indigofera tinctoria and has been known in Production of synthetic dyes is dependent on India for about 4000 years. The main dyeing petrochemical source, and some of the synthetic dyes component of this plant is indigo. Tyrian purple is 386 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

derived from the Mediterranean shell fish of the solvents and gives one homogenous component of 14, 15 genera Purpura and Murex. Henna contains high 0.86 R f value on chromatographic separation, having proportion of coloured species other than Lawsone, as wavelength of maximum absorption at 420 nm. is evident from HPLC analysis of its aqueous extract, These studies are although too scientific in nature, i.e 0.57% Lawsone. It is non-ionic moiety and is but are useful in understanding the UV absorbance expected to bind with polyester through interaction, criteria, as these are indicative of many application such as hydrogen bonding in addition to van der information, like possible fading and absorbance Waals forces or even dipole-dipole interactions of the behavior under UV-light, sunlight, etc. Hence, these Lawsone molecule with polyester fibre molecules/ reports are also important. chains. 2.1.3 Chromatographic Analysis 2.1.2 UV-Visible Spectroscopic Study Thin layer chromatatography (TLC) was used by UV visible spectra of any colourant/dye show its many workers to identify different colour components peaks at predominating wavelength, indicating main in natural dyes to be applied on textiles 26 . Dyes hue. For natural dyes, the spectra specially indicate detected were insect dyes and vegetable dyes, viz. different peaks for mixed colourants available in their yellow, red and blue colours. Koren 27 also analysed extract in both UV and visible region. UV/ Visible the natural scale insect, madder and indigoid dyes by spectroscopic studies of different natural dyes were HPLC. Guinot et al .28 used the TLC for preliminary carried out by Bhattacharya 16 and Erica et al .17 using evalution of plants containing flavonoids (flavonols, different solvents for extraction. Neem bark 18 flavones, flavanones, chalcones/ aurones, colourant shows two absorption maxima at 275 and anthocynanins, hydroxycinnamic acids, tannins and 374 nm while beet sugar 19 shows three absorption anthraquinones) colour compounds found in the bands at 220, 280 and 530 nm. The visible spectra of plants. ratanjot 20 at acidic pH show maximum absorption at Identification of dyes used in historic textiles around 520-525 nm, but under alkaline pH there is a through chromatographic and spectrophotometric shift towards 570 nm and another peak is observed at methods as well as by sensitive colour reactions has 610-615 nm. Red sandal wood 21 shows a strong been reported by Blanc et al .29 . Szostek et al .30 absorption peak at 288 nm and the maximum studied the retention of carminic acid, indigotin, absorption at 504 and 474 nm at pH 10 in methanol corcetin, gambogic acid, alizarin flavanoid, solution. Gomphrena globosa flower colourant shows anthraquinone and purpurin. A non-destructive one major peak at 533 nm. This dye does not show method was reported for identifying faded dyes on much difference in the visible spectrum at pH 4 and 7; fabrics through examination of their emission and however the peak shifted towards 554 nm, as reported absorption spectra. Balakina et al . 31 analysed by Shanker and Vankar 22 . Bhuyan et al .23 observed the quantitatively and qualitatively the red dyes, such as dye absorption for the dyes extracted from Mimusops alizarin, purpurin, carminic acid, etc. by high elengi & Terminalia arjun and reported that performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This depending on the concentrations of dyes in the dye technique has been used by several workers to bath, the dye absorbed on the fibre varies from 21.94 identify different components of synthetic as well as % to 27.46 % and from 5.18 % to 10.78% natural dyes. respectively. The colour components isolated from Mc Govern et al .32 carried out the separation and most of the barks contain flavonoid moiety. Bhuyan et identification of natural dyes from wool fibres using al .24 also studied the colour component extracted from reverse phase HPLC with a C-18 column. Two the roots of Morinda angustifolia Roxb using benzene quaternary solvent systems and one binary solvent extract and showed its melting point as 280 oC. The system were used to obtain chromatograms of dyes, compound shows UV/Vis absorption at 446, 299, 291, isomers and minor products present in the sample. A 265.5 and 232 nm and gives a positive Borntregar linear gradient elution method has been used for the reaction, a characteristic for an anthraquinone. HPLC analysis of plant and scale insect as well as for Extraction, spectroscopic and colouring potential the red anthraquinonoid mordant, molluscan blue, red studies of the dye in ginger rhizome (Z ingiber purple and indigoid vat dyes 33 . The method enables officinale ) were studied and reported by Popoola the use of the same elution programme for the et al .25 . This dye is soluble in hydroxyl based organic determination of different chemical classes of dyes. SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 387

In addition, it significantly shortens the retention time coli and Salimonella . Dwivedi et al .40, 41 and Benencia of natural anthraquinonoid dyes over those previously and Courreger 42 studied chemopreventative effects of reported. Cristea et al .34 reported the quantitative red sandal wood oil on skin papillomas in mice analysis of Weld by HPLC and found that after a 15 followed by the effects of sandal wood extract to min extraction in a methonal/water mixture, 0.448% prevent skin tumor development in CD1 mice and luteolin, 0.357% luteolin 7-glucoside and 0.233% antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus 1 and 2. luteolin-3’7-diglucoside were obtained. Son et al . 35 The hepatoprotective 43 activity of an aqueous methnol reported HPLC analysis of indigo, showing that with extract of Rubia crodifolia (Manjistha) was the increase in the dyeing time, the structural changes investigated against acetaminophen and CCl 4-induced of indigo component are attributed to decrease in damage. Acetaminophen produced 100% mortality at colour strength. a dose of 1 g/K in mice while pretreatment of animals Study of annatto dyestuff, nor-bixin and bixin was with manjistha extract reduced the death rate to 30%. reported by means of derivative spectroscopy and Singh et al . 44 tested Acacia catechu, Kerria lacca, HPLC 16 . The sample preparation involved extraction Quercus infectoria, Rubia cordifolia and Rumex with acetone in the presence of HCl and removal of maritimus against pathogens like Escherichia coli , water by evaporation with ethanol. This residue was Bacillus subtilis , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Proteus dissolved in chloroform-acetic acid mixture for vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa . Minimum derivative spectroscopy and in acetone for HPLC. inhibitory concentration was found to vary from 5 µg Derivative spectra were recorded from 550nm to to 40 µg. Using a bioassay-directed purification 400nm. Analysis of cochineal colour in foods scheme, the active antibacterial was isolated from utilizing methylation with diazomethane was carried Caesalpina sappan 45 (sappan wood or red wood) and out using TLC and HPLC with a mobile phase of identified to be brasilian. The trypan blue dye butanol, ethanol and 10% acetic acid. exclusion test showed that the brazilin lacks These chromatographic analyses led to separation cytotoxicity against vero cells, it has potential to be and understanding of individual component present in developed as an antibiotic. Bhattacharya et al .46 natural colourants extracted by different media and reported that the arjun bark, babul bark and methods and therefore to establish and explain pomegranate rind are eco-safe and contained different phenomena related to colouring of textiles sometimes traces amount of red listed heavy by these natural dyes. metals/chemicals but in permissible range. Shenai 47 has given a critical and realistic evalution of dyeing 2.1.4 Test of Toxicity 36, 37 with vegetable dyes highlighting the metal toxicity of The toxicity data sheet for natural dye provide substances used in textile processing. evidence about the possibility of any adverse effect to Mondhe 48 and Rao 49 made an attempt to prepare human being. The irritation effects to skin and eye azo-alkyd dyes by the reduction of nitro alkyds, and the sensitization potential are the primary followed by diazotization of aminoalkyds and concern. Furthermore, possible long-term effects, coupling with different phenolic compounds present such as mutagenic, carcinogenic or reproductive in Jatropha curcas seed oil using IR spectra. toxicity effects are also to be tested for any material/ natural dye before its use. The LD-50 is the best- In general, it has been observed from the literature known toxicity rating. It describes the ‘lethal dose for that the identification of natural dyes in textiles 50% of the test animals, which is the amount of involves selective extraction of dyes and comparison substance in kg/kg of body weight that kills half of of each dye by various characterization techniques, the animals. The crude methanolic extracts of stem, viz. UV-Visible and IR spectroscopy, TLC, HPLC, root, leaves, fruit, seeds of Artocarpus hetrophyllus 38 ecotoxicity (LD-50) and bio-assay, including methods and their subsequent partitioning with petrol, of identification of vegetable dyes on cellulose fibres, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol fractions animal fibres and man-made fibres. exhibited a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity. The above reports are however exclusive but not The butanol fractions of the root bark and fruit were exhaustive and many further analyses of colour found to be the most active. None of the fraction was components of natural dyes are possible by other active against the fungi tested. Mariegold 39 showed modern techniques, like FTIR (Fourier Transform negative test against microbiological control for E- Infrared Spectroscopy), NMR (Nuclear Magnetic 388 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

Resonance), AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrometry), distilled water, boiled in pressure vessel and then DSC (Differential scanning calorimetry), TGA filtered it to obtain a residual dye powder (15 - 20 % (Thermogravimetric Analysis) and elemental analysis w/w) of the bark. Saxena et al .57 initially extracted of natural dyes/colourants to study the chemical mariegold and chrysanthemum flowers by boiling functional nature, presence of heavy metals, thermal their dry petals with acidified water and reported it to behaviour and presence of different elements for be the best. Sarkar et al .58,59 and Deo and Paul 60 understanding the chemistry of natural dye extracted colour component from three varieties of component well. mariegold flower in aqueous medium by the addition Recently, Samanta et al . 50 have studied UV- Vis of 5% sodium chloride in 1:2 proportion. Aqueous spectra, DSC and FTIR of six selective natural dyes extraction of saffron yields a yellow dye with medium (red sandal wood, jackfruit, sappan wood, mariegold, wash fastness on wool and poor wash fastness on babool and manjistha) and found that the babool and cotton. The wash fastness can be improved by mariegold show dominating UV-absorbance treatment with metal salts before dyeing, as studied characteristics at 242-250 nm and 370-380nm, with and reported by Tsatsaroni et al .61 . the 242-250nm zone very predominant, while 2.2.2 Extraction by Non-aqueous/ Organic Media / Mixed Aqueous manjistha has no such preferential UV- absorbance and Organic Solvents peak at 242-370 nm zone except at 380 nm. DSC 62 Vankar et al . utilized the supercritical fluids CO 2 to thermogram shows endothermic and exothermic extract and purify natural colourant from eucalyptus peaks at different zones for heating the same from o bark. Extraction of dye from food was best achieved ambient to 500 C temperature. The FTIR study shows with ethanolic 40M/oxalic acid mixture. The the types of chemical functionality and bonds present comparative behaviour of other red food dyes was also in the main colour components of each of the studied. A process developed for the extraction of individual purified dyes. natural dye from the leaves of teak plant has been 63 2.2 Extraction and Purification of Colorants from Natural Dyes carried out using aqueous methanol . A brick red shade The extraction efficiency of colourant components dyeing for silk/ wool using the isolated dye in presence present in natural plant/ animal/ mineral sources of different mordant has also been achieved. Bhuyan depends on the media type (aqueous/ organic solvent et al .24 studied the isolation of Morinda angustifolia or acids/ alkali), pH of the media and conditions of roxb, which is a morindone type of compound extraction, such as temperature, time, material-to- containing an anthraquinone group, using ethanol in a liquor ratio and particle size of the substrate. soxhlet apparatus and observed that the silk and cotton fabrics can be dyed with this colour component with and 2.2.1 Aqueous Extraction 46, 64 51 without using different mordants. Bhattacharya et al . Dayal and Dobhal extracted colourants from the 65 leaves of Eucalyptus hybrid, seeds of Cassia tora and and Patel and Agarwal made an attempt to standardize colourant derived from arjun bark, babul bark and Grewia optiva by using aqueous medium under 66 67 varying condition. These dyes impart fast shades on pomegranate rind. Singh et al . and Agarwal et al . silk, cotton and jute fabrics. Khan et al .52 studied studied extraction of dye from well grounded henna natural dyes extracted from biomass products, namely leaves directly in a solvent assisted dyeing process, cutch, ratanjot and madder. The colour gamut of wool employing organic solvent:water (1: 9) mixture as the samples dyed with these dyes indicates red yellow dyeing medium. Superior dyeing properties were zone. Maulik et al .53 also studied the extraction of obtained, when this dye was applied on polyester. The build-up, colour yield and wash fastness properties were hinjal and jujube bark having pH 4-5 for dyeing wool 68 and silk. The dye uptake appears to be higher in case found moderate to good. Vasugi and Kala obtained the of wool than in case of silk. Teli and Paul 54 made an dye from the grape skin waste by using soxhlet extractor, and later on distilled it under vacuum to obtain attempt to extract natural dye from the coffee seed for 69 its application on cotton and silk. Pan et al .55 dyed the the concentrated dye solution. Eom et al . extracted grey jute fabric with extracts from deodar leaf, colourant by using a reflux condenser for 1 h followed by filtration. jackfruit wood and eucalyptus leaf by soaking it in soft water and boiling for 4 h separately. Dye uptake 2.2.3 Extraction by Acid and Alkali increased with the increase in mordant concentration. Dixit and Jahan 70 extracted euphorbia leaves under Verma and Gupta 56 overnight soaked wattle bark in acidic pH by adding hydrochloric acid, under alkaline SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 389

pH using sodium carbonate and under aqueous and ferrous sulphate showed excellent to good all medium. It was observed that the silk fabric dyed around fastness properties. Wool yarns dyed with under acidic medium produced best shades. Sudhakar turmeric 18 , when subjected to different concentrations et al .71 extracted colourants using alkali from nuts of of natural mordant (a petaloid of banana flower) and Areca catechu for colouration of silk fabric. Dye chromium under identical mordanting conditions, extracted from jatropha seed gave a range of bright, showed similar colour fastness. Tulsi leave extract even and soft colours on silk fabric when extracted when applied on textiles with or without using under acidic condition 72 . Samanta et al .73 studied the metallic salts, produced pale to dark green and cream extraction of the dye from jackfruit wood under to brown shades with adequate fastness as studied by various pH conditions and reported that the optimum Patel et al .87 . Silk 88 fabric when mordanted with conditions for extraction of colour component from magnesium sulphate produced lower depth of shade, jackfruit is achieved at pH 11, giving absorbance of whereas copper sulphate produced highest depth. 74 89 colour component at 2.77 λ628 nm. Samanta et al . Bhattacharya et al . studied the effect of various studied the extraction of red sandal wood under metal sulphates as mordants and reported that the various pH condition and reported that the optimum depth of dyeing can be improved by using different conditions for extraction of colour component is metal salt mordants. Das et al .90 observed that the pre- achieved at pH 4, giving absorbance of colour mordanting and post-mordanting employing ferrous component at 2.63 λ603.0 nm. sulphate and aluminium sulphate improve the colour uptake, light fastness and colour retention on repeated 2.3 Different Mordants and Mordanting Methods washing. The use of such mordants, however, does Mordanting is the treatment of textile fabric with not improve wash fastness property of dyed textile metallic salts or other complex forming agents which substrate with pomegranate. Das et al .91 reported that bind the natural mordantable dyes onto the textile the ferrous sulphate and aluminium sulphate improve fibres. Mordanting can be achieved by either pre- colour retention on washing and the fastness mordanting, simultaneously mordanting and post- properties further for dyed textile substrate with tea mordanting. Different types and selective mordants or leaves. Chan et al .92 studied dyeing of wool with four their combination can be applied on the textile fabrics varieties of tea. Coloured protein fibres became to obtain varying colour/ shade, to increase the dye blackish, when ferrous sulphate was employed as uptake and to improve the colour fastness behaviour mordanting agent. Tsatsaroni et al .61 reported that the of any natural dye. Extensive work has been saffron yields a yellow shade on wool and cotton reported 75-83 in this area of study. 84 when mordanted with aluminium sulphate, iron Dayal et al . studied the effect of copper sulphate sulphate, sodium potassium tartrate and zinc chloride. and potassium dichromate on colour fastness The use of a mordant in dyeing alpha-crocin results in properties of silk, wool and cotton fibres. The wool some darkening and dulling of yellow colour. treated with metal ions, such as Al(III), Cr (VI), Cu (II), Fe (II) & Sn (II) and rare earths such as La (III) Tin (as mordant) imparts good wash fastness to & Sn (III) was used to dye with beet sugar colourant cotton dyed with golden rods. Chromium for and it was found that this dyeing can withstand the mariegold dyeing and alum and tin for dyeing with requirement of BIS fastness standards 19 . Agarwal et onion skins also impart good wash fastness as al . 85 optimized the various concentrations of mordant reported by Vastrad et al .93 . Turmeric dye 94 can be and reported that the best shades could be produced applied on cotton fabric using different mordants like by 0.15% alum, 0.08% copper sulphate and stannous tannic acid, alum, ferrous sulphate, stannous chloride chloride, 0.04% ferrous sulphate and 0.06% and potassium dichromate to obtain various shades of potassium dichromate on mulberry silk fabric. Natural colour. The use of gluconic acid as a ligand for dye extracted from the leaves of teak plant by using complexing iron (II) salts and for vat dyeing of cotton aqueous methanol produced brick red shade on silk has been studied earlier. Chavan and Chakraborty 95 and wool in the presence of different mordants 63 . reported the use of iron (II) salts complexed with such Irrespective of mordanting methods, silk 86 treated ligands as tartaric acid and citric acid for the reduction with potash alum showed increase in colour fastness of indigo at room temperature for subsequent cotton when subjected to sunlight exposure test and those dyeing. Wash fastness 96 and light fastness 97 can be treated with potassium dichromate, copper sulphate increased by the use of metal salts or tannic acid on 390 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

cotton fabrics. Cotton yarns, when treated with There is lot of literature available on the Acalypha 98 dye after pre-mordanting with potash mordanting prior to normal dyeing and the effects of alum, potassium dichromate, copper sulphate and mordants on colour fastness properties, shade ferrous sulphate, showed excellent colour fastness development and other physical properties when properties. applied individually 106,107 or in combination 108 on cellulosic, protenic and synthetic fibres. Pre-mordanting route favours dyeing of jute 99 However, it is felt that the fibres with integrated fabric with direct type of natural dyes in the presence and synthetic works necessarily show the different of aluminium sulphate as a mordant, while shades being developed for combination of different simultaneous mordanting route gives better results for ecofriendly mordants and natural dyes as well as their madder on cotton with the same mordant. It has also colour fastness behaviors. Computerized database/ been proposed that alum 100 and aluminium sulphate electronic shade card in regard to this will be a more should be used as mordants in dyeing with natural preferred choice for future requirement. dyes, as their environmental toxicity is almost nil. 73,74 Samanta et al . also studied and reported the effect 2.4 Conventional and Non-conventional Methods of Natural of different natural and chemical mordants (with or Dyeing

without mordant assistants) like aluminium sulphate, 2.4.1 Conventional Dyeing tartaric acid and cetrimide on bleached jute fabric. As Dyeing can be carried out in an alkaline bath, the mordant concentration and dye concentration are acidic bath or in a neutral bath, depending on the increased, there is improvement in the light fastness chemical nature of natural dyes. There are various by 1-2 grades. reports available on different methods of mordanting as well as different methods of dyeing of different Different types of mordant and method of fibres, such as cellulosics, lingo cellulosics, protenic mordanting significantly affect the rate and extent of and synthetics. These studies are widely available in photofading. The use of copper or ferrous sulphate different literature 9, 109-112 . Mohanty et al .9 reported gives high resistance to fading, whereas stannous dyeing of cotton and silk with babool, tesu, manjistha, chloride or alum do not. On the other hand, light heena, indigo, mariegold, etc. with different mordants. fastness improves when post-mordanting is conducted Various kinds of shades, like black to brown and with copper or ferrous ion, but pre-mordanting is green to yellow to orange, can be obtained by the superior in the case of stannous chloride or alum, as 101 application of different mordants. However, before investigated and reported by Gupta et al . . dyeing, the clothes need to be scoured, bleached or Harda-tartaric acid combination is found to be the treated chemically by different methods. Thus, best followed by tannic acid-harda and tartaric acid – source-wise and state-wise, different artisan dyers are tannic acid combinations for cotton. Samanta et al .74 performing natural dyeing of silk, cotton and wool reported that the combination of harda and aluminium from long time and have derived some special sulphate as double mordants is best suited for jute techniques and processes for individual dye-fibre fabric for red sandal wood natural dye. Synergistic combination to get a particular shade. Some effect of mordant was observed while using the binary conventional dyeing practices followed in various combinations of mordants. Meta-mordanting gave the states of India are reported here. best results for harda-tartaric acid and tartaric acid- In Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan 9, the general tannic acid combinations, while pre-mordanting gave process followed in preparing a cotton cloth for the best results for tartaric acid-harda combination, as natural dyes includes dunging, washing, bleaching studied by Deo and Paul 102,103 . The colour fastness and steaming followed by steeping in alkaline lye and properties of goldendrop root dyed wool 104 were rinsing. Then the cloth is usually soaked in a solution studied using combinations of mordants, such as of harda/myrobolan and then dried. The cloth is then alum: chrome, alum: copper sulphate, alum: ferrous pre-mordanted by dipping it in a solution of alum and sulphate, chrome: copper sulphate, chrome: ferrous water. In some places, gum or a paste of tamarind sulphate and copper sulphate : ferrous sulphate in the seed (tamarind kernel powder) is added to make it ratio of 1:3, 1:1 and 3:1 respectivly. Bains et al .105 sticky. For dyeing, the cloth is generally boiled with studied the effects of combination of mordants on an aqueous extracted solution of specific natural dye colour fastness properties of cotton dyed with peach. until all the colouring matter is absorbed by the cloth. SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 391

The dyed fabric is then washed and spread out to dry completed. Mitha-vat is prepared by taking 60 gallon gradually in air under the sun. Water is sprinkled at water and 4 lbs lime. On the next day, 4 lbs lime is certain interval over the cloth so as to brighten the again added. At the end of 4 th - 5 th day, about 60 lbs of colour; this process is continued for 2-4 days. If tali (taken from the old vat already running) is mixed required, the cloth is finally starched by dipping it in a into the new sweet vat. The liquid is then stirred twice paste of rice or wheat flour, or in a solution of babool a day for 4 days. gum and then dried. The dyeing with Al-root 9 does not require boiling In Bengal 9, the most common natural dyes used are and therefore called as ‘cold dyeing’. The cotton yarn haldi, babool, madder (manjistha), pomegranate rind, was washed in plain water, dried and then steeped in a palash, mariegold, saw dust, red wood, besides al- mixture called Khuranii (prepared by mixing castor root, garan wood, etc. Sappan wood is either cut into oil, carbonate of soda and water). The yarn was then small pieces or pounded into powder and then boiled soaked in this mixture overnight and dried without in water for 6 h for its extraction in aqueous medium. washing. It was then exposed to sun for 7 h, steeped The textile material is then dipped into this solution in a small quantity of fresh water and then kept in the for 1 h with or without alum at boil. At Burdwan, the moist state for one night. The next morning, it was dunged cotton cloth is generally boiled in water along again exposed to the sun drying. The operation was with the powdered bark of the Al-root and then left repeated for seven days. Lastly, the yarn was washed steeped in this solution until it is cooled. In Bengal, and dried. The next step was the preparation of Al- manjistha (Indian madder) is extracted mainly from root solution. Finally, the yarn was steeped in the stem, occasionally from the roots of the plant. The mixture, soaked for 24 h, and again washed dye extract is prepared by boiling the dried manjeet thoroughly. These operations continued for 4 days. stem with water, but sometimes merely left to steep Finally, the yarn was dipped in alkaline solution of for few hours in cold water. In Malda, alum, sodium carbonate and dried. To produce a lemon manjistha alum and Caesalpinia sappan are boiled yellow colour, kesuda ( Betea frondosa ) was boiled in together with water for mixed dye extraction. The water with haldi, and the material was dyed in it. textile material is then dyed in this solution, which is Finally, the material was dipped in lime juice. This thus a single bath mordanting cum dyeing process. In practice of dyeing is generally used in Gujarat. Chittagong (now in Bangladesh) and Malda, sawdust In many other states of India, different traditional of wood ( Artocarpus indegrifola ) is also used as a methods are known to be available for natural dyeing 9,10 source of yellow natural dye. This is boiled with a of textiles . little alum till the water is reduced to half of its 2.4.2 Non-conventional Dyeing original volume. The cotton yarn is then dyed yellow Customer’s demand for ecofriendly textiles and by steeping in this solution for 2 h. ecofriendly dyes led to the revival of natural dyes for In Cuttack (Orrisa), the sappan wood chips are textiles, with the newer energy efficient dyeing generally boiled with alum and turmeric and then process and more reproducible shade developing cooled. After cooling the textile material is dipped in processes. the boiled extracts of sappan wood for 3 h. At It is reported that the ultrasonic energized dyeing Cuttack, aqueous extract of powdered Al-root is conditions for neem leaves give better dye uptake, prepared at room temperature (25°C) with sufficient uniform dyeing, and better light and wash fastness on quantity of water and then the cloth is steeped for 24 cotton fabric, as studied by Senthilkumar et al . 113 . h. Finally, the whole material is boiled gently for 2 h. However, Ghorpade et al . 114 and Tiwari et al . 115 Two different types of indigo vat are prepared in reported ultrasound energy dyeing of cotton with most of the places, particularly in UP, which are sappan wood. Tiwari et al .116 also reported dyeing of known to be a khari-mat or alkaline-vat and a mitha- cotton fabrics by tulsi leaves extract using ultrasonic mat or sweet-vat. Khari –mat is prepared by taking 40 dyeing technique. Dyeing under ultrasonic conditions gallon water in earthen vessel, into which 2 lbs of is advantageous because it consumes less heat than indigo, 2 lbs of lime, 2 lbs of sajji mati and one ounce normal dyeing for the same shade. Lokhande et al . 117 of gur (molasses) are generally added. The liquor is dyed nylon with three different natural dyes using now ready for dyeing within 24 h in hot weather, but various mordants by two different techniques [open in winters it took four days for the fermentation to get bath and high temperature high pressure (HTHP 392 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

dyeing methods)], of which HTHP dyeing was found conditions and place of growing, harvesting period, to be better as compared to open bath. Battacharya extraction methods and conditions, application method and Lohiya 118 also used the HTHP technique for and technological process followed. Many workers have dyeing cotton and polyester fibres with pomegranate reported some of the most significant experimental rind, catechu, nova red and turmeric. results on laboratory trials regarding dyeing conditions, Tiwari and Vankar 119,120 studied unconventional techniques and achievable best parameters for extraction natural dyeing using microwave and sonicator with and application of natural dyes, including observations alkanet root bark. Vankar et al .121 studied and reported on variation in extraction parameters, such as extraction ecofriendly sonicator dyeing of cotton with Rubia temperature 126 , extraction time, extraction solvent, cordifolia Linn using biomordant. Use of biomordant vegetal material and liquor ratio, type of media or replaces metal mordants, thus making natural dyeing solvent used and also on observations of varying more ecofriendly. Vankar et al .122 also studied mordanting agent and technique as well as dyeing conventional and ultrasonic methods of dyeing cotton parameter. fabric with aqueous extract of Eclipta alba . The effects The effects of dye extraction medium, optimum of dyeing show higher colour strength values obtained 123 concentrations of dye source material, extraction time, by the latter. Beltrame et al . studied and reported the dyeing time, mordant concentration and methods of dyeing of cotton in supercritical carbon dioxide fluid as mordanting on silk dyed with natural dyes has been newer solvent system. The advantages of supercritical reported by Grover et al .127 and Dixit and Jahan 70 . The fluid extraction as compared to aqueous liquid acidic media exhibited maximum per cent absorption extraction and dyeing are that it is relatively rapid for jatropha, lantana, hamelia and euphorbia dyes, process because of the low viscosities and high while kilmora and walnut showed good results in diffusivities associated with supercritical CO 2 fluids. 124 alkaline medium. The result obtained from different Kamal et al . studied the mixture dyeing of experiments leads to the optimization of a standard Terminilla arjun fruit and chochineal with aqueous 125 recipe for a particular dye-mordant-fibre combination. extract on wool fabric. Neetu and Shahnaz studied Srivastava et al .128 studied the optimum dyeing the dyeing with combination of natural dyes obtained 99 technique for dyeing wool by determining the from onion skin and kilmora root. Samanta et al . optimum wavelength, dye material concentration, reported the application of mixture of turmeric and extraction time, dyeing time, pH, concentration of madder on cotton and reported that it yields some mordant, etc. Das et al .91 reported colouring of wool synergistic effect for enhancing colour strength. and silk textiles with tea extracts, which have highest However, these methods are still in research affinity for both wool and silk at pH 2 - 4 in presence laboratory stage. None of them has yet commercialized and absence of either of the ferrous sulphate and due to many reasons, including high cost, ignorance aluminium sulphate as mordants. Optimization of about the process to the small scale dyers, etc. dyeing process variables for wool with natural dyes

obtained from turmeric has been studied and reported 2.5 Physico-chemical Studies on Dyeing Process Variables 129 130 and Dyeing Kinetics by Agarwal et al . . Bansal and Sood studied the It is felt essential to develop a knowledge base on optimum conditions for development of vegetable dye dye chemistry and effects of dyeing process variables on cotton from Eupatorium leaves. The optimization as well as rate of dyeing and chemical kinetics of of dyeing of wool by Rhododendron arboretum as a 131 dyeing for different natural dyes and fibres natural dye source was reported by Sati et al . . Rose 132 133 134 combinations to manipulate the processes of natural et al . , Maulik and Bhowmik , Siddiqui et al . 74 dyeing efficiently in order to get maximum colour and Samanta et al . studied the effect of process yield in economical way. variables on dyeing with selective natural dyes. The standardization and optimization of dyeing conditions 2.5.1 Dyeing Process Variables are essential for effectively colouring any textile in a Source-wise, the natural dyes have variable particular shade in techno-economic way to produce chemical compositions, which are influenced by a maximum colour yield. number of physical and chemical factors, besides the Gupta et al .135 studied and reported the kinetics and compositions of vegetal part of the plant from where the thermodynamics of dyeing with Juglone for different natural dye extracts are obtained. This again depends on fibres. The isotherm for wool, human hair, silk, nylon SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 393

and polyester was linear, indicating a partition myrobolan shows the reverse trend. Such studies mechanism of dyeing. The slope of isotherms was using mixture of natural dyes on jute or cotton or any found to increase with the increasing temperature in other textiles are rare and scanty. Several studies have all the cases. ∆H and ∆S values were positive for all been reported on compatibility 140-144 of binary and these dyeings. The apparent diffusion coefficient was tertiary mixture of synthetic dyes, however such highest for wool and lowest for silk. Gulrajani et al .136 studies on natural dyes are still rare and sporadic. studied the kinetics of annatto and reported that it has Sakata and Kataryama 145 , Patel et al . 146 and high affinity for both nylon and polyester fibres. The Sudhaker and Gowda 147 analyzed the different colour process of dyeing is endothermic as the dye uptake parameters of silk fabric dyed with dry Indian madder increases at higher temperature. Mahale et al .137 by L*, a* and b* values. The colour of jute 148 dyed investigated the conditions of extraction and with aqueous extract of tea was investigated on application of African mariegold on silk yarn. The computer aided colour measuring system in terms of optimum conditions were found to be 60 min dye K/S and CIE Lab colour difference values. CIE extraction time, 30 min mordanting, 30 min dyeing L*C*H* values were studied for cotton and woollen using mixtures of 5% potash alum, 1% potassium textiles dyed with yellow natural dye and it was found dichromate and 1% copper sulphate as mordants. that the H* values for cotton and wool were 74.19 and Samanta et al .74 has studied the dyeing absorption 75.15. This indicates the predominance of yellow hue isotherm, heat of dyeing, free energy and entropy of with different mordants and high ∆E values, Iron (II) dyeing for red sandal wood 74 and jackfruit wood 138 . sulphate mordant with high ∆C* and ∆H* values Study with red sandal wood revealed that this dyeing shows change in shade towards grey to black, as process follows a linear Nernst absorption isotherm studied by Tastsaroni and Eleftheriadis 149 . Mishra et for jute; while study on jackfruit wood revealed that al . 150 studied dyeing of silk fabric for reddish shade Nernst absorption isotherm is followed in most of the with natural lac dye of different concentrations and 151 cases, except jute-FeSO 4 –jackfruit combination of then measured the K/S values. Sarkar and Seal natural dyeing 138 , where it follows Langmuir studied the influence of different mordanting systems adsorption isotherm. on colour strength and colour fastness of flax fabrics These studies are notably important for dyed with selective natural colourant. Results understanding the dyeing theory and physico- obtained were then analyzed and correlated with chemical dyeing parameters of different natural dye- colour strength and related colour interaction fibre combinations. These are also important for parameters. Recently, Samanta et al .152-154 have practically manipulating dyeing conditions to get studied the compatibility of binary combinations of maximum colour yield from particular natural dyes. jackfruit wood with manjistha, red sandal wood, mariegold, sappan wood and babool applied on jute 2.6 Newer Shade Development, Colour Interaction Parameters fabric. In this work, a newer and simple method of and Dye Compatibility assessing relative compatibility rating (RCR) of pairs Newer shades can be achieved by applying mixture of natural dyes has been proposed with compatibility of compatible natural dyes or by using sequential rating of 0-5 scale, (0 indicates completely non- dyeing technique with two or three natural dyes. For compatible and 5 indicates highest order of the use of mixture of natural dyes, the dyers must compatibility), based on determination of newer know whether the natural dyes are compatible with colour difference index (CDI) values. each other or not. Reports are available on dyeing of different textiles with selective mixtures of natural There are some recent reports for application of dyes. According to one report 139 it is observed that the natural dyes even on synthetic fibres. According to use of a mixture of turmeric and madder on cotton in one report 155 , 100% nylon fabric does not pick up case of simultaneous mordanting shows a synergistic dyes such as heena and turmeric, but if it is pre- effect in colour development than that for single dye treated for 5 min with heat or / and acetic acid it application; 50:50 ratio of turmeric and madder gives readily picks up colour. Gupta et al .156 reported few the best results. For the combined dye application, it spectral curves confirming the behaviour of purpurin is observed that in case of simultaneous mordanting as a mordantable dye and showing the colour change method, turmeric when combined with either madder with the mordant due to the characteristic of metal – or red sandal wood gives better colour strength, while dye interactions. Thus, for producing variety of 394 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

shades and variations in L*, C*, H* values, the use of well. Effect of low temperature plasma treatment 167 different mordant-natural dye combination and on colouring of wool and nylon-6 fabrics increases mixture of natural dyes are the two important routes. the dye uptake and saturated dye exhaustion for acid dye, despite the increased electro-negativity of the 2.7 Effects of Chemical Pretreatments and Modification of fibre surface. Pascual and Julia 168 reported that the Textile Materials pre-treatment with hydrogen peroxide improves the The primary objective in chemical modification of effectiveness of chitosan, Alkali pre-treatment a polymer/ fibre material is normally to preserve its followed by chitosan application increases the rate of original chemical structure and related favourable dyeing and alters the physico-chemical parameters of properties. Such chemical modifications may involve dyeing kinetics and causes a reduction in incorporation of new functional groups with or hydrophobicity and shrinkage. However, a high without large scale chain rupture or chain concentration of chitosan can produce a rough hand degradation. This however involves addition of some and uneven dyeing, increasing the viscosity as well as newly built-in property criteria, favouring resistance to shrink. Davarpanah et al .169 studied and development of the modified material for improved reported the surface modification of silk fibre using dyebility with or without affecting some other anhydrides to graft the polysaccharide chitosan and to property criteria. improve dyeing ability of the grafted silk. The There are many reports on the dyeing of 157-160 161 physical properties show acceptable changes, unmodified and modified jute and cotton regardless of weight gain. Scanning electron textiles with different classes of synthetic dyes. microscopy (SEM) analysis shows the presence of However, such studies are sporadic and scanty with foreign materials firmly attached to the surface of silk. natural dyes. There are only few reports available on FTIR spectroscopy provided evidence that the the chemical modifications of cotton textiles for the chitosan is grafted onto the acylated silk through the improvement of their dyeability with natural 99,161-163 99 formation of new covalent bonds. The dyeing of the dyes . There is only one report available on chitosan grafted acylated silk fibre indicated the chemical modification of jute substrate with higher dyeability in comparison to the acylated and acrylamide monomer using K 2S2O8 initiation and degummed silk samples. cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) for However, specific chemical modification is investigating their effects on subsequent dyeing with required to suit different purposes and the same has natural dyes like turmeric and madder. Treatment of 164 many odd effects too, i.e. increasing yellowing, textile materials with chitosan obtained from the variation in shades and colour fastness properties. waste products of crab and prawn fishing is a possible These effects are not always favorable and hence one route for the chemical modification of textile can use this judiciously with specific knowledge and polymers to develop a variety of effects in textile study. dyeing and finishing applications. Bandhpoadhyay et al .165 reported that the pre-treatment of cotton 2.8 Colour Fastness Properties of Natural Dyed Textiles textiles with chitosan can reduce the amount of Colour fastness is the resistance of a material to electrolyte addition during dyeing with reactive dyes change any of its colour characteristics or extent of and enhance fixation, but such studies using natural transfer of its colourants to adjacent white materials in dyes are yet not reported. touch. The colour fastness is usually rated either by Sorption behaviour of shellac, a natural loss of depth of colour in original sample or it is also thermosetting resin, on wool 164 fibres and enzymatic expressed by staining scale, i.e. the accompanying degradation of shellac-modified wool fibres has also white material gets tinted or stained by the colour of been investigated. With the use of methanol as the original fabric. However, among all types of solvent, the amount of sorbed shellac is found to be colour fastness, light fastness, wash fastness and rub maximum (about 0.03g/g of wool), which is fastness are considered generally for any textiles; decreased with the increase in molecular weight of the perspiration fastness is considered specifically for alcohol from methanol to t-butanol. apparels only. 166 Shin et al . studied the antimicrobial finishing of 2.8.1 Light Fastness polypropylene nonwoven fabric by treatment with Light fastness of many natural dyes, particularly chitosan which has gained improved dyeability as which are extracted from flower petals are found to be SAMANTA & AGARWAL: APPLICATION OF NATURAL DYES ON TEXTILES 395

poor to medium. So, an extensive work has been mordant is found to be more important than the dye carried out to improve the light fastness properties of itself in determining the light fastness of natural different natural dyed textiles. Cook 170 has reported a coloured textiles. comprehensive review on different attempts made for Oda 176,177 reported effects of various additives on improving colour fastness properties of dyes on the photofading of carthamin in cellulose acetate film. different textile fibres by different means. The study The rate of photofading was remarkably suppressed in includes tannin-related after-treatments for improving the presence of nickel hydroxyl arylsulphonates, the wash fastness and light fastness of mordantable while the addition of UV absorbers afforded little dyes on cotton; some of these treatments might be retardation in the rate of fading. Cristea and applicable to specific natural dyes. Vilarim 178 , Lee et al .179 , Micheal and Zaher 180 and 181 Most of the natural dyes have poor light stability as Gupta et al . made various attempts to improve the compared to the best available synthetic dyes, and light fastness of different fabrics dyed with natural 154 hence the colours in museum textile are often dyes. Samanta et al . have recently reported the different from their original colours. The relative light improvement in light fastness to one to half unit for stability of a range of dyes was reviewed by Padfield natural dyed jute textiles by application of 1% and Landi 171 who also studied changes in qualitative benztriazole in specific conditions. The corresponding fashion. These changes in colour were studied mechanism of action of benztriazole on jute has also quantitatively by Duff et al .172 , who expressed the been studied and reported by them. changes in terms of the Munsell scale and also in CIE colour parameters. Wool dyed with nine natural dyes 2.8.2 Wash Fastness Duff et al .182 studied the light fastness and wash was exposed in Microscal MBTF fading lamp. 172,173 The fastness ratings were similar to those observed by fastness under standard condition (50°C) and Padfield and Landi 171 in day light fading. After rating also at 20°C with a washing formulation used in by the blue wool standards for light fastness (LF) conservation work for restoration of old textiles. rating, yellow dyes (old fustic, Persian berries) Some dyes undergo marked changes in hue on showed poor light fastness (1-2) ; reds [(cochineal (tin washing due to the presence of even small amounts of mordant )], alizarin (alum and tin mordant ) and lac alkali in washing mixtures, highlighting the necessity (tin mordant) showed better light fastness (3-4); to know the pH of alkaline solutions used for the indigo showed light fastness rating of 3-4 or 5-6 cleaning of textiles dyed with natural dyes. As a depending on the mordant used; and logwood black general rule, natural dyes show moderate wash (chrome mordant) showed light fastness rating of 4-5 fastness on wool, as assessed by the ISO II test. 173,174 Logwood and indigo dyes are found to be much or 6-7 using other mordants. Gupta reported the 182 effects of chemical structure of natural dyes on light faster. Duff et al . studied the wash fastness of fastness and other colour fastness properties. dyeing from native Scottish and imported dyes. In the ISO II test, the fastness of the indigo and logwood A large proportion of natural dyes is, of course, was superior to that of the native natural dyeing, such mordant dyes. There is strong influence of nature, as presian berries and water-lilly root respectively. type and concentration of mordants on wash and light But in comparison of native and imported yellow, fastness grades. The influences of different mordants reds, red/purples, greens and browns, there was little were found to play important role in fading of 18 154 175 difference between the two groups. Samanta et al . yellow natural dyes . Wool dyed with different recently reported that the treatment with 2%CTAB or natural dyes specimens was exposed to a xenon arc sandofix-HCF improves the wash fastness to nearly 1 lamp for assessing its light fastness upto 8 AATCC unit. fading units equivalent to BS-8B blue wool standards. The corresponding colour change after exposure to 2.8.3 Rub Fastness xenon arc lamp was also assessed in each case. In general, rub fastness of most of the natural dyes Turmeric, fustic and mariegold dyes faded is found to be moderate to good and does not require significantly more than any of the other yellow dyes. any after-treatment. Samanta et al .73,152.183 reported However, the use of tin and alum mordants causes that the jackfruit wood, manjistha, red sandal wood, significantly more fading than that with the use of babool and mariegold have good rub fastness on jute chrome, iron, or copper mordant. Thus, the type of and cotton fabrics. Sarkar 58, 59 also reported good rub 396 INDIAN J. FIBRE TEXT. RES., DECEMBER 2009

fastness for mariegold on cotton, silk and wool. match prediction are possible with computerized Mahale et al .86 studied the dry and wet rub fastness of programe. silk dyed with Acalypha . It also has good rub fastness property. Khan et al .52 reported that the cutch and References ratanjot show moderate to good dry rub fastness but 1 Kamat S Y & Alat D V, Indian Text J , (3) (1990) 66. 2 Glover B, Text Chem Colour , 27 (4) (1995) 17. the wet rub fastness is found to be average. 184 3 Smith R & Wagner S, Am Dyest Rep , 80(9) (1991) 32. Samanta et al . studied the dye colour strength 4 Dalby G, J Soc Dyers Color , 109 (1) (1993) 8. related parameters and compatability for dyeing 5 Shukla S R & Patil S M, Indian J Fibre Text Res , 25(12) cotton fabrics with binary mixture of jackfruit wood (2000) 303. and other nature dyes. 6 Chavan R B, Colourage , 42 (4) (1995) 27. 7 Chavan R B, Clothesline , 42 (4) (1995) 96. 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