Implications of Edge Effects As a Tool in Assisting Ecological Succession

IMPLICATIONS OF EDGE EFFECTS AS A TOOL IN ASSISTING ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

SUBMITTED TO QUARRYLIFE AWARD GLOBAL CONTEST By Researcher: Millicent Amekugbe Team Members: Thomas Gyimah, Mark Acheampong, Daniel Acquah-Lamptey

September, 2014

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

 A total of 44 bird species were encountered within the Yongwa limestone quarry site. A total of 1,215 individual insects belonging 46 families from 10 Orders were recorded from the surveys using pitfalls, malaise trap and yellow pans. Eight species of Odonata was recorded and seven species of small mammals were recorded. A total of 58 butterfly species belonging to 9 families were recorded from the quarry site. 21 species of the butterflies recorded in the quarry were unique to the vegetated areas. All the recorded fauna were of Least Concern (LC) according to the IUCN Redlist of threatened species.

 A total of 65 species of plants were identified from the Yongwa quarry site belonging to 25 families. Of these, 22 species belonging to 13 families occur in the pristine naturally vegetated area. 28 species belonging to 16 families occur on the degraded benches whereas 21 species from 10 families occur on the re-vegetated waste dump.

 Vertiver grass was used to control erosion at the edge and to assist in ecological succession. This was achieved when various plant species colonized the edge after Vertiver had been planted. This reduced the drastic change from the natural habitat to the degraded mine. Making the edge a suitable habitat for some fauna such as insects and birds and amphibians which started to inhabit the edge at this stage.

 Soil testing by planting of maize showed that the subsoil is able to support life and can sustain naturally occurring plants. Hence it can be used for reclamation without the necessity of transporting topsoil to be used in reclamation. However when reclaiming for farming purposes, the subsoil must be fertilize to ensure that food crops gain enough nutrients to produce the needed yield.

 The bench in this study serves as an ideal edge which when enhanced can result in the increase of biodiversity of the area.

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

Table of Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 2

2.0 METHODOLOGY ...... 2

2.1 Study Area ...... 2

2.2 Sampling Techniques...... 3

2.21 Insect Survey ...... 3

2.22 Avifaunal Survey ...... 4

2.23 Small Mammals Survey ...... 4

2.24 Floral Survey ...... 4

2.3 Plant selection and Planting ...... 4

2.4 Soil Test ...... 5

3.0 RESULTS/ DISCUSSION ...... 5

3.1 Floral Diversity ...... 5

3.2 Avifauna ...... 6

3.3 Insects ...... 6

3.4 Small Mammals ...... 7

3.5 Vertiver Trials...... 7

3.6 Soil Test ...... 9

4.0 CONCLUSIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 10

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... 11

REFERENCES ...... 11

APPENDICES ...... 13

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Restoration ecology is an emerging science dealing with applied ecology and aiming at “helping nature to recreate itself”. In principle, there are three possibilities to consider in the restoration of a disturbed site, i) rely completely on spontaneous processes, ii) exclusively adopt technical measures and iii) combine both by directing natural/spontaneous succession (Prach, 2003). On the ecological level, degradation will result in plant and animal species having to adapt to the harsh weather conditions as well as accelerated erosion processes. Spontaneous regeneration, following ecosystem degradation can be seriously slowed down or completely hindered in such environmental constraints.

Edge effect is the effect of the juxtaposition or placing side by side contrasting environments in an ecosystem. In Ecology, edge effect refers to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two habitats (Levin, 2009). As the edge effects increase, more habitat structures are created at the boundary which allows increase in biodiversity. Quarrying operations induce ecosystem disturbance and profound modifications on the substratum and the topographical profile of a site. On such heavily disturbed areas, spontaneous colonization is slow (Whisenant et al., 1995) and the natural vegetation succession is often inefficient to ensure proper protection against erosion (Bradshaw, 1993; 1997). Mining activities also creates sharp contrasts in vegetation structure. As stated by Yoakum & Dasmann (1971) “…create as much 'edge' as possible because wildlife is a product of the places where two habitats meet…” but these edges must be gentle and stable so species can easily adapt. There is therefore the need to enhance these edges to promote increase in biodiversity.

Restoring disturbed ecosystems is often the result of land planning requirements; nevertheless, the intervention strategy should be inspired on the observation and analysis of the natural trajectory of the ecosystem (Bradshaw, 1987; Jochimsen, 2001). The success of such an operation is highly dependent on the choice of species to be used for re-vegetation purposes (Martin et al., 2002; Khater et al., 2003). The selection of such species should respond to three major principles: Biotic integrity (neighboring or local species), competitiveness (competitive perennial species in local conditions) and availability (presence in the market of viable seeds) (Martin et al., 2002; Khater, 2004).

The main objectives of this study were to establish a baseline inventory of the biodiversity of the quarry site as well as establish the edge and find strategies to manage it. The site was divided into 3 zones, natural vegetation, re-vegetated, degraded bench.

To achieve the main objectives, the following working activities were adopted;

 The flora and fauna at each of the 3 zones were assessed. This was used as a baseline which will later be used for assessment and monitoring during reclamation.  The effectiveness of Vertiver grass in erosion control and soil stabilization was assessed. This will allow for other plants to successfully recolonize the area, therefore promoting natural succession.  The viability (ability to support crop growth) of the degraded subsoil was assessed by comparing the growth rate of plants in both topsoil and subsoil. This is to ascertain the importance of restoring topsoil to the site during reclamation.

2.0 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Study Area

The Yongwa Quarry site (N60 33’ 00” W 0004’ 40”) is located within the Yilo Krobo District of the Eastern region of Ghana. The Quarry is surrounded by three communities whose main occupation is farming. The area is characterized by two main raining seasons; a wet and a dry season with annual precipitation between 1500mm to 1800mm. The mean temperature ranges between 22°C and 30°C. The vegetation type of the site is a derived savannah and is generally shrubs and grassland with predominating vegetation being that of a thicket. The thicket nature suggests the anthropogenic disturbance of the area.

Limestone Quarrying at Yongwa has been ongoing since 2004 and the limestone is to be extracted until 2016. The size of the concession is about 81.45 ha with the active mining area covering about 46 ha.

The site was divided into three distinct zones, the benches, the re-vegetated (waste dumps) and the natural vegetation. This is to help in achieving the aim of this project which is to use the edge in assisting in ecological succession. The benches refer to the narrow strip of land cut into the side of the open pit mine (Fig. 1). The re-vegetated area refers lands that are undergoing

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014 natural succession (in this case, the waste dumps of the quarry) (Fig. 1) whereas the naturally vegetated area refers to untouched areas (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: (Top) Naturally vegetated area (pristine), Benches - middle bare lands (left insert – surface of a bench), Re-vegetated (Right insert: waste dump)

2.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 2.21 Insects Survey

The Insect survey was conducted using a habitat-specific approach. This approach offers the use of standardized methods that allow the collection of large amounts of data. The various trapping methods used included the;

 The Malaise trap (Fig. 2a), which is a flight interceptor trap targeted at flying insects. It is made up of a dark semi- transparent material fixed in a tent-like structure with a collecting container at one end. This container is filled half full with alcohol.  Yellow Pan Trapping (Fig. 2b): yellow bowls filled to about a quarter full with soapy water and randomly placed on the ground in the various zones at the study site.  Pitfall Trapping; Insect pitfall traps were set by sinking a container into the ground such that the upper rim of it flushes with the ground. It is then filled to about a quarter full with soapy water.  Butterfly nets were used to capture butterflies, dragonflies, damselflies and other flying insects encountered.  Visual observation with the aid of a close focus binocular was employed to indentify dragonflies and butterflies that could not be captured.

Apart from butterflies and Dragonflies sampling where two sites were compared, degraded and un-degraded, all insect sampling techniques looked at the 3 generalized zones. All the traps were set for a period of 9 days in the 3 study zones (benches, re-vegetated and naturally vegetated) and inspected daily. Trapped insects were transferred into vials and stored in 70% alcohol. Identification of insects was done with reference to the collection in the Museum of the Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, University of Ghana, Carter [10], Gullan & Cranston (2010), Chinery (1995), Carcasson (1981), Crowson (1956), Larsen (2005), McGavin (2002), Dijkstra & Clausnitzer (2013) and Oldroyd (1970).

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

b c a

Fig. 2: (a) –malaise trap, (b) - yellow pan trap (Insert: pitfall trap), (c) – Sherman’s collapsible trap

2.22 Avifaunal Survey

Transect walks were used to assess the avian diversity of the area. Transect walks involved continuous walking along chosen transects and recording all birds seen and or heard. Binoculars were used to observe birds. The transect counts were taken twice a day between the hours of 07:00 – 09:00 hours GMT and 15:00 –16:30 hours GMT. Play back calls and the Birds of Ghana field guide by Borrow and Demey (2010) were employed to assist with bird identification

2.23Small Mammals Survey

Forty-five Sherman collapsible traps (Fig. 2c) were set for six consecutive nights of trapping, constituting 270 trap-nights. The Sherman traps were baited with a mixture of peanut butter and corn meal and placed at 10m intervals along varying transects along the edges (benches), re-vegetated and the naturally vegetated area. Traps were set, baited and replaced at 0800 hrs daily throughout the study period. Opportunistic searches for mammals, and signs such as spurs, feacal pellets and footprints were also employed to help identify the mammals. Mammals were identified using Kingdon (2004) and Rosevear (1969).

2.24 Floral Survey

Transect walks were made along the benches, the re-vegetated (waste dump) and the naturally vegetated areas and the floral composition of the quarry was recorded. Plants that could not be identified on the spot were wrapped in paper and pressed in a plant press (two strong rigid, wooded lattice frames) and then sent to the herbarium of the Botany Department of the University of Ghana for identification.

2.3 Plant Selection and Planting

Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Robert (Family: Poaceae) (Vertiver grass) was selected for planting across the bench to perform three functions; 1) control erosion (bioengineering) 2) to manage soil water and 3) to clear the soil of contaminants (phytoremediation). The planting was done across the slope on the bench where the gradient was highest, i.e., the area where erosion could be most pronounced.

C. zizanioides was selected based on its numerous benefits such as stabilizing soil and protecting it against erosion, reducing the rate of flow of runoff water and increasing infiltration. Its roots are positive geotropic hence moves directly down, thereby loosening the compact soil, and it also does not compete with other plants for nutrients.

The section of the bench with the highest gradient was prepared by leveling and stirring the degraded subsoil. Holes of about 0.15m deep were dug across the slope of the bare ground at an interval of 1m between each strip. Obtained C. zizanioides plants were cut to 0.30m high from the base and then planted at a 0.05m distance apart along the same strip. An initial 3 – strip rows were planted and subsequently 4 more were added. They were then watered daily for two weeks after which they were left to depend on the rains.

The average depth of the gullies before preparing the land was measured at a distance of 6m, 4m, 2m and 0m to the Vertiver rows. These depths were measured again at the end of a 4 month period to assess the effect of the grass on erosion check.

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

Fig. 3: Left – bare steep section of bench, (centre) – preparing the land, (right) – planting Vertiver grass

Fig. 4: Picture of the newly planted Vertiver strips. (Insert: matured Vertiver grass) 2.4Soil test

Two beds were established; one composed of the naturally occurring topsoil of the area and the other dug 10cm deep and filled with degraded subsoil (collected from the bench) to 10 cm above the ground. Vertiver grass (C. zizanioides) and maize (Zea mays) (one of the commonest cultivated crops in the area) were planted and the growth rate and yields of the crops monitored. The leaf size, stem diameter and height at maturity was recorded and compared using the Mann-Whitney U- test at 95 % CI. Statistical tests were conducted using Practistat (Pereira & Ashcroft, 2002). This experiment was to find out which soil type would best support the maize crop. This would go in the long run to ascertain the necessity of restoring topsoil to the quarry site during reclamation.

Fig 5: Left – extraction of subsoil from bench, centre – subsoil and topsoil beds (left –right) (insert: watering the beds), right – initial growth stages of maize and Vertiver grass.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Floral Diversity A total of 65 species of plants were identified from the Yongwa quarry site belonging to 25 families (Appendix 1). Of these, 22 species belonging to 13 families occur in the pristine naturally vegetated area. 28 species belonging to 16 families occur on the degraded benches whereas 21 species from 10 families occur on the re-vegetated waste dump (Appendix 1). High diversity on the degraded benches is typical of early stages of succession as a result of opportunistic species, survivors and

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014 habitat specialist that are able to withstand the harsh conditions at this stage. The relatively small plant diversity at the other zones accounts for their stability. Edge effect also applies to succession when vegetation spreads rather than losing to competitors. Different species are suited either to the edges or to the central sections of the habitat resulting in this varied distribution. Therefore, the high diversity at the early stages of succession (i.e., along the benches) give way to a more stable stage (re-vegetated waste dumps) where plants are more adapted to survive and continue with the colonization which in turn progress to a climax stage (in this case the natural vegetation of the area).

3.2 Avifauna

A total of 44 bird species were encountered within the Yongwa limestone quarry site. All the observed birds were of Least Concern (LC) according to the IUCN Redlist of threatened species. However, more species are expected to occur within the study area and these were mostly not encountered as a result of the sampling technique employed. A lot more silent and ground dwelling birds were not covered in this sampling.

Table 1: Bird species recorded at the Yongwa Quarry site Common Names Scientific names Common Names Scientific names Northern grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus Grey-headed Negrofinch Nigrita canicapillus White-throated Bee-eater Merops albicollis Red-headed Quelea Quelea erythrops Senegal Coucal Centropus senegalensis Tawny- flanked Prinia Prinia subflava Pied Crow Corvus albus Little green Woodpecker Campethera maculosa Rock Dove columba livia Whistling Cisticola Cisticola lateralis Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus Levaillant’s Cuckoo Oxylophus levaillantii Bronze Mannikin Spermestes cucullatus Woodland Kingfisher Halcyon senegalensis African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis Yellow-mantled Weaver Ploceus tricolor Pin-tailed Whydah Vidua macroura Little Swift Apus affinis Red-necked Buzzard Buteo auguralis Common Swift Apus apus Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea Leaflove Pyrrhurus scandens Bar- breasted Firefinch Lagonosticta rufopicta Vieillot’s Black Weaver Ploceus nigerrimus Grey-backed Cameroptera Camaroptera brachyura Black Crowned Tchagra Tchagra senegalus Copper Sunbird Cinnyris cupreus Ahanta Francolin Pternistis ahantensis African Pied Hornbill Tockus fasciatus Yellow-billed Shrike Corvinella corvina Northern Red Bishop Euplectes franciscanus Grey-headed Bristlebill Bleda canicapillus Red- Bellied Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone rufiventer Snowy-crowned Robin Chat Cossypha niveicapilla Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Yellow fronted Tinkerbird Pogoniulus chrysoconus Western Grey Plantain- Eater Crinifer piscator African Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus Yellow- Mantled Widowbird Euplectes macroura Klaas's Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas Yellow- Billed Kite Milvus aegyptius Red- Eyed Dove Streptopelia semitorquata

3.3 Insects

A total of 1215 individual insects belonging 46 families from 10 Orders were recorded from the survey using pitfalls, malaise and yellow pans. The most dominating Order is the Hymenoptera with a total of 628 individuals. The Formicidae (ants, bees and wasps) family of insects dominated with 465 individuals. Studies have shown that, ants are good indicators of restoration success (Andersen, 1993; Andersen and Sparling, 2008; Fagan et al., 2010) and it’s clear that ant species richness and abundance varies between different levels of succession. High abundance of bees is also known to indicate a high floral diversity of an environment (Moncada, 2003; Nicholls and Altieri, 2012). This study, has recorded a high abundance of ants and bees with variations between the natural vegetation (Pristine), re-vegetated (waste dump) and the degraded (bench) sites. There was also high abundance of inflorescence within the natural vegetation which probably accounted for the high abundance of bees recorded. It can be inferred that, the higher the abundance of hymenopterans populations, the closer a restored section of the vegetation is to its natural state. For this study the Hymenopterans can be said to be the best indicators of restoration success as they clearly distinguish the three stages/sites. The edge being narrow could also account for the low abundances recorded for most insect groups.

Eight species of Odonata was recorded belonging to 3 families, Coenagrionidae, Libellulidae and Aeshnidae. The low numbers of dragonflies and damselflies could be attributed to the fact that, they are known to be very sensitive to

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014 environmental quality (Chovanec and Waringer, 2001; Chovanec et al., 2004; Ameilia et al., 2006; Acquah – Lamptey et al., 2013). All the dragonfly species encountered are generalists and can occur in semi - degraded areas as well as in non degraded areas. A. ephippiger, T. basilaris and P. flavescens are known to be migratory and hence can be observed far from good water systems. C. glabrum, B. leucosticta, O. Julia, B. strachani and P. lucia are usually found in semi-disturbed to degraded habitats, hence the Odonates recorded are not indicative enough of the ecological health of the Quarry. A total of 58 butterfly species belonging to 9 families were recorded from the quarry site. 21 species of the Butterflies recorded in the quarry were unique to the vegetated areas whereas Junonia oenone is the only species unique to the degraded bare areas. The presence of flowering plants and abundant inflorescence could account for the abundance and richness of butterflies in the vegetated areas. The list of all insects recorded can be seen at the appendix.

3.4 Small mammals

A total of 270 trap-nights yielded 10 individuals of small mammals, all belonging to 3 families of the order Rodentia. Three species were spotted and faecal pellets of the Cane rat were observed. In total, nine individuals belonging to the Muridae, Thryonomyidae and Sciuridae families were recorded from the re-vegetated site whereas 3 species belonging to the Muridae, Thryonomyidae and Nesomyidae families were recorded from the naturally vegetated area. However no mammal was recorded on the bench which was expected considering the activeness of the quarry with machinery and blasting ongoing. The species encountered and trapped at the various sections of the quarry is a fair reflection of such an environment with lots of disturbance. Though the capture rate/encounter rate was very low, it is believed that more species can be realized should more effort at trapping and searching be put in place especially in the natural vegetation and around the re-vegetated waste dumps.

Table 2:Small Mammals recorded at the Yongwa Quarry site Family Common name Scientific name Degraded/ Bench Re-vegetated Natural vegetation Natal's multimammate mouse Mastomys natalensis 0 3 1 Muridae Tullberg's soft-furred rat Praomys tullbergi 0 2 0 African grass rat Arvicanthis niloticus 0 1 0 Striped ground squirrel Euxerus erythropus 0 1 0 Sciuridae Gambian sun squirrel Heliosciurus gambianus 0 1 0 Nesomyidae Giant Gambian pouched rat Cricetomys gambianus 0 0 1 Thryonomyidae Cane rat Thryonomys swinderianus 0 1 1

3.5 Vertiver trials

Chrysopogon zizanioides (Vertiver grass) when grown across a steep bench, was able to hold the soil and also reduce the rate of erosion on the slope, this conforms to studies by Oku et al., (2014). This was inferred from the depth of erosion gullies uphill before and after planting the grass. From Fig 6, it is evident that the average depth of the gullies reduced from 18 cm at 2m distance uphill to 11 cm deep and from 15cm at a 1m distance to 4cm and finally reduced from 7cm at a 0m distance from the grass to 1cm deep(Fig. 8). These were greatly influenced by the amount of rainfall during the study period and it can be deduced that further downpours would result in further deposition of eroded materials at the foot of the grass, therefore further reducing the depth of gullies at 1m, 2m distance from the grass hedge.

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

40 35 30 25 Initial depth 20 (cm) 15 10 Depth after 3 months (cm) 5

Depth of erosion gullies (cm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 Distance from Vertiver grass

Fig. 6: soil sediment deposition

Studies by Joshi and Tambe (2010) have indicated that infiltration of water on slopes is lowest on bare lands and highest with existing grass at the same slope gradient. In our experiment, it was discovered that, at the same gradient of slope and on a bare edge, the section with strips of Vertiver grass remained moist 2 days after rainfall whiles adjoining sections were dry (Fig. 7b). This infers that, mix cropping with Vertiver grass could enhance soil moisture content for other plants hence improving the edge for both plants and animals.

Though it was not scientifically tested for its phytoremediation property, Vertiver grass can be said to have been able to at least make the soil conducive for the self propagation (natural growth) of about 6 plant species (Fig 7). This most likely can be explained by works done by Truong et al. (1993) who suggests that Vertiver traps and accumulates nutrients that would have been washed away. This goes a long way to reduce the impact of edge on faunal diversity as it enhances the soils quality for plants to grow as well as create habitats for some fauna. Recorded fauna associated with the Vertiver grass were; toad (Amietophrynus regularis), grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus, and a number of ants of the genera Crematogaster and Camponotus (Fig. 9).

(a) (b) Fig. 7: (a) Vertiver enhances soil for other plants to thrive. (b) Moisture retention in Vertiver cropped soil

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

(a) (b) Fig. 8: (a) Deep gullies at 6m and 4m uphill from the grass barrier. (b) Gullies become shallow and wide at 2m and 1m and less from the grass barrier.

(a) (b) (c) Fig. 9: (a) (b) - Fauna associated with Vertiver grass. (c) Seeds washed down and deposited at the foot of grass.

3.6 Soil test

Results of the soil test showed that the top soil supported and produced more healthy plants as expected (Fig. 10a), however the subsoil was also able to support plant but not as healthy as the topsoil. A number of ‘weeds’ could self propagate in both soils (Fig.10b) A measurement of growth rate of the maize from both soil showed a significant difference for leaf size (Leaf size: Mann–Whitney U = 34, n1 = n2 = 6, P < 0.05 two-tailed), whereas there was no significant difference in plant height and stem diameter (plant height: Mann–Whitney U = 30, n1 = n2 = 6, P >0.05 two-tailed): (Stem diameter: Mann–Whitney U = 58.5, n1 = n2 = 9, P >0.05 two-tailed). The productivity of maize is due to its large leaf area therefore it can be said that leaf area is directly proportional to yield, when all other growth factors are held constant. This was reflected in the sizes of the maize ears harvested (Fig. 11). The similarity in physical features of the maize crop aside its leaf size could probably be as a result of the enrichments introduced by mixed-cropping with the Vertiver grass. Characteristics of the topsoil such as combination of minerals, decayed plant matter and ecological activity that supports a wide variety of life, including plant roots, burrowing animals, bacteria and insect contribute to the plant health. Even though the degraded subsoil is also able to support growth, it would require nutrient enrichment should agriculture be the objective of the reclamation. The subsoil therefore can support plant life and is best when plants are intercropped with Vertiver, this enhances the edge effects thereby increasing biodiversity.

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

(a) (b) Fig. 10: (a) Maize crops on different soil types. (b) Other plants that self- propagated amongst Vertiver and maize in the different soil types.

Fig. 11: Maize yield (Variation of maize ear sizes) from the two soil types. (Left – Degraded subsoil, Right – Topsoil)

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

An assessment of the plant and fauna for the site showed differentiation at the different zones, hence the generated list would serve as a benchmark for monitoring and evaluation of succession during reclamation.

Species of the family Formicidae particularly ants and other Hymenopterans such as bees due to their high abundances would best serve as markers of succession at such an environment. This is because, the more diverse the ant population, the closer the restored site is to its original state. Similarly, high floral diversity infers high bee diversity. It is therefore recommended that further studies should narrow down on ants and bees as the indicators and tools for monitoring restoration and succession.

Vertiver Grass (C. zizanioides) can be used for controlling erosion and stabilizing the soil at the early stages of reclamation. The presence of this grass rapidly increased the rate of colonization by other plants due to the stabilization of the soil. The grass aside its bioengineering, phytoremediation and ability to hold soil moisture properties can also serve as a microhabitat for some fauna. This enhances the quality of the edge by reducing the sharp contrast in vegetation conditions between the mining site and its adjoining natural vegetation, which enhances the edge effects and hence increasing biodiversity. Vertiver provides a gradual transition from the naturally occurring vegetation to the adjacent mining site. It has also increased the biodiversity occurring at the edge hence increasing the edge effects of the benches.

Soil testing by planting of maize also showed that the subsoil is able to support plant life and can sustain naturally occurring plants. Natural succession can take place during reclamation without the necessity of transporting topsoil. However when

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014 reclaiming for farming purposes, the subsoil must be enriched to ensure that food crops gain enough nutrients to produce the needed yield. Studies have also showed that Vertiver grass when mixed-cropped with other crops improves the yield.

Even though the main aim for this project has been achieved, the ideal situation will be to monitor the ecological succession at the edge and at each stage using biodiversity as the indicators. However due to the duration of the project, this cannot be done, rather monitoring will be going on even after the end of the project to fully assess the stages of succession at the site and also measure the impact of C. zizanioides on the edge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The completion of this research has been the joint effort of many people who contributed in many diverse ways. I would like to acknowledge HeidelbergCement Group, for the opportunity to conduct this research through the Quarrylife Award competition and to GHACEM for all their help in facilitating this research with seed money and field work logistical support. To my team Thomas, Mark, Daniel your dedication and sacrifice ensured that this research was done. My gratitude goes out to Mr Anderson of ARPPIS and Mr Amponsah of the Botany Department all of the University of Ghana for their enormous support. However, my greatest thanks go to God almighty for the gift of life for my team.

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Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

Jochimsen, M.E. (2001). Vegetation development and species assemblages in a long-term reclamation project on mine spoil. Ecological Engineering, 17: 187-198. Joshi, V. U & Tambe, D.T. (2010). Estimation of infiltration rate, Run-off and Sediment yield under simulated rainfall experiments in Upper Pravara Basin India, Effect of Slope angle and ground cover. Journal of Earth System Science, 119 (6) 763-773 Khater, C. (2004). Dynamiques végétales post perturbations sur les carrières calcaires au Liban. Stratégies pour l'écologie de la restauration en régions méditerranéennes. Thèse de doctorat. Académie de Montpellier, Université Montpellier II. Khater, C., Martin, A. & Maillet, J. (2003). Spontaneous vegetation dynamics and restoration prospects for limestone quarries in Lebanon. Applied Vegetation Science, 6: 199-204. Kingdon, J. (2004). The Kingdon Field Giude to African Mammals. Academic Press/Harcourt Brace, San Diego, U. S. A. Kyerematen, R., Acquah-Lamptey, D., Owusu, E. H., Anderson, R. S., & Ntiamoa-Baidu Y. (2014). Insect Diversity of the Muni-Pomadze Ramsar Site: An Important Site for Biodiversity Conservation in Ghana. Journal of Insects, Vol. 2014, 11 pp Larsen, T. B. (2005). Butterflies of West Africa. Apollo Books, 2:596 Levin, S. A. (2009). The Princeton Guide to Ecology. Princeton University Press. Martin, A., Khater, C., Mineau, H. & Puech, S. (2002). Rehabilitation ecology by revegetation: approach and results from two Mediterranean countries. Korean Journal of Ecology, 25(1): 9-17. McGavin, G. C. (2002). Insects, Spiders and Other Terrestrial Arthropods. Dorling Kindersley Inc. Moncada, K. (2003). The role of native bees in Prairie restoration. Student on line journal Volume 8, No. 1 Nicholls C.I & Altieri M.A (2012). Plants Biodiversity enhances bees and other insect pollinators in Agro systems. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable development. Springer. 20 pp Oku E., Aiyelari A. & Truong P. (2014). Green Structure for Soil and Water Conservation on Cultivated Steep Land. Kasetsart J. (Nat. Sci.) 48: 167 – 174. Oldroyd, H. (1970). Diptera: Introduction and key to families. HIBI Vol. IX, Part 1 Prach, K. (2003). Spontaneous succession in Central-European man-made habitats: what information can be used in restoration practice? Applied Vegetation Science, 6: 125- 129. Rosevear, D. R. (1969). Rodents of West Africa. British Museum (Natural History), London, 604pp. Schindler, M., Fesl, C. & Chovanec, A. (2003). Dragonfly associations (Insecta: Odonata) in relation to habitat variables: a multivariate approach. Hydrobiologia, 497 (1): 169-180. Scholtz, C. H. & Holm, E. (1989). Insects of Southern Africa. Butterworths Professional Publishers Ltd Smith, J., Samways, M. J. & Taylor, S. (2006). Assessing Riparian Quality Using Two Complementary Sets of Bioindicators. Biodiversity. Conservation., 16 (9): 2695-2713. Truong, P. (1993). Report on the international Vertiver grass. Field workshop. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Australian Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 6: 23–26 Whisenant, S.G., Thurow, T.L. & Maranz, S.J. (1995). Initiating autogenic restoration on shallow semiarid sites. Restoration Ecology, 3(1): 61-67.

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

APPENDICES Appendix 1: Plant species recorded at the Yongwa Quarry site (NV-Natural Vegetation, DB-Degraded Bench, RV-Re-vegetated) Species name Family NV DB RV Species name Family NV DB RV Cardiospermum halicacabum Sapindaceae + Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae + Combretum racemosum Combretaceae + Byrsocarpus coccineus Connaraceae + Blighia unijugata Sapindaceae + Blighia sapida Sapindaceae + Baphia nitida Fabaceae + Boerhavia erecta Nyctaginaceae + Griffonia simplicifolia Fabaceae + Croton labatus Euphorbiaceae + Spathodea campanulata Bignoniaceae + Crotalaria retusa Fabaceae + Morinda lucida Rubiaceae + Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthaceae + Albizia zygia Mimosaceae + Paspalum vaginatum Poaceae + Cnestis ferruginea Connaraceae + Senna occidentalis Fabaceae + Commelina communis Commelinaceae + Ficus exasperata Moraceae + Sida cordifolia Malvaceae + Securinega virosa Euphorbiaceae + Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae + + Solanum torvum Solanaceae + Ceiba pentandra Malvaceae + + Stachytarpheta indica Verbenaceae + Azadirachta indica Meliaceae + + Ehretia cymosa Boraginaceae + Peltophorum pierocarpum Fabaceae + Tridax procumbens Asteraceae + + Triplochittin scleroxylon Malvaceae + Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae + Mellitia pinnata Fabaceae + Trema guineensis Cannabaceae + Aspilla africana Asteraceae + Euphorbia heterophylla Euphorbiaceae + Pennisetum sp Poaceae + Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae + Digitaria insularis Poaceae + + Panicum maximum Poaceae + Dactyloctenium aegyptium Poaceae + Sorghum sp Poaceae + Lantana camara Verbenaceae + + Centrosema pubescens Fabaceae + Physalis peruviana Solanaceae + Passiflora foetida Passifloraceae + Grewia carpinifolia Malvaceae + Ceiba pentandra Malvaceae + Baphia pubescens Fabaceae + Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae + Setaria barbata Poaceae + Mucuna pruriens Fabaceae + Holarrhena floribunda Apocynaceae + Casia hersuta Fabaceae + Dialium guineense Fabaceae + Vernonia colorata Asteraceae + Albizia glaberrima Fabaceae + Senna siamea Fabaceae + Antiaris toxicaria Moraceae + Pupalia lappacea Amaranthaceae + Melanthera scandens Asteraceae + Rottibolia cochichinensis Poaceae + Lecaniodiscus cupanioides Sapindaceae + Pergularia daemia Apocynaceae + Paullinia pinnata Sapindaceae +

Appendix 2: Dragonfly and Damselflies recorded at the Yongwa quarry site Species Ceriagrion glabrum Palpopleura lucia Pantala flavescens Tramea basilaris Anax ephippiger Brachythemis leucosticta Orthetrum julia Bradynopgya strachani

Appendix 3: Maize growth measurements Degraded subsoil Topsoil leaf Height at Stem Leaf Height at Stem width maturity Diameter width maturity diameter (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) 3.5 37.5 0.48 3.7 36 0.89 2.75 26 0.64 3.8 34.2 0.64 2.6 28 0.64 38 34.7 0.67 2.5 25.5 0.51 3.3 29.5 0.57

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

2.2 26.2 0.67 4 34.2 0.83 1.8 22.2 0.38 3.2 33.2 0.32 0.80 1.02 0.32 0.70 0.29 0.48

Appendix 4: Families and species of Butterflies recorded on the Yongwa Limestone Quarry site. FAMILY SPECIES DEGRADED UNDEGRADED NYMPHALIDAE Euphaedra sarcoptera 0 2 Euphedra hapalyce 0 1 Euphaedra medon 0 1 Euphaedra xypete 0 2 Eurytela dryope 8 4 Pseudoacrea sp. 1 2 Diestogina feronia 0 1 Neptis melicerta 1 3 Neptis metella 1 2 Neptis merosa 0 1 Salamis anacardii 0 1 Junonia terea 3 2 Junonia oenone 2 0 Phalanta phalantha 3 5 Ariadne enotera 0 3 Aterica galene 0 1 Byblia achelola 31 24 Hammanumida dardaulus 4 1 Hypolimnas salmacis 0 3 Hypolimnas missipus 1 2 ACRAEDAE Acraea epaea 0 2 Acraea zetes 11 9 Acraea sp. 2 4 SATYRIDAE Bicyclus zinnebi 3 6 Bicyclus safitza 1 9 Bicyclus auricruda 0 1 Bicyclus condamini 9 6 PAPILIONIDAE Papilio demodocus 4 16 Papilio nireus 0 1 Papilio bromius 0 2 Graphium policenes 0 1 DANIDAE Amauris niavus 4 7 Amauris egialea 0 2 Danaus chryssipus 11 8 Danaus limniace 0 2 PIERIDAE Eurema brigitta 7 3 Eurema senegalensis 1 2 Eurema hecabe 3 2 Nepheronia thalassina 22 38 Nepheronia argia 14 29 Leptosia alcesta 0 2 Leptosia medusa 0 1 Colotis erone 4 1 Colotis euippe 6 9 Colotis antevippe 4 1 Belenois calypso 97 61 Belenois creona 4 2 Belenois theora 7 3 Belenois gidica 13 8 Belenois aurota 6 4 Catopsilla florella 93 27

Implications of Edge Effects as a Tool In Assisting Ecological Succession – Quarry Life Award 2014

Mylothris chloris 15 19 Mylothris poppea 8 3 Mylothris rhodope 3 1 CHARAXIDAE Charaxes varanes 0 1 Charaxes tiridates 0 2 LYCAENIDAE Castalius carana 1 2 HESPERIDAE Pyrrhiades lucagus 8 23

Appendix 5: Insect orders recorded using the malaise, pit fall and yellow pan traps ORDER FAMILY Natural Vegetation Degraded Benches Re- vegetated site Orthoptera Gryllidae 15 6 12 Acrididae 15 18 18 Tetrigidae 6 0 0 Hymenoptera Formicidae 396 45 24 Evaniidae 9 3 21 Sphecidae 0 0 3 Vespidae 6 6 12 Braconidae 6 0 15 Ichneumonidae 12 18 42 Scelionidae 0 0 3 Halictidae 0 0 9 Pompylidae 3 0 6 Chalcididae 0 0 3 Eulophidae 0 0 3 Chrysididae 0 0 3 Dictyoptera Blattidae 3 0 3 Lepidoptera Noctuidae 18 0 6 Arctiidae 24 12 9 Geometridae 6 0 0 Hesperidae 3 0 0 Homoptera Cercopidae 18 6 9 Cicadellidae 9 0 6 Delphacidae 0 3 0 Membracidae 6 0 0 Diptera Calliphoridae 3 0 0 Tachinidae 3 0 6 Culicidae 9 0 6 Muscidae 6 6 9 Tephritidae 6 0 0 Drossophilidae 0 3 9 Phoridae 30 3 12 Tipulidae 12 0 0 Asilidae 3 0 0 Glossinidae 6 0 0 Conopidae 3 0 0 Lauxanidae 3 0 0 Otitidae 0 0 3 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae 3 0 6 Bostrichidae 6 0 0 Meloidae 6 0 0 Nitidulidae 3 0 0 Staphylinidae 3 0 0 Trichoptera Hydropsychidae 9 0 0 Polycentropodidae 0 0 3 Thysanoptera Thripidae 3 0 0 Hemiptera Pyrrhocoridae 0 93 60