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Non-State Actors in Early Childhood Education Is Limited ED/GEMR/MRT/2020/F/1 Paper prepared for the Global Education Monitoring Report 2019 GEM Report Fellowship NON -STATE ACTORS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION EQUITY AND QUALITY This paper was developed as part of the GEM Report Fellowship Programme. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned as part of the GEM Report Fellowship Programme in 2019”. For further information, please contact [email protected]. DONALD R. BAUM 2020 ABSTRACT SDG Target 4.2 commits countries to provide universal access to quality early childhood education (ECE) by the year 2030. Currently, the ECE participation rate across low-income countries is only 43%. A large share of these enrollments are in non-state institutions (41%); however, very little is known about the contributions and implications of private provision at the ECE level, with only a small share of existing research on the topic. This study will offer one of the first broad looks at the scope of the issue across low- and middle- income countries (LMICs), including: a systematic review of the existing research on private ECE, analysis of the determinants and affordability of private vs. public ECE services across vulnerable demographic groups (including household wealth, location, ethnicity, student gender, etc.), an analysis of the characteristics of private ECE markets in Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania, and an evaluation of the learning outcomes in public versus private preschools in Nigeria. This research contributes to the global knowledge, providing new evidence to assist policy makers in tailoring educational programs to current environments towards the fulfillment of SDG 4.2. 1.0. TABLE OF CONTENTS 0.0. Abstract 2 1.0. Table of Contents 3 2.0. Introduction 4 3.0. Systematic review of the existing research on private ECE in LMICs 10 4.0. Analysis of private ECE participation in LMICs 43 5.0. Analysis of the characteristics of private ECE markets in Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania 55 6.0. Student learning outcomes in public and private ECE in Nigeria 94 7.0. Conclusion 107 8.0. Appendices 111 9.0. References 149 2.0. INTRODUCTION 2.1. Growth and challenges in early childhood education Early childhood education1 delivers large developmental benefits for children (Currie & Thomas, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2001; Shafiq et al., 2018) and high rates of return to investments (Heckman & Masterov, 2007). Engle et al. (2011) estimate that increasing preschool enrollment to 50% of all children in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) could result in lifetime earnings gains of $14-$34 billon. Early childhood investments are also equity-enhancing, with the largest benefits accruing to the poorest in society (Walker et al, 2011). Children who begin primary schooling inadequately prepared are less likely to obtain high learning levels, and are more likely to repeat grades and drop out of school (Currie & Thomas, 1999; Heckman & Masterov, 2007; Reynolds et al., 2001). Failure in the first year or two of schooling to establish basic cognitive skills substantially reduces the ability of children to successfully progress through the education system and receive the skills and knowledge necessary for leading productive and healthy lives (Abadzi, 2006). Countries will waste significant resources if they cannot produce and fund early childhood services of adequate quality. Historically, early childhood education (ECE) has been neglected in many low-income countries, relative to the attention placed upon primary and secondary education. The 2017/18 GEM Report found that in 2015, 69% of children worldwide participated in pre-primary or primary schooling in the year before primary entry age; however the participation rate was only 43% across low-income countries, with large disparities across countries. This marks a sharp contrast to the rates of participation at the upper levels; the global primary net enrollment rate is 91%, with an average of 81% across low-income countries. The participation rates are 84% globally and 62% for low-income countries at the lower secondary level (UNESCO, 2018). 1 For the purposes of this paper, early childhood education will refer to all forms of organized learning from age 3 up to the first year of primary education. Drawing from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2020), “[a]n organized learning programme is one which consists of a coherent set or sequence of educational activities designed with the intention of achieving pre-determined learning outcomes or the accomplishment of a specific set of educational tasks” (p. 1). This definition includes school-based early childhood education, preschool, and pre-primary education opportunities, as well as home-based learning programs for children prior to grade 1. Not included in this definition are forms of early childhood care from ages 0 to 3, as well as those that do not include a formal educational component. 4 More recently, greater emphasis is being placed on raising access to high quality ECE services (Gove, 2017). It is likely that this growth has stemmed, at least in part, from the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goal (MDG/SDG) targets, which have placed early childhood development more squarely within international policy frameworks. Specifically, SDG Target 4.2 commits countries to ‘ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education’ by the year 2030. Between 2010 and 2018, gross enrollment in pre- primary education grew from 14.5% to 23.9% in low-income countries and from 23.8% to 36.8% in lower- middle-income countries (World Bank, 2020). Citing data on low levels of pre-primary enrollment along with high demand for services (e.g., high incidence of under-age enrollment in Grade 1) in many countries, Zafeirakou (2015) suggests that Africa may be on the verge of an enrollment boom at the early childhood level. Similar to trends at the primary and secondary levels, data from the WIDE database suggest that participation in pre-primary education is strongly determined by factors such as student wealth, location, gender, and ethnicity. Additionally, indications suggest that these same inequalities are found in student cognitive and non-cognitive abilities at the early childhood level (UNESCO, 2018). Data from the UWEZO assessment in Tanzania show big gaps in student achievement by household location and wealth at the end of pre-primary school (Baum et al., 2019). Given these existing challenges within early childhood education in LMICs, progression towards SDG 4.2 will require close attention to issues of equity and quality as countries continue to expand their ECE services by 2030. Governments face large finance gaps in their efforts towards expanding ECE. One report estimates that provision of universal pre-primary education in low-income and lower-middle-income countries, as per the SDG goal, by 2030, would cost $44 billion per year (International Commission on Financing Global Education Opportunity, 2016). Currently, only $11.1 billion is spent annually by these countries (Zubairi & Rose, 2017). Successful expansion may require countries to take advantage of innovative approaches for financing and delivering early childhood education efficiently and effectively. 2.2. Research and policy on the involvement of the private sector in education The role of non-state actors in education is an issue that has received a large amount of attention within the global education research, policy, and civil-society communities. This issue certainly has relevance when considering matters of equity and quality within education. Such research has been building for at least the past two decades, and there exists a strong body of evidence on issues such as the quality of 5 services, determinants of school choice, costs of attendance, and social equity implications, among others (Ashley et al., 2014; Härmä, 2019; Srivastava, 2013; Tooley, 2013). However, the research on the role of non-state actors in early childhood education is limited. A handful of studies on topics such as low-fee private schools (LFPS) happen to give cursory attention to ECE – typically within a paragraph or two of a larger study of private primary and secondary schooling (Ohara, 2012; Rose, 2002; Siaplay & Werker, 2013; Srivastava & Walford, 2016; Tooley & Dixon, 2006). An even smaller number of studies specifically collect data on pre-primary schools, as part of their larger research on private primary and secondary schools (Baum, Abdul-Hamid, et al., 2018a; Härmä, 2016a; Urwick, 2002), or capture both public and private operators in their general research on early childhood education (K. Bidwell & Watine, 2014). More recently, a few studies have been carried out explicitly on the topic of private ECE in low-income countries (Edwards et al., 2019a). An additional recent study considers the potential implications of unofficial private school markets on national administrative pre-school enrollment data (King et al., 2020). Overall, the research focused explicitly on private ECE is in its infancy. As well as growing, the ECE landscape in developing nations is changing shape: over the last ten years, enrollment growth in private ECE has outstripped public enrolment (6% compared to 4%). Recent figures suggest
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