Hamakua Ag Coop Meeting For Avocado Research Project
Mark T. Nickum Tropical Fruit Researcher University of Hawaii May 8, 2013 ‘Booth 7’ ‘Choquette’
Guatemalan x West Indian types
Typical uses: - fresh, as “vegetable” fruit; salads - processed, as guacamole - as flavoring in milk shakes & smoothies - oils extracted for cosmetic purposes
Economic importance
Major producers in 2008 Importance in Hawaii
Producing Nation Metric Tons
Mexico 1,124,565
Chile 250,000
Indonesia 225,180
Dominican Republic 187,398
Colombia 183,968
Brazil 147,214
Peru 136,303 United States 116,000 Hawaii produces 1 million pounds of avocado mostly Guatemala 96,525 For local consumption, and Imports about 2 million pounds. China 95,000
Profitability in Florida
• Average yield ~9MT/ha. • Main operating expenses included – Fertilizers ~37% – Fungicides ~19% – Herbicides ~13% • Net returns of at least US$2,200/ha. – Very sensitive to price fluctuations. Avocado Cost of Production in Hawaii Kent Flemming
GROSS INCOME: Number PER TREE: ANNUAL GROSS INCOME: Ave.yiel % of production: of trees: d: Units @ $/unit: $/tree: $/acre: $/farm: % gross: Gr ad e 1 86% of crop 430 110 lbs. #1 $0.40 $37.84 $1,892.00 $18,920 96.1% Of f- gr ad e 14% of crop 70 110 lbs. other $0.10 $1.54 $77.00 $770 3.9%
TOTAL = 100% 500 trees Weighted average = $0.36 /lb. $39.38 $1,969.00 $19,690 100.0%
OPERATING or VARIABLE COSTS: PER TREE ANNUAL OPERATING COSTS: Quantit y Units @ $/ unit: $/tree: $/acre: $/farm: % gross: A . Fertilizer:
1 Super Coffee + 3.2 lbs./tree/year $0.19 /lb. 0.608 30.40 304 1.5%
Other fertilizer 2 in mixture 0.0 lbs./tree/year $0.00 /lb. 0.000 0.00 0 0.0%
3 Labor @ 4 appli/yr @ 0.25 min./appli. 1.00 min./tree/yr. $9.00 /hour 0.150 7.50 75 0.4% 4 Fuel: mach. & equip. operation (Enter total for farm/year) 0.000 0.00 0 0.0% Fertilizing total = $0.758 $37.90 $379 1.9% B . Weed control: Rate: Per farm:
1 Round-up @ 2 oz./gal. 5 gal/appli 0.020 oz./tree/appli. $17.00 /qt. 0.064 3.19 32 0.2% oz./qt. 2 Sticker 8 herbicide 0.005 oz./tree/appli. $10.00 /qt. 0.009 0.47 5 0.0%
3 Spray. labor 6 appli/yr @ 12 hrs/appli. 8.64 min./tree/yr. $9.00 /hour 1.296 64.80 648 3.3%
4 Mowing labor 1 mowing(s) 18 hrs/mow. 2.16 min./tree/yr. $9.00 /hour 0.324 16.20 162 0.8% 5 Fuel: mach. & equip. operation (Enter total for farm/year) 0.200 10.00 100 0.5% 6 Sheep expenses (Enter total for farm/year) 0.000 0.00 0 0.0% Weed control total = $1.893 $94.66 $947 4.8% History of Domestication
• Eaten in Mexico 7000- • Introductions to: 8000 yrs ago • Jamaica in ~1650 by (radiocarbon data) Spaniards • Human Selection 4000- • African and Asian tropics 2800 BC by 1700s – 1800s Mesoamerican Indians • Florida – 1833 • Three races separate • California – 1848 until European Contact • Hawaii – common by 1855 Botany
• Medium to large trees to 10-20 m tall. • Shallow root system, >90% fibrous root system within 30-60 cm soil surface (e.g. Waiakea in Hilo, only 6 inches of soil, trees with 25 feet of roots extending out!)
• Psuedo-terminal flower/fruit bearing (looks terminal at first, but is actually lateral). The inflorescence is a panicle of cymes. Flowers are small, greenish yellow, bisexual with a superior ovary. Anthesis occurs over a 3-8 week period. Special pollination strategy to prevent self pollination. Type A and Type B trees.
• Cyme - A usually flat-topped or convex flower cluster in which the main axis and each branch end in a flower that opens before the flowers below or to the side of it. Determinate florescence.
Botany and Evolution
• Evolved in several rainforest environments resulting in a shallow root system, trees have a vegetative growth bias (light competition)
• Shoot growth is synchronized into major flushes
• Flowering behavior favors outbreeding, not self pollination (complementary, synchronous dichogamy). Botany and Evolution – 3 Races
• M = Mexican
• G = Guatemalan
• WI = West Indian Proposed centers of origin for the Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian (Lowland) ecological races of avocado. From Storey et al., 1986, California Avocado Society Yearbook 70:127-133. General characteristics of avocado races1
Character West Indian Guatemalan Mexican Origin Tropical lowlands Tropical Tropical highlands highlands Leaves No odor No odor Anise- scented Blooming Feb.-March March-April Jan.-Feb. season Maturity May-Sept. Sept.-Jan. June-Oct. season (spring-summer) (fall-early winter) (summer-fall) 1, Hybrids have intermediate characteristics. Characteristics of avocado races
Character West Guatemalan Mexican Indian Fruit set- 5-9 months 10-16 months 6-9 months maturity
Fruit size lb (kg) 1-5 1/2-5 Not over 1 (0.5) (0.5-2.3) (0.2-2.3) Skin texture Leathery- Woody-rough Papery-smooth smooth
Fruit oil content Low High Highest
* Hybrids may show characteristics of both parent races. Flowering and fruit set sequence “A” and “B” type avocados complementary, synchronous dichogamy
• Individual avocado flowers • Avocados are insect pollinated open twice over a 2 day (bees, wasps, flies) although this period – first day as is debated. functionally female and second day as functionally male.
• Each avocado cultivar or • Some evidence that under seedling displays a certain environmental conditions consistent pattern to their (warm subtropical, high RH and sequence of female and low wind) some cultivars (WI male opening (time of day / types) are wind pollinated. morning or afternoon).
Flowering behavior – Day 1 – Female receptive
Female stage of flowering Day 2 – Male functional, Female NOT receptive
• Six outer stamens, three inner stamens • Pollen visible
Male stage of flowering Avocado flowering behavior Protogynous, Diurnally Synchronous Dichogamy Day 1 Day 2 Type
A
B
0600 1200 1800 0600 1200 1800 Hours (military time)
After: Whiley and Schaffer. 1994. Avocado. In: Hdbk of environmental physiology of fruit crops, Vol. II, subtropical and tropical crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. There are two flowering types, referred Since there are hundreds of flowers on to as "A" and "B" flower types. "A" an avocado tree at any one time, the varieties open as female on the morning actual situation in the field as shown of the first day. The flower closes in late here (Figure 5). The arrows denote the morning or early afternoon. The flower movement of pollen between the will remain closed until the afternoon of complementary flower types. the second day when it opens as male. "B" varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and re-open in the male phase the following morning. Avocado flowering behavior
• Avocado cultivars also vary in their period of flowering (time of season). • There are 3 main groups: early, mid-, and late flowering periods. • To optimize pollination, mix A and B type avocados that bloom during the same period. This will optimize the chances for cross pollination. • Fortunately, neighborhoods with more than 1 avocado tree usually do not have pollination problems. Why is the flowering behavior important?
• Because avocado cultivars differ in the degree of and ability to self pollinate and set fruit. • Some cultivars appear to fruit well without cross pollination such as ‘Waldin’, ‘Lula’, and ‘Taylor’. Others like ‘ Pollock’ and ‘Booth 8’ do not. • We therefore recommend to people that if there are no avocado trees nearby, they plant two cultivars, an ‘A’ type and ‘B’ type.
• Avocado cultivars differ in which months or seasons they flower. Therefore, choose to plant an early-A with an early-B, etc. Mid-blooming period avocados
Cultivar Flower type Beta B Black Prince A (mid- to late period) Booth 8 B (mid- to late period) Brookslate A Choquette A Hall B Marcus B (mid- to late period) Nesbitt A Simmonds A (early to mid-period) Tonnage B (early to mid-period)
Tower 2 B Avocado varieties recommended for home garden plantings in Hawaii.
Flowering type
Season of bearing A B
Fall and winter San Miguel Case Semil-34 Kahalu`u
Winter and spring Greengold Nishikawa Hayes Sharwil
Spring and summer Ohata Chang Murashige
Source: HITAHR Brief 052, “Recommended fruits and nuts for the home garden.”
Can find Online. Avocado flowering ‘Booth 7’ Climatic adaptations – Flowering
• Floral induction occurs during the fall-winter following the cessation of summer vegetative growth. • Floral initiation - Mexican and Guatemalan cultivars require exposure cool temperatures <20oC (68oF) are required to stimulate flora initiation (remember the M and G races are from the highlands); West Indian cultivars – exposure to temperatures at or below ~25oC (77oF). • Optimum temperatures during flowering for “normal” flowering behavior (dichogamous synchrony) ~25/20oC. - Mexican
Bernecker – West Indian
- Mex x Guat hybrid
Guatemalan
Choquette – Guat x WI hybrid Sharwil is a selection from Australia and it accounts for nearly 50% of the avocado orchards planted In Hawaii `Malama’ `Greengold’
Seedling selection from a Sharwil mother tree, from Haleakala Experimental Farm in First selected in 1976. Avocado Phenology (Annual Life Cycle)
Flower bud Flowering and Fruit development development fruit set
Vegetative flush
Fruit drop
Root flush Amount of development
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Month Two periods of fruit drop. 1. The tree is balancing the fruit load on the tree shortly after fruit set. 2. The tree is dropping mature fruit over time. Avocado Phenology
Flower bud Flowering and Fruit development development fruit set Harvest
Vegetative flush
Fruit drop
Root flush Amount of development
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Month Production practices for Florida avocados
Operation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Disease1 Powdery mildew anthracnose 2 Insect Flower pests Lace bug Fertilizer: 3 General
Nutritional4
5 Iron Iron applications more effective during warm weather Weed control: Mow X X X X X X X X X
Herbicide Contact Residual
6 Irrigation
Harvest Moderate to light Light moderate heavy Hedge and topping7 Frost protection
Operation Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avocado leaf nutrient levels
Range for mature trees Element Symbol Unit Florida California Nitrogen N % 1.7-2.0 1.6-2.0 Phosphorus P % 0.09-0.14 0.08-0.25 Potassium K % 1.3-1.7 0.75-2.0 Calcium Ca % 1.4-2.8 1.0-3.0 Magnesium Mg % 0.39-0.65 0.25-0.8 Sulfur S % no data 0.2-0.6 Boron B ppm 40-50 50-100 Iron Fe ppm 40-94 50-200 Manganese Mn ppm 90-204 30-500 Zinc Zn ppm 71-186 30-150 Copper Cu ppm 35-52 3 5-15 Molybdenum Mo ppm no data 0.05-1.0
Propagation by grafting / budding • air-layering or rooting of cuttings not effective
Side verneer graft Top-working
However, most seedling rootstocks are susceptible to Phytophthora Pruning
Training Size control • Typically during the first 2-3 years • Typically begins during years 4 on • Newer systems constantly train trees • Purpose to maintain specific configurations – Maintain light exposure and to renew fruiting canopy – Maintain a lower canopy • Develop the scaffold – Reduce fungal and disease -3 or 4 main lateral branches pressure • Methods -wide crotch angles – Mechanical -Don’t want branches from the – Hand labor same node area. This will potentially weaken the tree • Configurations Nonpruned
Open center-high
Annonas Pictured Here
Open center-low Modified central leader Tree training and tree size control
• Training of young trees, not common (in Florida). However, heading back to force lateral development and removal of misplaced and V-crotched limbs will reduce problems later. • Trees size control may be by hand pruning and/or mechanical machinery (more common) • Reasons for tree size control – maintain light levels and keep canopy productive and lower to the ground, improve crop production, increase air movement – reduce disease incidence. Tree training and tree size control
• There is sufficient time for cultivars harvested early-season to be pruned immediately after harvest to mature the vegetative flushing after pruning, but may not be for mid- and late season cultivars. • Recommendation is cultivar dependent: prune early season cultivars immediately after harvest (some mid season cultivars too) and for mid- and late season cultivars design a program of periodic pruning, e.g., every third row canopy side every third year, top every third year. • Selective pruning to thin-out inner canopy limbs will increase light penetration, help maintain lower productive canopy, and improve air movement to reduce fruit/leaf disease problems. Pruning schematic Hedging and topping High density avocado plantings
• Mostly found in cool subtropical and Mediterranean type climates (e.g., California, Israel, Chile). • California using Guatemalan-Mexican hybrids, e.g., ‘Hass’, ‘Reed’ • Spacing 3 m x 3 m, 3 m x 4 m • Continuous tree training, limb renewal, and tree size management (~2-2.5 m) • In Hawaii, this may be a useful management style for very steep slopes, as you will see in a minute. Chile California
Chile High density ‘Reed’ planting Major diseases and insects in Florida
• Anthracnose – periodic • Avocado lace bug fungicide applications • Flower thrips and mirids • Avocado scab – several fungicide applications during • Avocado looper fruit set/early fruit • Avocado red mite development • Red-banded thrips • Powdery mildew – 1-2 fungicide applications • Allow “natural” predators to work, use least disruptive • Phytophthora root rot – plant in nonflood areas and materials, scout/monitor fungicide applications grove continuously and apply • Sun-blotch viroid – destroy insecticide as needed infected trees Anthracnose Phytophthora
Sun blotch viroid Scab Phytophthora cinnamomi – Root Rot
• Avoid planting in poorly drained soils • Plant only clean nursery stock • Mound to promote drainage • Avoid furrow irrigation; use drip • Disinfect tools & equipment • Use organic mulches • Tolerant rootstocks Treatment of infected trees with phosphonate (Aliette)
Mounding to promote good drainage “Escapes” – potentially resistant Clonal Rootstocks for Phytophthora Tolerance Avocado lace bug
Avocado leaf roller and damage
Thrip damage on fruit Salinity stress Wind damage DO NOT BRING IN NEW MATERIAL FROM OUTSIDE THE STATE OF HAWAII !!! Red Bay Ambrosia Beetle Laurel Wilt New pest in SE United States since 2002. Red Bay is Persea borbonia. Threatens avocado industry in Florida.
Fig 3. Stained sapwood of redbay caused by Raffaelea lauricola. Fungal infection A) around Xyleborus glabratus entrance holes, B) in stem cross section, C) on lower stem with bark removed
Fig 4. Wilt symptoms of redbay attacked by Xyleborus glabratus and Raffaelea lauricola Fig 1. Xyleborus glabratus female. A) lateral view, B) infected with . A) Sections of crown turning purple to dorsal view red. B) Same tree eight months later (May 2006). Harvest and Post-Harvest
When green mature, can be stored on tree for many months Ripening occurs 3-10 days after harvest Harvest stage is determined by: - time on tree - oil content - color change (dark skinned varieties) - moisture content (dry weight) Post-harvest shelf life is inversely proportional to time stored on tree Picking/shipping schedule - example
Variety A date Min. Min. B date Min. wt Min. C date Min. Min. D date wt dia dia wt dia Simmonds 6-17 16 3 9/16 7-01 14 3 7/16 7-15 12 3/16 7-29
Nadir 6-24 14 3 3/16 7-01 12 3 1/16 7-08 10 2 14/16 7-15
Miguel 7-15 22 3 13/16 7-29 20 3 12/16 8-12 18 3 10/16 8-26
Note: Fruit size decreases with picking date because fruit maturity (i.e., the ability to ripen properly once picked) increases with time. Postharvest handling • Pick carefully and place bins in shade immediately • If available hydrocool or force-air cool • Sort and pack and place in cold storage immediately • Optimum storage temperature varies with 15 cm cultivar • In general, WI types no o lower than 13 C, G Postharvest Cold Damage types and hybrids 4- Storage at too low of temperature 11oC Ripening: Avocados are climacteric fruits, but don’t ripen quickly on the tree. Most selected cv ripen within 7-10 d after harvest.
Climacteric will ripen after picking (pears, bananas) Non-climacteric fruits do not “ripen” but become mature on the tree (citrus)
Harvest by clipping pedicle, not by removing from fruit. Latter opens site for infection.
Export of Hawaii Avocados to the Mainland US Avocado requires quarantine treatment for fruit flies, but currently no approved method for Hawaii, so no exports This may change in the very near future. There is a motion to change the law to allow untreated Sharwil avocados to be exported to the lower 48 continental United States. Management of the orchard using a “Systems Approach” is a requirement for this to occur. Below is the published summary of the new rule. SUMMARY: “We are proposing to amend the Hawaii quarantine regulations to allow the interstate movement of untreated Sharwil avocados from Hawaii into the continental United States. As a condition of movement, Sharwil avocados from Hawaii would have to be produced in accordance with a systems approach that would include requirements for registration and monitoring of places of production and packinghouses, an orchard trapping program, grove sanitation, limits on harvest periods and distribution areas, and harvesting and packing requirements to ensure that only intact fruit that have been protected against infestation are shipped. This action would allow for the interstate movement of Sharwil avocados from Hawaii into other States while continuing to provide protection against the introduction of quarantine pests.” http://www.regulations.gov/#!documentDetail;D=APHIS-2012-0008-0001 (accessed 2/12/2013) Avocado Grafting Videos
• www.ctahr.hawaii.edu • “Videos” link