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Urban Poverty, Livelihood Strategies and Urban UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Bridging the urban-rural divide : multi-spatial livelihoods in Nakuru town, Kenya Owuor, S.O. Publication date 2006 Document Version Final published version Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Owuor, S. O. (2006). Bridging the urban-rural divide : multi-spatial livelihoods in Nakuru town, Kenya. African Studies Centre. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:05 Oct 2021 Bridging the urban-rural divide Multi-spatial livelihoods in Nakuru town, Kenya ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. Mr. P.F. van der Heijden ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der Universiteit op 26 april 2006, te 11.00 uur door Samuel Ouma Owuor geboren te Nakuru, Kenya Promoter: Prof. dr. A.J. Dietz Co-promoters: Dr. D.W.J. Foeken Prof. R.A. Obudho FACULTEIT DER MAATSCHAPPIJ- EN GEDRAGSWETENSCHAPPEN African Studies Centre Research Report 81 / 2006 Bridging the urban-rural divide Multi-spatial livelihoods in Nakuru town, Kenya Samuel Ouma Owuor This project was part of the Nakuru Urban Agriculture (Research) Project (NUAP) of the African Studies Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands. As also a PhD undertaking, the study fell within the Research School for Resource Studies for Development (CERES) and the Amsterdam Institute for Metropolitan and International Development Studies (AMIDSt). The Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO) funded this project (WB 53-316) while the African Studies Centre provided the institutional support. Samuel Ouma Owuor Department of Geography University of Nairobi P.O. Box 30197 – 00100 Nairobi, KENYA [email protected] Published by African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands [email protected] http//www.ascleiden.nl Photographs: Sam Owuor (except Photo 1: Dick Foeken) Printed by: PrintPartners Ipskamp BV, Enschede ISBN-10: 90-5448-066-1 ISBN-13: 978-90-5448-066-2 © African Studies Centre, 2006 This book is dedicated to my parents, Dismas & Florence Ouma RIP to my wife, Dorothy and daughters, Cobby & Kiky for their support, love and encouragement Contents List of boxes x List of figures x List of maps xi List of tables xi List of photos xii Glossary xiii Acknowledgements xiv 1 THE ISSUE: URBAN POVERTY, LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AND URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES 1 Introduction 1 The concept of poverty 3 Urbanization, economic crisis and urban poverty 7 The concept of livelihood and the livelihood framework 11 Urban livelihood strategies 16 Urban rural linkages 21 Conceptual framework 33 The present study and its objectives 35 Organization of the book 36 2 THE SETTING: KENYA AND NAKURU TOWN 37 Kenya: Background information 37 Nakuru town 44 3 METHODOLOGY 55 The study set-up 55 The household as a unit of research and analysis 56 General approach and sampling procedures 61 Methods of data collection 66 Data analysis: Some considerations 72 Characteristics of the sampled households 75 vii 4 MULTIPLE SOURCES OF LIVELIHOOD: MANAGING THE HOUSEHOLD TO SURVIVE IN TOWN 81 Regular gainful occupation 83 Farming and non-farming income-generating activities 85 Income and expenditure 95 Survival of the poorest: The case of Sofia Lela 98 Living “beyond” full-time employment: The case of Reuben & Rita 103 Diversification as “life becomes expensive in town”: The case of Alfred & Alice 108 Managing the household to survive in town: Some observations 111 5 RURAL FARMING BY URBAN HOUSEHOLDS: THE PRACTICE 115 Rural plots 115 Rural crop cultivation 125 Rural livestock keeping 138 6 RURAL FARMING: SOURCE OF FOOD AND INCOME 145 The importance of rural farming as perceived by the respondents 145 The “fungible income” earner 149 Livestock as “reserve wealth” for the household 151 Multi and mono-spatial livelihoods: Two livelihood profiles compared 152 Three examples 157 7 URBAN-RURAL LINKAGES: NATURE, EXTENT AND DIRECTION 167 The “urban house” and the “rural home” 168 Social reciprocity between urban and rural areas 172 Economic interactions: Flows of goods and money between urban and rural areas 180 Return migration 184 Three examples 186 Emerging trends or changing nature? 192 8 COMPARING “THE POOR” AND “THE NON-POOR” 195 Some basic characteristics 196 Economic activities and expenditures 199 Rural plots 201 Rural farming: Practices 203 Rural farming: Source of food and income 206 Urban-rural links 210 viii 9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 213 Introduction 213 Summary of findings and conclusions 214 Recommendations 223 Appendices 227 References 257 Summary 267 Samenvatting 271 ix List of boxes 1.1 Costs of living in town 7 1.2 Household livelihood assets or resources 14 1.3 Risking death for survival: How the urban poor struggle to survive 19 1.4 A family living in crippling poverty 22 2.1 An urban dweller’s perception of poverty 43 2.2 Making a meaningful living out of rubbish 52 4.1 Living from the shamba 88 4.2 Improving the household’s income through the ECLOF-Kenya loan scheme 94 4.3 Chang’aa: Illegal but affordable 100 5.1 Loss of family labour through multiple deaths within 12 months 131 5.2 School accepts livestock, cereals as fees 139 6.1 From a researcher to a visitor 152 7.1 Attachment to the rural home 169 7.2 The dala 170 7.3 The long journey to Alfred’s rural home and the boda boda experience 174 List of figures 1.1 Conceptual framework 34 3.1 Schematic operational overview of the relationship between mono/multi-spatial households and mono/multi-spatial livelihoods 59 3.2 Tenure status 78 4.1 Livelihood sources for urban households 82 4.2 Importance of rural non-farming economic activities 91 4.3 Coping with food shortages 95 4.4 Household monthly income situation 96 4.5 Sofia Lela’s livelihood sources 101 4.6 Reuben & Rita’s livelihood sources 106 4.7 Alfred & Alice’s livelihood sources 109 5.1 Use of inputs for crop cultivation 132 5.2 Non-livestock keepers: Main reason for not keeping livestock in the rural area 138 5.3 Inputs for livestock keeping 142 6.1 Importance of rural farming activities 149 6.2 Reuben & Rita: Importance of rural farming 162 7.1 Changes in visiting rural plots 177 7.2 Alfred & Alice: A visual impression of changes in rural-urban linkages 187 9.1 Asset portfolio, vulnerability context and livelihood strategies of Nakuru town households 215 x List of maps 2.1 Kenya and the location of Nakuru town 38 2.2 Municipality of Nakuru: Boundary changes, 1923-1992 46 2.3 Municipality of Nakuru: Settlement structure 48 2.4 Municipality of Nakuru: Economic structure 50 3.1 Distribution of study locations in Nakuru Municipality 64 5.1 Location of rural plots 118 List of tables 2.1 Kenya: Gross Domestic Product, 1964-2001 40 2.2 Urbanization trends in Kenya, 1948-1999 41 3.1 General survey sampling procedure 62 3.2 Selected variables for analysis: Operational definitions and frequency distributions 73 3.3 Migration history of the household heads 76 4.1 Occupational status 84 4.2 Engagement in other economic activities, by type and location 86 4.3 Estimated monthly average expenditure 97 4.4 Estimated monthly expenditure by selected characteristics 98 4.5 Reuben’s regular monthly monetary expenses 105 5.1 Access to rural plots 116 5.2 Location of rural plots by province and district 117 5.3 Ownership and use of rural plot 119 5.4 Relationship between ownership of rural plot, how plot was acquired and person using it 121 5.5 Effect of distance on how plot was acquired and person using it 121 5.6 Engagement in rural farming 123 5.7 Major crops cultivated on rural plots 133 5.8 Mean harvest and value (all crops) by crop size 134 5.9 Constraints on rural crop cultivation 136 5.10 Livestock kept on rural plots 140 5.11 Ownership and purpose of rearing livestock 141 5.12 Production figures for milk and eggs 144 6.1 Reasons for practicing rural farming activities 146 6.2 Multi and mono-spatial livelihoods: Urban-rural links 153 6.3 Multi and mono-spatial livelihoods: Summary of selected household characteristics 154 6.4 Multi and mono-spatial livelihoods: Summary of household head characteristics 155 6.5 Multi and mono-spatial livelihoods: Summary of general food security 156 6.6 Alfred & Alice’s “average” yearly harvests from rural crop cultivation in Siaya and its use, by crop type 158 xi 7.1 Visits to the rural plot in the last quarter of 2001 173 7.2 Frequency of visiting rural plots by selected household characteristics 175 7.3 Urban-to-rural flow of money 182 7.4 Reasons for sending wife and children to live at the rural home 185 8.1 Poor and non-poor: Characteristics of
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