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MORMON APOLOGETICS VERSUS ACADEMIC CONSENSUS (1879-1922) Richard Kent Evans History Department Texas Tech University [email protected]

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MORMON APOLOGETICS VERSUS ACADEMIC CONSENSUS (1879-1922) Richard Kent Evans History Department Texas Tech University Richard.Evans@Ttu.Edu "A CONFESSION OF DEFEAT": MORMON APOLOGETICS VERSUS ACADEMIC CONSENSUS (1879-1922) Richard Kent Evans History Department Texas Tech University [email protected] The Book of Mormon is a text that invites locations where the events described in the controversy. Mormon apologists and critics Book of Mormon took place. These alike would admit that by supplying an inclusions represented the height of the early intricately-woven, and presumably provable era of Mormon apologetics—it was brash, history of Pre-Columbian American confident, and hopefully optimistic that the civilizations, the Book of Mormon burgeoning academic fields of archaeology necessitates, at the very least, a healthy and and anthropology could yield the empirical ongoing debate over the authenticity of evidence necessary to prove the historicity those claims. Throughout the history of of the Mormon faith. However, as these Mormon apologetics, the fields of academic fields developed and became more anthropology and archaeology have served professionalized in the decades surrounding both as moderator and provocateur of the the turn of the twentieth century, evidence in debate between apologists and critics of the favor of Mormon skepticism began to Mormon faith. Early Mormon apologetics mount. The 1921 Book of Mormon removed viewed academic anthropology and the geographic footnotes found in the archaeology as a promising source of previous version. Mormon scholars could empirical proof for the claims of Hebraic read the tea leaves—the more sophisticated origin of the native populations of the anthropology and archaeology became, the American continents. The history of less likely it would be for this scholarship to Mormon apologetics, as is true with any provide empirical evidence for the belief system, has adapted over time in historicity of the Book of Mormon. In conjunction with ever-evolving theological, response to this changing intellectual social, political, and scientific positions of landscape, the three foundational Mormon the broader society. In the case of apologists of the period after the publication Mormonism, this evolution shifted Mormon of the Orson Pratt edition of the Book of apology from an aggressive, literal approach Mormon in 1879 precipitated a paradigmatic to the considerably more pragmatic and non- shift in Mormon though which would literalist defenses of today. This intellectual culminate in the text's reissuing in 1921. transformation was predicated on the This article traces the ways in which professionalization and sophistication of the three Mormon apologists—George academic fields of anthropology and Reynolds, James Talmage, and B.H. archaeology in the decades surrounding the Roberts—developed new ways of defending turn of the twentieth century. the archaeological and anthropological The primary indication that this assertions within Mormon theology. intellectual shift took place is textual. The Mormon apologists routinely referenced and 1879 Orson Pratt edition of the Book of dialogued with their secular counterparts in Mormon featured, for the first time, specific the halls of academia, and this dialogue geographic details marking the actual forced Mormon scholars to abandon the bold Symposia, 4, 1 (2012), pp. 11-23. © The Author 2012. Published by University of Toronto. All rights reserved. Evans | 12 and aggressive claims made by early Book of Mormon are as old as the faith apologists in favor of a more nuanced and itself. pragmatic approach adopted by twentieth- Mormon apologetics began with Joseph century apologists. This time period, from Smith, who upon announcing the existence 1879 to 1922, is the most critical period in of his golden plates, was immediately forced which to observe changes in Mormon to deal with skeptics.5 As the faith apologetic arguments. As the work of Hugh developed, so did its apologia. Early Nibley, and other prominent twentieth- Mormon apologia and early Mormon century Mormon apologists suggests, polemics were very Smith-centric, focusing modern defenses of the Book of Mormon on the Prophet, himself, and the authenticity are very distinct from those of the nineteenth of the plates. E.D. Howe's Mormonism century, and this article identifies the era in Unvailed [sic], an early seminal work of which this transition took place and the Mormon polemics introduces many of the arguments, both from apologists and themes that would become central to the polemicists, that shaped this dialogue. intellectual shift that would take place The concept of Anglo-Israelism is at the around the turn of the twentieth century, but heart of Mormon theology, Mormon relies primarily on scathing personal apologia, and criticism of the faith. Though criticisms of Joseph Smith and other early it takes many different forms, Anglo- Mormon figures.6 Israelism is, generally speaking, the idea that Due in equal parts to the spread of the populations of North America—and to Mormonism and the death of Joseph Smith, some adherents, the European race as well— Mormon apologetics and polemics in the are descended from one or more of the Ten latter half of the nineteenth century were Tribes of Israel. The historicity of this theory less personal and more focused on the is at the heart of Mormon apologia, as much historicity of the Book of Mormon. Around of the Book of Mormon commits itself to this time period, academia replaced theology this idea. The Book of Mormon begins with as the source of the intellectual ammunition Jared, the Hebrew leader of the Jaredite used both by apologists and polemicists. The Tribe. This tribe is mentioned in both relationship between Mormon apologetics Genesis and Ester as having been associated and the academic community has taken with the confusion of the tongues at the many different forms since the faith was Tower of Babel and the ensuing scattering of established. Anglo-Israelism is a concept the population.12 According to these built-upon—or to some plagiarized from7— teachings, with their language preserved, the a foundation of early anthropological theory. Jaredites followed divine instruction and As an intellectual concept, Anglo-Israelism traveled north to a land called Nimrod. Once can be viewed as an American modification there, the Jaredites constructed barges and, of British-Israelism—the idea that the after 344 days3 arrived on a new continent.4 British royal family, and in many cases all Anglo-Israelism is essential to the Book of Mormon, and the Book of Mormon is 5 Richard Lyman Bushman, Mormonism: A Very tantamount to Mormon ideology. Because of Short Introduction. (New York: Oxford University this, questions about the claims made in the Press, 2008) 31. 6 E.D. Howe, Mormonism Unvailed. (Painesville: E.D. Howe, 1834) 11-17. 1 Genesis 11. 7 B.H. Roberts, "A Parallel", in Studies of the Book 2 Ether 1:33. of Mormon ed. Brigham D. Marsden. (Urbana and 3 Ether 6:11. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985) 323- 4 Ether 1:33 – Ether 6:12. 344. 13 | Evans major European ruling families, are series of five questions concerning descended from Hebrew kings.8 As early perceived anomalies within the Book of anthropology struggled to rectify the world Mormon. This correspondence, and the around it with a pre-existing theological reaction it would elicit proved to be the worldview, idea such as British-Israelism, turning point in the most significant and its American cousin Anglo-Israelism intellectual revolution in Mormon thought. were often taken seriously in early academic The significance of these five particular circles. Because of this, early Mormon questions is best understood from the apologists could realistically anticipate perspective of the questions themselves. supportive academic work to disseminate Each question addressed one of two points from early anthropology. of contention between Mormon apologetics Whereas anthropological theory was the and polemics—issues that dealt with origin and propagator of Anglo-Israelism, anthropological concerns with the historicity early archaeology was expected to of Book of Mormon and those that dealt empirically prove the theory. There is a with archaeological concerns. The way in strong tradition of Anglo-Israelite which these anthropological and archaeology—most notably the 1900 Cluff archeological anomalies were argued Expedition to Columbia.9 The Cluff amongst Mormon apologists, Mormon Expedition, and others like it, was an critics, and the academic community attempt to discover evidence of Israelite illuminates the radical transformation in populations on the American continents. Mormon thought that took place in the four Even through 1900, it was believed that decades surrounding the turn of the archaeology could, indeed, independently twentieth century. verify the claims made in the Book of The anthropological question Couch Mormon. The five questions that would fuel raised to Talmage dealt with the issue of the intellectual transition from 1879 to 1922 linguistics. However, in so doing, this would center around both archaeological criticism raised many of the anthropological and anthropological issues and debates, and anomalies that have challenged Mormon the scholarship produced by these two fields apologetics from the beginning of the played a critical role in the balance of power Mormon faith: in the debate between Mormon apologetics and anti-Mormon criticism. The 'Mormon' tradition states that the In August of 1921, a young Utahn by the American Indians were the name of William Riter wrote a letter to Dr. descendants of the Lamanites. The James E. Talmage, a leading Mormon time allowed from the first landing of intellectual and an Apostle of the Church of Lehi and his followers in America to Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Riter the present is about 2,700 years. explained to Talmage that he had been Philologic studies have divided the conversing with Gentiles and, in so doing, a Indian languages into five distinct "Mr. Couch of Washington D.C." raised a linguistic stocks which show vey little relationship. It does not appear that this diversity in the nature and 8 Hine, The British Nation Identified with Lost grammatical constructions of Indian Israel, 1870.
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