"A CONFESSION OF DEFEAT": MORMON VERSUS ACADEMIC CONSENSUS (1879-1922) Richard Kent Evans History Department Texas Tech University [email protected]

The is a text that invites locations where the events described in the controversy. Mormon apologists and critics Book of Mormon took place. These alike would admit that by supplying an inclusions represented the height of the early intricately-woven, and presumably provable era of Mormon apologetics—it was brash, history of Pre-Columbian American confident, and hopefully optimistic that the civilizations, the Book of Mormon burgeoning academic fields of archaeology necessitates, at the very least, a healthy and and anthropology could yield the empirical ongoing debate over the authenticity of evidence necessary to prove the historicity those claims. Throughout the history of of the Mormon faith. However, as these Mormon apologetics, the fields of academic fields developed and became more anthropology and archaeology have served professionalized in the decades surrounding both as moderator and provocateur of the the turn of the twentieth century, evidence in debate between apologists and critics of the favor of Mormon skepticism began to Mormon faith. Early Mormon apologetics mount. The 1921 Book of Mormon removed viewed academic anthropology and the geographic footnotes found in the archaeology as a promising source of previous version. Mormon scholars could empirical proof for the claims of Hebraic read the tea leaves—the more sophisticated origin of the native populations of the anthropology and archaeology became, the American continents. The history of less likely it would be for this scholarship to Mormon apologetics, as is true with any provide empirical evidence for the belief system, has adapted over time in historicity of the Book of Mormon. In conjunction with ever-evolving theological, response to this changing intellectual social, political, and scientific positions of landscape, the three foundational Mormon the broader society. In the case of apologists of the period after the publication , this evolution shifted Mormon of the Orson Pratt edition of the Book of apology from an aggressive, literal approach Mormon in 1879 precipitated a paradigmatic to the considerably more pragmatic and non- shift in Mormon though which would literalist defenses of today. This intellectual culminate in the text's reissuing in 1921. transformation was predicated on the This article traces the ways in which professionalization and sophistication of the three Mormon apologists—George academic fields of anthropology and Reynolds, James Talmage, and B.H. archaeology in the decades surrounding the Roberts—developed new ways of defending turn of the twentieth century. the archaeological and anthropological The primary indication that this assertions within Mormon theology. intellectual shift took place is textual. The Mormon apologists routinely referenced and 1879 Orson Pratt edition of the Book of dialogued with their secular counterparts in Mormon featured, for the first time, specific the halls of academia, and this dialogue geographic details marking the actual forced Mormon scholars to abandon the bold

Symposia, 4, 1 (2012), pp. 11-23. © The Author 2012. Published by University of Toronto. All rights reserved. Evans | 12 and aggressive claims made by early Book of Mormon are as old as the faith apologists in favor of a more nuanced and itself. pragmatic approach adopted by twentieth- Mormon apologetics began with Joseph century apologists. This time period, from Smith, who upon announcing the existence 1879 to 1922, is the most critical period in of his , was immediately forced which to observe changes in Mormon to deal with skeptics.5 As the faith apologetic arguments. As the work of Hugh developed, so did its apologia. Early Nibley, and other prominent twentieth- Mormon apologia and early Mormon century Mormon apologists suggests, polemics were very Smith-centric, focusing modern defenses of the Book of Mormon on the Prophet, himself, and the authenticity are very distinct from those of the nineteenth of the plates. E.D. Howe's Mormonism century, and this article identifies the era in Unvailed [sic], an early seminal work of which this transition took place and the Mormon polemics introduces many of the arguments, both from apologists and themes that would become central to the polemicists, that shaped this dialogue. intellectual shift that would take place The concept of Anglo-Israelism is at the around the turn of the twentieth century, but heart of Mormon theology, Mormon relies primarily on scathing personal apologia, and criticism of the faith. Though criticisms of and other early it takes many different forms, Anglo- Mormon figures.6 Israelism is, generally speaking, the idea that Due in equal parts to the spread of the populations of North America—and to Mormonism and the death of Joseph Smith, some adherents, the European race as well— Mormon apologetics and polemics in the are descended from one or more of the Ten latter half of the nineteenth century were Tribes of Israel. The historicity of this theory less personal and more focused on the is at the heart of Mormon apologia, as much historicity of the Book of Mormon. Around of the Book of Mormon commits itself to this time period, academia replaced theology this idea. The Book of Mormon begins with as the source of the intellectual ammunition Jared, the Hebrew leader of the Jaredite used both by apologists and polemicists. The Tribe. This tribe is mentioned in both relationship between Mormon apologetics Genesis and Ester as having been associated and the academic community has taken with the confusion of the tongues at the many different forms since the faith was Tower of Babel and the ensuing scattering of established. Anglo-Israelism is a concept the population.12 According to these built-upon—or to some plagiarized from7— teachings, with their language preserved, the a foundation of early anthropological theory. Jaredites followed divine instruction and As an intellectual concept, Anglo-Israelism traveled north to a land called Nimrod. Once can be viewed as an American modification there, the Jaredites constructed barges and, of British-Israelism—the idea that the after 344 days3 arrived on a new continent.4 British royal family, and in many cases all Anglo-Israelism is essential to the Book of

Mormon, and the Book of Mormon is 5 Richard Lyman Bushman, Mormonism: A Very tantamount to Mormon ideology. Because of Short Introduction. (New York: Oxford University this, questions about the claims made in the Press, 2008) 31. 6 E.D. Howe, Mormonism Unvailed. (Painesville: E.D. Howe, 1834) 11-17. 1 Genesis 11. 7 B.H. Roberts, "A Parallel", in Studies of the Book 2 Ether 1:33. of Mormon ed. Brigham D. Marsden. (Urbana and 3 Ether 6:11. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985) 323- 4 Ether 1:33 – Ether 6:12. 344. 13 | Evans major European ruling families, are series of five questions concerning descended from Hebrew kings.8 As early perceived anomalies within the Book of anthropology struggled to rectify the world Mormon. This correspondence, and the around it with a pre-existing theological reaction it would elicit proved to be the worldview, idea such as British-Israelism, turning point in the most significant and its American cousin Anglo-Israelism intellectual revolution in Mormon thought. were often taken seriously in early academic The significance of these five particular circles. Because of this, early Mormon questions is best understood from the apologists could realistically anticipate perspective of the questions themselves. supportive academic work to disseminate Each question addressed one of two points from early anthropology. of contention between Mormon apologetics Whereas anthropological theory was the and polemics—issues that dealt with origin and propagator of Anglo-Israelism, anthropological concerns with the historicity early archaeology was expected to of Book of Mormon and those that dealt empirically prove the theory. There is a with archaeological concerns. The way in strong tradition of Anglo-Israelite which these anthropological and archaeology—most notably the 1900 Cluff archeological anomalies were argued Expedition to Columbia.9 The Cluff amongst Mormon apologists, Mormon Expedition, and others like it, was an critics, and the academic community attempt to discover evidence of Israelite illuminates the radical transformation in populations on the American continents. Mormon thought that took place in the four Even through 1900, it was believed that decades surrounding the turn of the archaeology could, indeed, independently twentieth century. verify the claims made in the Book of The anthropological question Couch Mormon. The five questions that would fuel raised to Talmage dealt with the issue of the intellectual transition from 1879 to 1922 linguistics. However, in so doing, this would center around both archaeological criticism raised many of the anthropological and anthropological issues and debates, and anomalies that have challenged Mormon the scholarship produced by these two fields apologetics from the beginning of the played a critical role in the balance of power Mormon faith: in the debate between Mormon apologetics and anti-Mormon criticism. The 'Mormon' tradition states that the In August of 1921, a young Utahn by the American Indians were the name of William Riter wrote a letter to Dr. descendants of the . The James E. Talmage, a leading Mormon time allowed from the first landing of intellectual and an Apostle of the Church of Lehi and his followers in America to Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Riter the present is about 2,700 years. explained to Talmage that he had been Philologic studies have divided the conversing with Gentiles and, in so doing, a Indian languages into five distinct "Mr. Couch of Washington D.C." raised a linguistic stocks which show vey little relationship. It does not appear that this diversity in the nature and 8 Hine, The British Nation Identified with Lost grammatical constructions of Indian Israel, 1870. tongues could obtain if the Indians 9 Terryl L. Givens, By the Hand of Mormon: The were the descendants of a people who American Scripture that Launched a New World possessed a highly developed a Religion. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) 107-108. language as the ancient Hebrew, long Evans | 14

before their language was developed service to the LDS was spent in Great beyond the most primitive kind of Britain where he served several positions, articulations. Again the time allowed achieving the Priesthood after less than a from the landing of Lehi is much too year in the Church. It was not until 1865 that short to account for the observed Reynolds first made the trek to Utah where diversity.10 he again held several positions, most notably as a member of the board of regency of the The Book of Mormon is unremitting when it University of Deseret, and as secretary to comes to both the timeframe in question and President . Reynolds spent the issue of linguistics in general. the next few decades dividing his time Chronology, lineage, and language are between Utah and Great Britain. He is recurring themes in the Book of Mormon perhaps best known as a party in Reynolds v. and the constraints the text places on its United States, the landmark 1878 Supreme apologists are thorough. Court ruling which disallowed "religious The intellectual shift in the duty" as a defense against the Morrill Anti- anthropological and linguistic position Bigamy Act and effectively put an end to Mormon apologists would defend began polygamy in the LDS.11 with Talmage's predecessor, Elder George Reynolds' most relevant work of apology Reynolds. Born to a London tailor in 1843, is Are We of Israel?, which was published by Reynolds' first exposure to Mormonism was the LDS in 1883. Turn-of-the-century through overhearing anti-Mormon critics (of Mormon apologetics was defined by a whom there were many in the early days of defiant optimism, and this theme the Mormon church; as the wild popularity predominates Are We of Israel?. In this of anti-Mormon literature suggests, criticism essay, Reynolds employed a dizzying array of this new sectarian movement was in of linguistic and anthropological vogue for much of the nineteenth century) scholarship, accompanied by biblical scoff at the wild claims of an American prophecy and ancient folklore. named Joseph Smith. Shortly thereafter, After establishing that the ancient Reynolds met a young girl named Sarah Israelites were seafaring people, he argues White with whom Reynolds shared a fear of that the trade this maritime culture fostered ghosts. The two children became quite close led to an intermingling between the Jews and, after inquiring into White's religious and the Gentiles. Jewish and part-Jewish beliefs, Reynolds received an invitation to populations appeared, according to join her at a meeting of the Paddington Reynolds, wherever the Jews were engaged branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of in trade.12 Secondly, the seafaring that was Latter-Day Saints. After several years of so essential around the Mediterranean and pubescent angst, Reynolds was baptized into Red Seas and elsewhere precipitated an the LDS against his parents' will. elaborate slave trade, in which the Jews Reynolds' intelligence and enthusiasm fulfilled the role of both trader and slave. for the Church precipitated a rapid rise within the LDS structure. Taking advantage 11 Andrew Jenson, "Elder George Reynolds," in of his British origin, much of Reynolds' Latter-Day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia: A Compilation of Biographical Sketches of Men and Women in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- 10 W.E. Riter to James E. Talmage, 22 August 1921, Day Saints, Vol. I, (Salt Lake City: Andrew Studies of the Book of Mormon, ed. Brigham D. Jenson History Company, 1901), 206-213. Madsen (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 12 George Reynolds, Are We of Israel? (Salt Lake 1985), 35-37. City: Joseph Hyrum Parry & Co., 1883) 15. 15 | Evans

These slave populations spread throughout would take a large group approximately Europe, Asia, and Africa.13 To argue that the seven months, according to his calculations Jews had a more complete propagation which accounted for fifteen miles per day. around those continents than previously However, he cited the apocryphal Book of thought, Reynolds draws comparisons Esdras as his historical authority, which between Jewish and Danish religions, states that the journey took one year and a cultures, and languages, offers as proof half. Every aspect of Reynolds' argument is correspondence between Spartan a deviation from a literal interpretation of communities and Jewish communities and the Book of Mormon. This withdrawal from cites Scandinavian legend.14 literalism is one of the most significant Several of the intellectual subtleties of developments of this period in Mormon Are We of Israel?, indicate that an apologetics. intellectual revolution in Mormon thought Even so, Reynolds does adopt the was well-underway by the late 1880s. Most linguistic argument made by prominent significant is Reynolds' treatment of Book of British-Israelist Edward Hine who noted Mormon chronology. His elaborate attempts similarities between certain English and to classify the ancient Hebrews as a Hebrew words. Citing Hine's Forty-Seven seafaring people that was prone to migration Identifications, a similarity is noted between is, in fact, a remarkable deviation from "sever" and "shaver", "kitten" and "Qui To orthodox Mormon anthropological theory. N" and other English/Hebrew similarities.18 The Book of Mormon traces the Jaredites Reynolds does concede that this linguistic northward to Nimrod, then states the theory is not comprehensive enough to Jaredites constructed barges which were pinpoint the historical trajectories of specific used to cross a sea to the New World.15 Hebrew tribes—it is only able to indicate the There is, however, no mention of validity of Anglo-Israelism.19 Reynolds intercontinental sea travel in Are We of suggests that Hebrew is not only the parent Israel?. Instead, Reynolds states, "again it language of the American languages, but of may be asked, how did this unnumbered all languages. In so doing, he portrayed the host cross this frigid ocean to their present linguistics scholarship of previous decades hiding place? On this point both history and as supportive of the idea that Hebrew could revelation are silent." He goes on to argue be the "grand key" to understanding all that an ice age may have frozen the Arctic world languages.20 This is another Ocean or that a land-bridge may have frequently used linguistic argument both in formed between Siberia and North Mormon apologetics and in British- America.16 Reynolds backed away from Israelism. And Reynolds' utilization of literalism. In doing this, his argument is free British-Israelite linguistic arguments would from the time constraints, and by extension also be adopted by James Talmage, the linguistic variation constraints, inherent Reynolds' apologetic successor. in the Book of Mormon. Reynolds figured Reynolds wrote at a time when academic the distance from the Euphrates to the coast anthropology held the concept of Anglo- of the Arctic Ocean to be 2,800 miles.17 This Israelism with enough credence to entertain the idea. Mormon apologists were able to take advantage of a scientific community 13 Reynolds, Are We of Israel? 16. 14 Reynolds, Are We of Israel 18-24. 15 Ether 1:33 – Ether 6:12. 18 Reynolds Are We of Israel, 50. 16 Reynolds Are We of Israel 31. 19 Reynolds Are We of Israel, 44. 17 Reynolds Are We of Israel 30. 20 Reynolds Are We of Israel, 48-49. Evans | 16 that, due to the zealous pursuit of evidence inside and outside the LDS.22 for British-Israelism, was perfectly willing In a pair of lectures, published by the to entertain the notion of Hebraic origins for church in 1899, Talmage issued a defense of nearly any race. C.L McCartha, a non- Mormonism that also remarked on the Mormon contemporary of Reynolds' and a current relationship between Mormon professor of Natural Science at Alabama apologetics and the scientific community. It State Normal College epitomizes why is clear from Talmage's lectures that much Reynolds' and the early Mormon had changed in the sixteen years that elapsed intelligentsia held the scientific community since Reynold's Are We of Israel?. The in such esteem. In his 1890 inquiry into the excitement and optimism Reynolds showed matter of Anglo-Israelism, McCartha, like towards a scientific community enraptured Reynolds, relies almost exclusively on by the concept of British-Israelism was now scripture to make an argument in favor of replaced by Talmage's mistrust of those Anglo-Israelism and other assertions institutions. Concerning the fields of concerning the dispersion of the Israelites anthropology and ethnology, Talmage around the globe. McCartha also espouses a asserts, "these sciences are confessedly non-literalist theory of dispersion involving unable to explain in any decisive manner the Israelite migration into Europe and an origin of the native American races."23 This Asiatic land bridge.21 In many ways, is a dramatically different analysis of the McCartha's ideas, though not at all academic community than that of Reynolds, motivated by Mormon thought, are very and surprising considering Talmage's similar to those of Reynolds. involvement in the academic community. The next generation of Mormon Talmage portrayed the academic apologists continued the development of a community as lacking consensus when it Mormon apologetic treatment of came to the question of the genetic origin of anthropology. The second Mormon apologist the native populations of the American of the transitional period in Mormon thought continents. However, Talmage presented to was James E. Talmage, scientist, professor, his audience the notion that anthropology and Apostle in the LDS church. Like had come to one consensus—the Americas Reynolds, Talmage was born in England. were populated around 2,000 BCE—in Unlike Reynolds, he was born into a accordance with the Book of Mormon. Mormon family that moved to Provo in Talmage's lecture on "External 1876, when Talmage was fourteen. Talmage Evidences" is effective and succinct. Though was remarkably well educated. He studied at it is clear that he felt uncomfortable with the Brigham Young Academy, Lehigh need to use "extra-scriptural evidences"24 at University, John Hopkins University, and all, Talmage is able to cite academic Illinois Wesleyan University. Talmage research (much of it outdated by 1899) that pursued a career in academia; he taught chemistry and geology at Brigham Young 22 Becky White Workman, "James Edward Academy after his stint at Johns Hopkins Talmage," University. His academic and scientific http://www.media.utah.edu/UHE/t/TALMAGE,J accomplishments were well respected both AMES.html [accessed April 22, 2011]. 23 James E. Talmage, The Book of Mormon: An Account of its Origin with Evidences of its 21 C.L. McCartha, The Lost Tribes of Israel; or, Genuineness and Authenticity. (Salt Lake City: Europe and America in History and in Prophecy. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1890) 1899), 29. 145-146. 24 Talmage, The Book of Mormon, 30. 17 | Evans seemed to support Anglo-Israelism when "lost tribes of Israel."29 Brinton's 1891 The sufficiently cherry-picked into submission. American Race is an expansive, brilliantly For example, Talmage cites one academic enunciated work of anthropology and who postulated that the American continents linguistics. Brinton sought to dispel the were inhabited shortly after "the dispersion "myth" of Anglo-Israelism, the land-bridge of the human family [at Babel]"25 while theory articulated by Reynolds and citing another academic who argues the McCartha, among many others, and other Native Americans were from "Old World "equally vain dream[s]" before beginning Origin."26 Expanding on his anthropological his argument that the American race is evidence, Talmage turns his attention to the distinct from all others.30 The American issue of linguistics where he is able to cite Race proved to be so profound a work as to the work of Dr. Le Plongeon, who be referenced by B.H. Roberts in his article discovered, "a sacred alphabet among the "Book of Mormon Difficulties". Talmage, Mayas of central America, which he speaking both as an authority on declared to be practically identical with the Mormonism and on academic inquiries into Egyptian alphabet. "27 He adds this new Anglo-Israelism, seemed to misrepresent the discovery onto reiterated linguistics research levels of disagreement within the academic of George Reynolds. Talmage uses several community regarding the validity of the academic findings as puzzle-pieces to create Book of Mormon. Brinton argued that a an intellectual mosaic or consensus in favor strong consensus existed within the (or at least not completely dismissing) scientific community that refuted the theory Anglo-Israelism. of Anglo-Israelism. Rather than argue for Many in the actual scientific community, Anglo-Israelism, Talmage elected to argue however, disagreed. Daniel G. Brinton, the existence of that scientific consensus. professor of American Archaeology and By the 1890s the scientific community Linguistics at the University of began to scoff at the possibility of Hebraic Pennsylvania,28 countered Talmage's origins of the Native Americans. Bruce portrayal of the scientific community by Kinney, in his emotionally charged anti- arguing that there was, indeed, consensus in Mormon polemic work raises many of the the academic community regarding Anglo- fundamental anthropological issues used to Israelism: "no one, [in the scientific challenge the historicity of the Book of community] at present, would acknowledge Mormon. Concerning linguistics, Kinney himself a believer in . . . the notion that the argues, Americans were the descendants of the ten The would have us believe that there was one universal language

25 Talmage, The Book of Mormon, 31. on this continent and they show 26 Talmage, The Book of Mormon, 33. specimens of it. The fact is, during the 27 Talmage, The Book of Mormon, 37. very period of which their book tells 28 Brinton also served as Professor of General us, there were unnumbered scores of Ethnology at the Academy of Natural Sciences in different languages and peoples. Their Philadelphia; Vice-President of the Congres International des Americanistes; Medallist of the Societe Americaine de France; President of the 29 Daniel G. Brinton, The American Race: A Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Linguistic Classification and Ethnographic Philadelphia, President of the University Description of the Native Tribes of North and Archaeological Association of the University of South America. (New York: N.D.C. Hodges, Pennsylvania; and was a member of several 1891), 18. scholarly societies both international and abroad. 30 Brinton, The American Race, 18. Evans | 18

writings remain until this day, but not embarked on a decidedly more controversial one of them is in any respect similar to stage in his apologetic career. that which they claim alone existed Roberts' treatment of the anthropological and which appeared on the golden anomalies that faced Mormon apologetics plates.31 continued the intellectual development began by Reynolds and Talmage. Chapter Kinney writes with the confidence of true one of Roberts' pivotal Book of Mormon academic consensus behind him. Brinton's Difficulties entitled "Linguistics" sets the The American Race, published twenty-one tone both for Roberts' work, and for a new years earlier firmly established that the era in Mormon thought. Roberts academic community was no longer taking immediately concedes that the 2700-year Anglo-Israelism seriously. time frame from the "landing of Lehi" to It was in this scientific atmosphere that modern day is not sufficient enough length "Mr. Couch of Washington D.C." raised his to explain the diversity of American five infamous questions. When Talmage languages.33 Roberts had nothing but forwarded Couch's questions to Roberts, it admiration for the prowess of Daniel marked a symbolic passing of the torch. Brinton and other academics; indeed, he Having served as a U.S. Congressman, in 32 called Brinton, "the very highest authority addition to several church leadership roles, on American linguistics."34 He Roberts was a rising star within the Mormon acknowledged that Brinton and his intelligentsia. Born in England in 1857, colleagues have divided American languages Roberts left a life of poverty and isolation in into "five distinct linguistic stocks" with England to follow his mother to Utah where "very little relationship."35 Presenting a she had immigrated years earlier. After a counter argument, Roberts offers up an youth of debauchery and drunkenness, anecdote about Captain Cook's linguistic which was not unusual in the time period— observations of the Tahitians which seems to even for Salt Lake City—Roberts decided to support the linguistic argument made in the get serious about his education and about his Book of Mormon. He also rehashed a long- faith. He learned to read and took it upon standing Mormon apologist argument that himself to become a LDS historian. Roberts Moroni, himself, warned in the Book of is by far the most controversial of the three Mormon that had apologists of this transitional era. In his evolved and adapted over time, and that the autobiography, Roberts writes about his bid limited space available on the golden plates for congress which was, to say the least, not necessitated an abbreviated form of that entirely endorsed by the LDS. He spent time already corrupted language.36 Nevertheless, in prison for a conviction of cohabitation, Roberts raises these counterpoints to and was a tumultuous member of the first indicate the weakened state of Mormon Council of the Seventy. When he presented apologia when compared to its his response to Couch's questions to the academically-armed critics. Quorum of the Twelve in 1921, Roberts had The history of the response to the

31 Bruce Kinney, Mormonism: The Islam of 33 B.H. Roberts, "Book of Mormon Difficulties", in America. (New York: Fleming H. Revell Studies of the Book of Mormon ed. Brigham D. Company, 1912) 65-66. Madsden. (Urbana and Chicago: University of 32 Roberts served as a LDS missionary in the United Illinois Press, 1985) 63. Kingdom, a General Authority within the LDS, 34 Roberts, Difficulties, 70. President of the Eastern States Mission, and the 35 Roberts, Difficulties, 63. First Council of the Seventy. 36 Roberts, Difficulties, 83. 19 | Evans linguistic objection is a microcosm of the accounts for, and provides answers to many overall evolution in Mormon thought that of the archaeological anomalies therein. took place between 1879 and 1922. Reynolds purposely refrained from engaging Reynolds was able to find supportive non- critics of Mormonism. In the introduction of scriptural evidence to support the concept of Are We of Israel, he establishes that this Mormon Anglo-Israelism. This contributed book is not meant to answer, "the ridicule of to his overall optimism towards the the unthinking and the contempt of the scientific community and its ability to ungodly," but rather to articulate a new, provide evidence in favor of Mormon developing intellectual defense of Mormon ideology. As consensus began to form in Anglo-Israelism.38 Thus, Are We of Israel opposition to Mormon beliefs, Talmage was does not provide many of the dialogical forced to select the few, outlying academics debates in which Reynolds must have been who, motivated by British-Israelism, were engaged. stalwartly in favor of entertaining the notion. Talmage approached his archaeological Mormon apologia finished its maturation in evidence as systematically as he approached the early 1920s when Roberts conceded the the anthropological and linguistic evidence. issue of linguistics to the critics and Instead of trying to argue that the disagreeing academics. archaeological anomalies (horses, iron, etc.) The remainder of Couch's questions existed in America at the time of the dealt with particular archaeological purported creation of the Book of Mormon, anomalies within the Book of Mormon. Talmage elected to establish that iron, in Couch referenced the mentions of horses, particular, was known to antediluvian steel, scimeters [sic], and silk within the cultures. Talmage cited Josiah Priest's 1833 text—all of which are chronologically out of American Antiquities as his "external place, and all of which are frequently used evidence" regarding his argument for the by anti-Mormon polemicists to challenge the existence of iron in antediluvian cultures. historicity of Book of Mormon. The way American Antiquities, which is now these three Mormon apologists dealt with considered a prime example of racist, these archeological challenges mirrored the nineteenth-century pseudo-archaeology way in which they dealt with made an argument that was similar to anthropological issues. Anglo-Israelism in many ways.39 According Reynolds benefits from the fact that his to Priest, a civilization of limited non-literalist argument is all-encompassing sophistication existed in the American in areas of archaeology. Addressing the issue continents prior to the American Indians. of horses and other livestock, Reynolds This race was responsible for building the suggested that the rate at which the Jaredites mounds that dot the American landscape. traveled from the banks of the Euphrates to Talmage cannot be faulted for using a source the coasts of the Arctic Ocean is proof that that is today as discredited as American the Jaredites were encumbered by livestock. Antiquities (many would argue the Reynolds argues that the Jaredites probably apologetic work of Talmage and other stopped throughout the journey to establish Mormon apologetics is equally as settlements, wait out winters and raise crops to sustain the arduous journey to the New 38 World.37 Once again, Reynolds' non-literalist Reynolds, Are We of Israel, 5. 39 Stephen Williams, Fantastic Archaeology: The interpretation of the Book of Mormon Wild Side of North American Prehistory. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 37 Reynolds, Are We of Israel, 29-31. 1991) 51-54. Evans | 20 pseudoscientific). However, Talmage can be five relatively easily. In question four, faulted for citing archaeology that was Couch questions the use of the term written nearly seventy years earlier, and for "cimiter" or "scimiter" in the Book of ignoring the significantly-more important Mormon as it was a term that did not appear work of Brinton which had been published in any other literature until well after the eight years prior to the delivery and supposed date of the Book of Mormon's subsequent publication of Talmage's creation. Roberts employs another tactic lectures. familiar to Mormon apologetics when he Roberts is not much more effective in proposes that this was Joseph Smith's his treatment of archaeological anomalies modern day understanding of the term he within the Book of Mormon, however, he was asked to translate.41 admits this fact. Following a similar pattern Couch raised another long-standing issue as in his linguistic argument, he begins by with the Book of Mormon when he outlining the existing scientific consensus. criticized the supposed existence of silk in In this case, that consensus seems to be even Jaredite culture. Roberts offers multiple more complete than that of Hebraic descent. explanations for this anomaly. Silk had been Quoting several academics, including known to the Chinese well before the Brinton, Reynolds systematically timeframe of the Book of Mormon, and summarized the recent decades of according to Roberts, it was certainly scholarship that have led to what he refers to plausible that the Jaredites could also have as an "embarrassing problem" for Mormon been privy to this knowledge. apologetics. Roberts lived out the remainder of his It is in his discussion of the issue of iron life and career mired in controversy. Unable and steel that Roberts provides the most to come to terms with the impotence of striking example of the overall shift within Mormon apologia in the face of such Mormon apologia. In an earlier apologetic convincing opposition, yet still a faithful work, New Witnesses for God, Roberts Mormon, his remaining works would be exhumed from the scientific community, censored and refuted by the church—with "every passage that I could find favorable to the exception of his benign 1930 the existence and use of iron." However, Comprehensive History of the Church of upon writing "Book of Mormon Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Roberts Difficulties," Roberts had a change of heart closed his Book of Mormon Difficulties by on the matter, admitting that many of the challenging both his contemporaries and writers he cited in that prior work were, future Mormon apologists that adeptly "scarcely competent, I have since learned, to summarized his role in the intellectual speak with authority upon the subject [of the revolution in Mormon thought that reached a existence of iron and other metals in pre- climax during his apologetic career: Columbian America]."40 Remarkably, by 1922, a leading Mormon apologetic and An appeal to the old writers is of little high-ranking member of the LDS value. The recent accepted establishment displayed the intellectual authoritative writers leave us, so far as honesty to reverse a previous stance and I can at present see, no ground of embrace a scientific consensus that was not appeal or defense – the new in accordance with LDS belief. knowledge seems to be against us. To Roberts did answer questions four and stand up and say to the modern world

40 Roberts, Difficulties, 109. 41 Roberts, Difficulties, 112. 21 | Evans

we place our revealed truth against all This is without a doubt a significant the evidence and deductions of your development in Mormon apologia. science, but is it, and will it be However, this geographic shift is predicated convincing? Most humbly, but also on the intellectual shift that took place most anxiously, I await the further before Nibley. The more significant development of knowledge that will development at work in Nibley's career is make it possible for us to give a the emphasis he places on anthropological reasonable answer to those who apologia, as opposed to archaeological. question us concerning the matters Nibley did not reinvent Mormon herein discussed.42 apologetics. Rather, he took to heart Roberts' warnings and understood that the future of In this passage, Roberts pinpointed the Mormon apologetics will not lie in more position of Mormon apologetics in the early fruitless archaeological endeavors on the 1920s. He argued that if the LDS was to American continents. Reynolds devoted the survive as a belief system against majority of Are We of Israel?, (published increasingly sophisticated intellectual sixty years prior to Nibley's book) to the attacks, it must no longer dismiss the same concepts Givens describes as placing historical anomalies within the Book of the, "emphasis on the [Book of Mormon's] Mormon. Doing so would be what Roberts 43 rootedness in the Middle Eastern rather than called a "confession of defeat." Mesoamerican culture."46 Both Talmage and The Mormon apologists that would Roberts maintained that the events described follow Roberts took heed to this warning. in the Book of Mormon took place in the Twentieth-century Mormon apologia was American continents, but suggested that substantially more pragmatic due, in no cataclysmic acts of God had rendered any small part, to the legacies of Reynolds, modern investigation impossible. Nibley Talmage, and Roberts. Mormon historian carries the ideas of Reynolds, Talmage, and Terryl L. Givens attributes much of the Roberts to their logical conclusion by modernization of Mormon apologia to Dr. placing the geographic focus of Mormon Hugh Nibley a brilliant Mormon academic apologia in the Middle East, rather than the whose apologetic career spanned much of 44 American continents. the second half of the twentieth century. The four decades surrounding the turn of The hallmark thesis of Nibley's works is best the twentieth century marked the most summed up in his quote, "if you want proof significant intellectual development in the of the Book of Mormon, you must go to the history of Mormon apologetics. These three Old World. You won't find it in the New 45 prominent figures in Mormon thought World." Nibley sought to prove not that initiated a process that yielded the Israelite tribes existed in Pre-Columbian intellectual flexibility Mormonism needed to America, but that the Book of Mormon is respond to its many critics. Today, the indeed a historical document that describes Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints actual people. In so doing, Nibley moves the is the second-fastest growing American geographic focus of Mormon apologetics denomination and boasts nearly 14 million from the New World, to the Middle East. members worldwide.47 This success is due in part to the pragmatism and flexibility

42 Roberts, Difficulties, 143. 43 Roberts, Difficulties, 115. 46 Givens, By the Hand of Mormon, 119. 44 Givens, By the Hand of Mormon, 118-121. 47 "Basic Facts about the Church" 45 Givens, By the Hand of Mormon, 119. http://lds.org/church/facts?lang=eng. Evans | 22 exercised by the twentieth-century Mormon defeat" in 1922 may have been critical to the apologists who would follow Reynolds, survival and success of the Church of Jesus Talmage, and Roberts. The "confession of Christ of Latter-Day Saints in America.

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