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The Presumed Influence of COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media

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The Presumed Influence of COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Article The Presumed Influence of COVID-19 Misinformation on Social Media: Survey Research from Two Countries in the Global Health Crisis Yunjuan Luo 1,† and Yang Cheng 2,*,† 1 Department of Online Communication, School of Journalism and Communication, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; [email protected] 2 Department of Communication, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-919-515-1294 † Co-first author, these authors contributed equally to this work. Abstract: While the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is spreading all over the world, misin- formation, without prudent journalistic judgments of media content online, has begun circulating rapidly and influencing public opinion on social media. This quantitative study intends to advance the previous misinformation research by proposing and examining a theoretical model following an “influence of presumed influence” perspective. Two survey studies were conducted on participants located in the United States (N = 1793) and China (N = 504), respectively, to test the applicability of the influence of presumed influence theory. Results indicated that anger and anxiety significantly predicted perceived influence of misinformation on others; presumed influence on others positively affected public support in corrective and restrictive actions in both U.S. and China. Further, anger toward misinformation led to public willingness to self-correct in the U.S. and China. In contrast, Citation: Luo, Y.; Cheng, Y. The anxiety only took effects in facilitating public support for restrictive actions in the U.S. This study Presumed Influence of COVID-19 conducted survey research in China and the U.S. to expand the influence of presumed influence (IPI) Misinformation on Social Media: hypothesis to digital misinformation in both Western and non-Western contexts. This research pro- Survey Research from Two Countries vides implications for social media companies and policy makers to combat misinformation online. in the Global Health Crisis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, Keywords: COVID-19; health misinformation; social media; influence of presumed influence (IPI); 5505. https://doi.org/10.3390/ China; USA ijerph18115505 Academic Editor: Paul B. Tchounwou Received: 25 April 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 18 May 2021 The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) is a disease outbreak caused by severe acute respira- Published: 21 May 2021 tory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) [1]. Originally discovered in Wuhan, mainland China, in December 2019, this infectious illness has been evolving in more than 150 coun- Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral tries within just a few months, resulting in a global health crisis. Up until 11 April 2021, with regard to jurisdictional claims in over 30,897,028 coronavirus cases were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and published maps and institutional affil- Prevention (CDC) and nearly 558,028 total deaths occurred in the United States, which iations. has the most COVID-19 cases in the world [2]. More than 136 million cases have occurred globally, and over 2,945,771 lives have been lost worldwide [3]. When people face un- certainties due to this disease and continuously social distance, social media platforms provide a critical role in fulfilling diversified gratifications, such as information needs, Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. social needs to connect with friends and families, and fun or enjoyment obtained from Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. entertainment [4,5]. However, without prudent journalistic judgments of media content This article is an open access article online, misinformation, referring to false and misleading information, began circulating distributed under the terms and rapidly on social media [6,7]. For instance, misinformation has made many people believe conditions of the Creative Commons that using salt water or drinking bleach could kill the virus during the pandemic [8]. The Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// general public, especially those who cannot easily identify misinformation and differentiate creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the misleading messages from health facts [9], might conduct misinformed behaviors, such 4.0/). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5505. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115505 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 [8]. The general public, especially those who cannot easily identify misinformation and Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021,differentiate18, 5505 the misleading messages from health facts [9], might conduct misinformed2 of 15 behaviors, such as panic purchasing actions and mass meetings without proper protec- tion. An updated search from O’Rear and Radvansky [10] also indicated that misinfor- mation, compared to real news, could easily trigger negative emotions, such as anxiety as panic purchasing actions and mass meetings without proper protection. An updated and anger, and continued to influence public opinions even if corrective information had search from O’Rear and Radvansky [10] also indicated that misinformation, compared to been released publicly. real news, could easily trigger negative emotions, such as anxiety and anger, and continued As the world faced the threat of misinformation, the public from both Western and to influence public opinions even if corrective information had been released publicly. EasternAs countries the world demonstrated faced the threat different of misinformation, reactions during the publicthis pandemic. from both Countries Western andin a WesternEastern countriescontext, such demonstrated as the U.S. different, have the reactions most COVID during-19 this cases, pandemic. and people Countries were still in debatinga Western about context, controversial such as theissues U.S.,, such have as thewearing most masks COVID-19 and reopening cases, and countries. people wereMis- informationstill debating was about circulating controversial rapidly issues, within such a aslow wearing-trust media masks environment, and reopening and countries. many protestorsMisinformation still defied was circulating social distancing rapidly guidelines within a low-trust or regulations media from environment, the government. and many In contrast,protestors China, still defied in a non social-Western distancing context, guidelines first discovered or regulations the coronavirus from the government.and recognized In thecontrast, severity China, of the in outbreak a non-Western in Jan context,uary of 2020. first discovered After a lockdown the coronavirus of Wuhan and and recognized the gov- ernmentalthe severity enforcement of the outbreak to counter in January misinformation of 2020. After on a lockdown social media, of Wuhan the public and the generally govern- stayedmental calm enforcement and accepted to counter wearing misinformation a mask, staying on social at home, media, and the reporting public generally their tempera- stayed turescalm andvia social accepted media wearing apps. Curre a mask,ntly, staying the virus at home, is being and well reporting-controlled their in temperatures China. Situated via withinsocial media both Western apps. Currently, and non- theWestern virus iscontexts, being well-controlled it is interesting in to China. examine Situated the U.S. within and Chinaboth Western in relation and to non-Western the behavioral contexts, outcomes it is of interesting interest (i.e., to examinecorrective the and U.S. restrictive and China ac- tions),in relation given to t thehe behavioraldifferences outcomesbetween China of interest and (i.e.,U.S. correctivein the governments’ and restrictive control actions), over mediagiven theand differences policies related between to ChinaCOVID and-19. U.S. Public in the emotions governments’ and the control presumed over mediaimpact and of COVIDpolicies-19 related misinformation to COVID-19. from Public both countries, emotions as and the the world’s presumed two largest impact economies of COVID-19 also deservemisinformation future exploration. from both countries, as the world’s two largest economies also deserve futureThis exploration. study, therefore, intends to advance the previous misinformation research by proposingThis study, and examining therefore, a intends theoretical to advance model (as the shown previous in Figure misinformation 1) following research an “influ- by enceproposing of presumed and examining influence” a theoretical perspective. model This (as shownresearch in Figureis imperative1) following for anpractitioners, “influence whoof presumed intend to influence”combat misinformation perspective. Thisand improve research the is imperativeefficiency of for information practitioners, manage- who mentintend on to social combat media. misinformation Deploying andsurvey improve research the efficiencyin the U.S. of (N information = 1793) and management China (N = 504),on social we focus media. on Deployingexamining survey the relationships research in between the U.S. (Nanxiety = 1793) and and anger China as negative (N = 504), emo- we tions,focus onthe examining presumed the influence relationships of misinformation between anxiety on social and anger media, as negativeand behavioral emotions, inten- the tionspresumed such influenceas support of for misinformation restrictive and on corrective social media, actions and during behavioral a global intentions health such
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