Sex with the Devil

Sex With the Devil

The Sexual Other

by David Rosen

… in nothing doth the raging power of original sin more discover itself … than in the ungoverned exorbitancy of fleshly lust. Samuel Willard, Puritan minister, 1640—17071

Sex with the Devil came by Discontent” with her role as a servant and that “she was guilty of the The New World was besieged by Murder of a Child and that she had numerous sex scandals during the first been guilty of Uncleanness with Men seventy-five years of Puritan and Devils.” Two years earlier, she had settlement. For New Englanders and been accused of thievery and was other British colonists up and down the publicly whipped. However, for her Atlantic Coast, these scandals set the truly unholy deed of consorting with boundaries of acceptable sexual the devil, she was convicted of practice. They mostly involved witchcraft and executed.3 premarital sex (fornication), extramarital sex (adultery), sodomy Another resident of Wethersfield, and interracial sex. Two offenses were Rebecca Greensmith, admitted having most upsetting: bestiality involving participated in “a meeting under a tree young men and sexual on the green … [where] we witchcraft among older danced and had a bottle of women. Among Puritans, sack”; she also admitted to as John Murrin points out, Hartford ministers and “Bestiality discredited men magistrates that “the Devil in the way that witchcraft had frequently the carnal discredited women.”*2 knowledge of her Body”; in January 1663, she was hung However, in New England, along with her husband, sex with the devil was the Nathaniel, who denied all gravest of all sins! Puritan accusations until the bitter 4 sexual scandals were a terrain of end. Ann Cole, of Hartford, was a struggle that illuminates, if only in its woman reported to have suffered exaggeration, America’s most convulsions and fits; she was accused formative era of sexual identity. It is of taking part in “witches’ night an identity that, like a threatening wandering.” Her fate was sealed when shadow, continues to hover over she admitted that she allowed Satan America today. to have “frequent carnal knowledge of 5 her.” Mary Johnson, of Wethersfield, Connecticut, was one of ten Puritan The historian Richard Frances found women accused of having sex with that Sarah Parker had made a Satan. In 1648, Johnson allegedly covenant with the devil due to “her admitted to minister Samuel Stone great sin of Committing adultery” and (and reported by Cotton Mather): “She that “the Devil had come to her & said her first Familiarity with the Devils kissed her.” It is not clear as to her fate.6 Elizabeth Godman, of New Haven, was socially different from * Image: New York Historical Society many accused women in that she had Sex Matters Sex with the Devil a sizable estate estimated at £200 at dreadful fits, of “yielding” to the devil her death in 1660. However, as a and signing the devil’s book and, even widow with no sons she was though she confessed to being a witch, vulnerable to a variety of social was not executed when the witchcraft accusations. Some said she was “a panic subsided in 1693.11 malicious one” because she expressed discontent with religious teachings and Finally, we come to Bridget Bishop, the practices, challenged the notion of first woman at the Salem trials “God’s elect” and “… [would] justify executed for her sins. She was first [witches] rather than condemn them,” accused of being a witch in 1679 when practiced black magic, inspired fear in her husband died. It was during the others and of gnashing her teeth and Salem trials (and when she was in her grinning. In 1653 neighbors fifties) that she faced a second trial for complained that she “had laine with” being a witch, for attending a witches Satan and that “Hobbamocke [an gathering at the Parris field, for having alleged Indian ‘devil god’] was her a body mark (or what was known as a husband.”7 Another woman, Mary “witch’s teat” or imp) and for giving Parsons, of Springfield, Massachusetts, her body and soul to the devil. She was disparaged for being married to a steadfastly insisted on her innocence, “papist”. In 1651, she was accused of but was nevertheless hung.12 “being seduced by the devil” and “making a covenant with him.” Three women were accused of having According to her fellow Puritan John illegitimate children as a result of Hale: witchcraft—and were executed. Alice Lake was accused in 1651 by minister she had lost a Child and was exceedingly John Hale of being “… a single woman discontented at it and longed; Oh that she play’d the harlot, and being with Child might see her Child again! And at last the used means to destroy the fruit of her Devil in likeness of her Child came to her body to conceal her sin and shame;” bed side and talked with her, and asked to she was hanged for her sins.13 Martha come into the bed to her, and she received it into the bed to her that night and several Corey was accused of having “had nights after, and so entered into covenant born a bastard mulatto son,” of with Satan and became a witch. causing pain in others, of having a “black man” (i.e., a specter) whisper in Parsons was executed. her ear and of participating in witches’ sacrament with forty others at Parris’ Still other women faced accusations of pasture; she denied being a witch, consorting with the devil. One woman, even denied the existence of the Goody Osborne, testified that “a thing devil—and was hung in 1692.14 like an indian all black” came to her in bed one night and, in the words of one Suzannah Martin, who was born in historian, “pulled her by the back of England and lived in Amesbury, her head toward her door.”9 Another Massachusetts, was first accused of woman, Sarah Bridges, is reported to being a witch in 1669. Subsequently, have signed the devil’s book in blood, she was accused of having a bastard attended an Andover witches conclave son and having had violent quarrels in with two hundred-plus witches and her home; she was suspect for “gave her body” to the devil in the challenging male power in court. In form of a man and an animal; 1692 and at age sixty-seven, she was surprisingly, she was not executed.10 again charged with witchcraft, this Mary Warren, of Salem who earlier time based on the testimony of had been a servant to Henry Salter of Bernard Peach, who claimed that Andover was accused of suffering during one of her night wanderings

Martin sexually assaulted him: business activity, regulated in two states, and relatively free from being in bed on a lords day night he [Peach] moralistic and police harassment. The heard a [scratching] at the window. He this limits to acceptable sex are based on deponent saw susana martin … com in at consent among adults or among the window and jumpt downe upon the similarly aged adolescents over sixteen flower. Shee was in her hood and scarf and the same dress that shee was in before at years. Strong prohibitions, both legal metting the same day. Being com in, she and ethical, attempt to halt was coming up toward this deponents nonconsensual sexual acts like rape, faced but turned back to his feet and took pedophilia, incest and bestiality. hold of them and drew up his body into a However, for the early Puritans and heape and Lay upon him about an hour other colonists, both Satan and sex and half or 2 hours, in all which taim this were threats to personal and public deponent coold not stir nor speake… . life—and nothing was worse than sex with the devil. She was executed for her sins.15

Sexual other Other women were charged with witchcraft and adultery. Elizabeth On April 5, 1614, Pocahontas, a Seager, of Hartford was accused of Powhatan woman and reputed witchcraft in 1662, 1665 and 1666 but daughter of Chief Powhatan, married was acquitted; she was reported to the Englishman John Rolfe near have slapped a neighbor and was Jamestown, Virginia. The marriage suffering various questionable pains; took place just eight years after this however, she was also accused and first permanent English settlement was convicted of adultery and blasphemy, established in what would become the but fled to Rhode Island to avoid 16 United States; it is the first recorded punishment. Rachel Clinton, who was interracial marriage in the newly- born in England and lived in Ipswich, colonized territory. Sixty-seven years Massachusetts, was accused of having later, in 1681, the first recorded legal adulterous relations including with an marriage between an African man and indentured servant fourteen years a European woman is reported to have younger and who she eventually taken place on William Boarmans’ married; she was also accused of plantation on the western shore of expressing dissatisfaction with her Maryland. The couple—Eleanor Butler, inheritance settlement from her first a white servant girl called Irish Nell, husband and bringing the matter to and Negro Charles, a black slave—was court. In 1692 and at the age of fifty- 18 married by a local Catholic priest. eight, she was convicted of witchcraft, but pardoned by the governor a year During the early days of the later.17 settlement of the new nation, voluntary and noncommercial sexual We’ve come a long way since the relations between whites and people of British settlers first colonized the New color were not yet illegal. World: People are no longer executed Nevertheless, colonial male leaders for consorting with the devil. A host of were particularly troubled by such sexual prohibitions, including relationships. While they were initially masturbation, premarital sex, adultery, between British males and Native homosexuality and interracial sex, are females, as the immigration of both no longer considered sins by civil free and indentured European women authorities, most moralists and a and the forced importation of African significant proportion of the public. slaves, both male and female, Prostitution has become a discreet increased, the complexity of such

© David Rosen, 2016 page 3 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil relations multiplied. with similar bans, as exemplified by the North Carolina colony that, in Columbia University sociologist Aaron 1715, adopted laws prohibiting Gullickson argues that “interracial interracial marriages. Now, three-and- sexual contact likely peaked sometime a-half centuries later, America has during the early colonial period when elected its first president of mixed- white indentured servants and black race origin, a child of once-scandalous slaves were in close contact in large interracial sex. numbers.”19 Complaints about such liaisons drew various forms of protest. Pocahontas is one of the great One of the most surprising was that of American mythic figures. She has been Lord Baltimore, Nell’s master, and immortalized in Disney animated other local whites. While they did not children’s movies and in Terrence seek to prevent the marriage between Malik’s beautiful film, The New World Nell and Charles, they could not (2005), as well as in comic books and understand why a white woman would videogames, even toys and wallpaper. marry a slave and thus not only lose She has been effectively whitewashed her own freedom but the freedom of into a popular-culture icon, the truth her children. about her relatively short and remarkable life—and the scandal she Equally disturbing, sex between a precipitated—has all but been lost. white woman and a nonwhite man could result in a child that was legally Pocahontas is the nickname for a girl white. This concern found particular born Matoaka in 1595 or 1596 upriver expression in what are known as from the settlement of “James Towne.” female captivity narratives that helped According to the Native American rally settler resentment against Native scholar, Paula Gunn Allen, the people. These tales were popular in nickname has a variety of meanings, the late-seventeenth century and including “wanton,” “mischievous,” championed women like Mary “sportive,” “frisky” or “frolicsome.” She Rowlandson and Hannah Swarton who says the nickname, “at least as it was escaped capture by Native tribes while understood by the English,” was preserving their virginity. These tales related to the rabbit or chipmunk, both were intended to undercut or deny the considered tricksters by the Powhatan stories of women like Mary Jemison, people. More importantly, Pocahontas Frances Slocum and Eunice Williams was of royal blood, a chosen-one with who, after captivity, chose to marry the power of “Dream-Vision”; she was and live out their lives with Native a female visited by spirits that foretold people.20 the future. As a child she had a prophetic vision involving the landing Bans on interracial marriage arose in of a ship that would change the course the late-seventeenth century. For of history and the appearance of a example, in 1662, nearly a half- strange man whose life she would century after Pocahontas married save.22 Rolfe, the Virginia Assembly established the first law against John Smith, a mercenary soldier and interracial sex. Thirty years later, in adventurer, was the leader of the 1691, it passed a much stiffer law Jamestown settlement. Legend and banning “negroes, mulattoes and subsequent scholarship tell us that, in indians intermarrying with English, or 1608, he was captured while other white women, [and] their attempting to reach Chief Powhaten. unlawful accompanying with one The initial settlement at “Fort James,” another.”21 Other colonies followed established only a year earlier, was a

© David Rosen, 2016 page 4 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil near disaster, with the British suffering communion with Native Americans.” from hunger, illness, loneliness, Native Yet, “Englishmen clearly found Indians assaults and other privations. Rumors beguiling; native women also had a of sodomy among early settlers were reputation for being hard-working and not uncommon.23 In an attempt to faithful as wives.”25 survive, Smith ventured forth to find the mighty chief and establish Smith reports that Englishmen who diplomatic relations. stayed overnight were presented with “a woman fresh painted red with As Allen tells the tale, Smith was pocones and oil to be his bedfellow.” captured and brought before the chief According to Allen, the well-dressed in the colony’s great house during an Powhatan woman of the time—anyone important religious ceremony. He was at and above puberty—wore a forced to the ground with two warriors capacious garment that resembled an holding him down, their spears at the apron. It was made of a length of cloth ready. He feared imminent execution, that draped downward from the hips, only to be saved at the last moment. falling over the crotch to a length of Allen dramatically envisions the scene maybe ten inches below the navel. accordingly: And she adds, “the outfit was sans bodice, a fact that undoubtedly Pocahontas rises [from the assembled contributed to the Englishmen’s view gathering] to her feet and swiftly runs the of the woman of the tsenacommacah, thirty feet to the center of the Grand the largest Powhatan community, as House. She hurls her small body upon uncivilized… .”26 Smith described an Smith’s, wraps her arms tightly around him, “antic,” or wild fete, in which “thirty and lays her head over him. Everything stops in a great tableau; only the smoke young women came naked out of the swirls upward through the roof. Then it is woods (only covered behind and known and a great wail goes up among all before with a few green leaves), their the people. They are thanking the spirits, bodies all painted.” And, after and they begin to dance.24 performing, “they solemnly invited Smith to their lodging, but no sooner Pocahontas, aged twelve or thirteen, was he within the house, but all the recognized Smith as the fulfillment of nymphs tormented him more than her Dream-Vision. Had she not, his life ever, with crowding, and pressing, and would not have been spared.* hanging upon him, most tediously crying, love you not me?”27 Early English settlers did not know how to relate to Native people, The sexual temptation of Native especially to females when it came to women was very threatening to intimate matters. Robert Godbeer, in upstanding British settlers, especially his essential study, Sexual Revolution those alone in an alien land. Many in Early America, paints a compelling British feared that such intimacy would portrait of the complex and often bring about “cultural degeneration” contradictory sexual relations that among settlers in the colonies, defined this aspect of America’s first whether in Ireland or the New World. century-and-a-half of nation formation. The great fear was that sexual On one side, English settlers “were for relations with “savages” would lead to the most part loath to join in sexual the erosion of what made the British “civilized.” In response to this fear, the British passed the “Laws Divine, Moral, * This incident is much debated. It is based and Marital” in 1610 that called for the on Smith’s account published 17 years after death penalty for any settler who it allegedly took place and subsequent to Pocahontas’ death. raped an Indian woman or ran away

© David Rosen, 2016 page 5 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil with an Indian.28 and tobacco planter. As a condition of her release, she agreed to marry Rolfe. While colonists “perceived Anglo- What actually happened between them Indian unions to be degrading and remains a mystery. What is known is potentially dangerous,” sexual that Pocahontas converted to relations appear to have flourished. Christianity and was renamed Lady There appears to be a goodly number Rebecca. Her appearance radically of reported incidences of sexual changed as she adopted British formal intimacies between settlers and Native dress and, in 1614, married Rolfe. people, both in the Chesapeake region and further north. For example, Jacob To legally marry Pocahontas, however, Young, of Maryland, was charged with Rolfe had to secure permission from marrying and fathering children with a Dale. In 1614, he formally petitioned woman of the Susquehanna Nation. to marry, arguing that his intent for The Puritan Thomas Morton, when he union with her was not based on an took over a plantation in 1626, attraction derived from “the ugly sort, renamed it the Merry Mount and, who square all men’s actions by the according to reports from members of base rule of their own filthiness”; he the nearby Plymouth Colony, “set up a insisted that his intent was due to true maypole, drinking and dancing about love, “not any hungry appetite, to in many days together, inviting the gorge myself with incontinency.” He indian women for their consorts, assured Dale that he was motivated by dancing and frisking together.” a higher calling than “the unbridled However, Godbeer notes a singular desire of carnal affection.” He argued story of an early female settler in that their marriage would be a form of Northampton County, Virginia, who, spiritual redemption. It would save her according to a local doctor, “defiled from evil: “for the converting to the herself” in a sexual relation with an true knowledge of God and Jesus Indian male.29 Christ an unbelieving creature, namely Pocahontas.” Finally, he pointed out Given this cultural environment, how the alliance would strengthen the did Pocahontas come to marry John political relations between the settlers Rolfe? After she saved Smith, and the Powhatan people. Pocahontas became his “spiritual guide” (and Smith was given an Indian A couple of years later, Pocahontas name, Nantaquod), making regular and Rolfe traveled to England in visits to Fort James, enjoying the search of both financial support for the friendship of other settlers and serving Virginia colony and to promote his new as a go-between for the British and commercial product, tobacco. She Chief Powhatan. During this period, became, as they say, the toast of the Smith returned to England and was town, feted by all. While in England, replaced by Thomas Dale as leader of she had a son, Thomas, in 1617, and the settlement. Also during this period, shortly thereafter, while beginning the Pocahontas married Kuocum, a fellow voyage back to the New World, Powahan, and they had a child. became ill and died.30

This story, however, takes a strange Following Pocahontas’s death, the turn in 1612 when Pocahontas was inherent tensions between the ever- apparently abducted by an English expanding settlers and the Powhatan settler, Samuel Argall (aka Argyall). broke out into open warfare that She was held in captivity in Jamestown lasted from 1622 to 1646. It was a for over a year, during which period period in which social relations, let she met Rolfe, a 28-year-old widower alone sexual unions, became more and

© David Rosen, 2016 page 6 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil more difficult to achieve. In the end, themselves confronted at every turn the Powhatan’s people were decimated by formidable threats, in constant fear and a form of colonization was of nature’s uncertainties and in dread established that defined the dominant of innumerable battles with hostile white culture’s relations to the Native Native tribes. The New World was a peoples for the next two centuries. hostile environment in which to create heaven on earth. Culture war Making matters worse, their attempt The Puritans landed in New England in to establish New Jerusalem was 1620 and, for the first quarter-century hampered most by the very fragile of settlement, occasional accusations humans who were expected to of witchcraft were raised, but no one accomplish this religiously inspired was executed. However, during the mission. Humans were seen as following half-century, 1647–1693, imperfect creatures, scarred for all over two hundred people were accused eternity by original sin yet, given the of witchcraft and about thirty were predetermination that directed all of executed. Most of these alleged God’s actions, capable of being saved witches were women who came from and achieving a state of grace. These more than thirty communities in troubled beings were subject to a Connecticut, Massachusetts and New nearly inexhaustible list of sins that fell Hampshire, including Easthampton, into two broad categories, sins of Long Island, now part of New York. character and sins of the flesh. Among Following the notorious Salem trials of the former were pride, anger, envy, 1692–1693, convictions and malice, lying, discontent, executions for witchcraft essentially dissatisfaction and self-assertion. ended. Among the latter were seduction, lust, bestiality, masturbation, fornication, Puritan notions of sin and punishment adultery, incest, polygamy, sodomy have cast a long shadow over the and temptations like carnality, nation’s conscience. A century-and-a- drunkenness and licentiousness. half after the trials, Nathaniel Almost anything could be a sin.32 Hawthorne recalled the Puritan anxiety over adultery in The Scarlet Letter Puritan society permitted sexual (published in 1850) and, a hundred relationship only within the context of years later, Arthur Miller invoked the marriage and only between a man and trials in The Crucible (published in woman for the purpose of procreation. 1953) to challenge anti-Communist Everything else was sin. Nevertheless, hysteria. Today, charges of Puritan sex was as much a duty as a delight repression are still heard against between people who loved one Evangelical and other religious another. As Godbeer argues, “Puritans fundamentalists, especially those were both exuberantly permissive and holding powerful government offices vehemently restrictive. … Puritans like former attorney generals John sought not to repress their sexual Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales.31 instincts but to keep them within ordained borders.”33 He stresses that Few remember just how troubled were marital sex was crucial in order to the lives of the early Puritans. Their populate New England as well as to settlement was inspired by the desire prevent illicit, non-marital sex. to civilize the New World, to wrest Unfortunately, this intimate aspect of from the devil both the natural world personal life was undermined by the and the aboriginal people, and thus Puritan belief in original sin, a sin create New Jerusalem. Yet, they found reproduced from generation to

© David Rosen, 2016 page 7 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil generation through this very sexual Study in the Sociology of Deviance, intimacy. Erikson points out that convictions increased among married couples who The Puritans fought mightily against delivered their first child too soon after the overpowering threats that were as their wedding. During the period of much external as internal, especially 1651–1655, the fornication conviction sexual threats. They fashioned, in the rate was 0.78 per 100 people and, a words of Godbeer, “a culture of sexual decade later, 1661–1665, the rate had surveillance and regulation” to strictly fallen to 0.44 per 100; yet, over the oversee and control interpersonal following decade fornication relations.34 First and foremost, this convictions more than doubled, surveillance was intended to prevent reaching, by 1676–1680, 1.02 per 100. premarital sex and pregnancy or what Fornication conviction rates suggest was known as bridal pregnancy. It was the general pattern of sex offenses not uncommon for neighbors to during the Puritan era. Erickson links carefully observe interpersonal the “bulge” in the crime rate to the encounters taking place in homes or in Puritan campaign against Quakers, but fields, on roadways or in the woods. other factors were surely at work.36 No place was considered private, beyond the bounds of community John Underhill, for example, was monitoring. This control was only excommunicated for fornication in intensified given the close physical 1640. Mary Hitchcocke, of New Haven, proximity under which Puritan admitted in 1662 “that her way had settlements existed. The personal been very evil & sinful”; and Jacob information garnered through Moline, also of New Haven in 1662, surveillance provided the basis for was whipped. However, in 1669, many of the reported scandals Bethia Stanly, of Beverly, involving alleged witchcraft. Massachusetts, repented her sin and was welcomed back into her As judgment for a sinner’s bad conduct congregation.37 During this period, or warning to one so tempted, the fornication was neither uncommon, Puritans drew upon a wide assortment nor a terribly serious offense—and it of punishments to enforce social did not result in capital punishment. control. They ranged from the threat This would change three decades later of excommunication, during the witchcraft trails. disenfranchisement and banishment, to public shaming and whippings, to Puritans distinguished between a selling a convicted person’s children sinner, even one convicted of a sexual into bondage, to branding, cutting off offense, and a witch. According to body parts (e.g., an ear) and body historian Elizabeth Reis, “a witch [was] mutilation (e.g., disfiguring the nose), the most egregious of sinners.” She and, when all else failed, to hanging insists: “Those who admitted signing and even being pressed under rocks [the devil’s pact] crossed the forbidden until death. Unfortunately, these line between sinner and witch.” This threats and punishments did not act, signing the devil’s book with one’s work.35 own blood, marked forsaking God and aligning with Satan. Equally critical, it An insight into early New England sex was a voluntary act, a personal panic is suggested by Kai Erikson’s decision, motivated neither by assessment of fornication convictions seduction nor temptation.38 based on the court records of Essex County, Massachusetts, between 1636 The sinner and the witch could engage and 1682. In Wayward Puritans: A in the same sexual act, but the

© David Rosen, 2016 page 8 Sex Matters Sex with the Devil meaning for each was fundamentally other scholars, including George different. For the sinner, sin was a Bancroft, a leading nineteenth century survivable offense and offered a historian. A contemporary scholar, chance for redemption. This was Patricia Bonomi, points out that he “is especially true for male as opposed to notorious in the historical literature as female sinners. For the witch, however, a moral profligate, sunk in corruption, there was only hanging and eternal and perhaps the worst governor damnation. In addition to fornication, Britain ever imposed on an American women accused of witchcraft could colony.”39 also be charged with other sex offenses, including adultery, Cornbury served as the colonial illegitimacy and, the worst, sex with general during the 1702–1708 period. the devil. In addition to his alleged drag outfit worn at the opening of the 1702 Another colonist Assembly, he reportedly dressed in drag at his wife’s funeral in 1707, One of the grandest sex scandals of deeply upsetting his contemporaries. the early colonial era may never have There is even a story that he was occurred. Rumor has long persisted arrested as a prostitute. that Lord Cornbury (Edward Hyde), Britain’s governor-general of New York However, Bonomi argues in her study, and New Jersey, opened the New York The Lord Cornbury Scandal, that there General Assembly of 1702 in an is no direct evidence, legal or exquisite, formal gown in the Queen otherwise, to substantiate these Anne style—a hooped gown with an claims, only four letters from three of elaborate headdress and carrying a fan. Cornbury’s political opponents. She As has become a popular legend, the insists that “the sight of a royal governor insisted that he dressed in governor parading about the streets, drag to better represent the Queen, or even the ramparts of the fort, in his first cousin. Looking back, Lord female dress would have scandalized Cornbury may well have been the friend and foe alike.” More so, she nation’s most famous drag queen—if points out that at the end of the he was a transvestite at all. seventeenth century, colonial America moved aggressively against cross Shelley Ross, writing in his popular dressing. She notes that during the history, Fall From Grace, calls the seventeenth century two men were Cornbury affair one of “the most arrested in New York for appearing in notorious—and bizarre” tales of “sex, public in women’s cloths; in 1696, scandal, and corruption in American Massachusetts passed a law against politics.” According to Ross, Cornbury cross dressing; and in 1703, a man “was a thief, a bigot, a grafter, a named John Smith was arrested in drunk, and, strange as it was, a Philadelphia for being “MASKT, or transvestite.” An image of Cornbury in Disguised in women’s apparel… .” drag is immortalized in a painting first Thus, one of America’s grand sex exhibited in London in 1867 and now scandals might well have been no held by the New-York Historical scandal at all. Society. Ross’ opinion is shared by

Notes

1 Richard Godbeer, Sexual Revolution in Early America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002), 58-61. 2 John Murrin, “Things Fearful to Name: Bestiality in Early America,” in Elizabeth Reis, ed., American Sexual Stories (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 29. 3 Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York: Vintage Books, 1989), 22-23; Mather quote in John Demos, Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 345-46. 4 Damos, 174 and 352; Karlsen, 25, 28 and 113. 5 Kai T. Erikson, Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Macmillian, 1966), 194; Mary Beth Norton, In the Devil’s Snare: The Salem Witchcraft Crisis of 1692 (New York: Knopf, 2002), 137-38; Karlsen, 25-26. 6 Richard Francis, Judge Sewall’s Apology: A Biography (New York: Harper, 2005), 147-48. 7 Karlsen, 23, 60-61, 80, 116, 125-27, 138 and 287; Demos, 75, 89, 90, 186, 189, 249 and 295. 8 Karlsen, 22; Demos, 71, 74, 89, 271-74 and 284. 9 Francis, 88. 10 Elizabeth Reis, “The Devil, the Body, and the Feminine Soul in Puritan New England,” The Journal of American History (vol. 82, issue 1 [January 1995], 10; Norton, 258 and 291. 11 Reis, 10; Norton, 164, 165 and 167; Richard Godbeer, The Devil’s Dominion: Magic and Religion in Early New England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 113. 12 Norton, 79, 112-13, 195, 204-07, 210 and 214-15; Karlsen, 75 and 259; Demos, 66. 13 Reis, 125. 14 Norton, 44-47, 58, 60 and 74-75; Godbeer, Devil’s, 201; Karlsen, 107-09. 15 Reis, 12; Norton, 146-47 and 205; Karlsen, 32, 89-94, 108, 117, 137, 140 and 296; Demos, 74. 16 Karlsen, 26 and 140; Demos, 179, 183, 189 and 216. 17 Karlsen, 108-09, 128, 140 and 260; Demos, 21-33 and 85-86. 18 Martha Hodes, White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the 19th-Century South (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 19-22. 19 Aaron Gullickson, “The Significance of Color Declines: A Re-Analysis of Skin Tone Differentials in Post-Civil Rights America,” Social Forces, September 2005. 20 Godbeer, 165-68. 21 Willie Lee Rose, ed., A Documentary History of Slavery in North America (University of Georgia Press, 1976), 20—22. 22 Paula Gunn Allen, Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entrepreneur, Diplomat (New York: HarperCollins), 32; see also, pp. 27-81. 23 Godbeer, 123. 24 Allen, 50. 25 Godbeer, 156 and 163. 26 Allen, 85. 27 Smith quote in Allen, 88-89. 28 Godbeer, 160. 29 Ibid, 163-64.

30 Allen, 273-87. 31 See Tristram Hunt, “A Puritan on the Warpath,” The Observer, September 1, 2002. 32 Godbeer, 66-68; Kalsen, 119 and 127-30; Reis, 96. 33 Godbeer, 55. 34 Ibid, 228. 35 Reis, 114; Karlsen, 200; Erickson, 117, 119, 122, 149, 187-88 and 197. 36 Erikson, 171, 174 and 175-76. 37 Reis, 129-30. 38Ibid, 131-32. 39Shelley Ross, Fall From Grace: Sex, Scandal, and Corruption in American Politics from 1702 to the Present (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 3; Patricia U. Bonomi, The Lord Cornbury Scandals: The Politics of Reputation in British America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, 1998), 3. 40Bonomi, 141.