Shi'ism in America

Shi‘ism in America This page intentionally left blank Shi‘ism in America Liyakat Nathani Takim a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York and London NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York and London www.nyupress.org © 2009 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Takim, Liyakatali, 1957– Shi‘ism in America / Liyakat Nathani Takim. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8147-8296-5 (cl : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8147-8296-5 (cl : alk. paper) 1. Shi‘ah—United States. 2. Shiites—United States. 3. Muslims—United States. I. Title. BP192.7.U6T35 2009 297.8’20973—dc22 2009013542 New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent possible in publishing our books. Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To my parents, Ammijan and Abbajan This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 1 The Origins and Early History of the American Shi‘i Community 11 2 The American Shi‘i Community: Ethnicity and Identity 49 3 Sunni–Shi‘i Interaction in America 97 4 Shi‘i Leadership and America 145 5 Shi‘i Outreach Activities in America 185 Conclusion 231 Appendix 233 Notes 237 Bibliography 265 Index 279 About the Author 285 vii This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments My interest in American Shi‘ism was first aroused in the mid- 1990s when I began to study the growing body of literature on the Muslim presence in America. I soon realized that the experience of the Shi‘i Mus- lims, a minority group within the larger American Muslim community, had remained untold. I was determined to fill the lacuna. I began to gather data, conduct a survey, and speak to various groups and members of the Shi‘i community. The present study is culmination of that endeavor. In my research work, I have benefited from the assistance extended to me by many people and institutions. At the University of Denver, I received a Professional Research Opportunities for Faculty (PROF) grant that enabled me to visit and interview various Shi‘i institutions in America. In conjunction with the Imamia Education Society, the Denver Foundation facilitated a research fund that enabled me to meet Muslim scholars, lay Shi‘is, and conduct a survey. The Bayt al-Ilm Institute also provided a research stipend. I am also indebted to various figures whose assistance was critical to this study. I would like to thank Hajja Najjah Bazzy and Eid Alwan for providing me the facilities to interview community figures in Dearborn, Michigan, in July 2007. Ron Amen of the Arab American National Mu- seum in Detroit was exceptionally helpful, providing me with invaluable information and material regarding the early Shi‘i community in Detroit and Michigan City. Many religious leaders furnished me with perspec- tives that helped me formulate views on the American Shi‘i community. In particular, I would like to thank Shaykh Fadhil Sahlani, imam Mustafa al-Qazwini, imam Hasan Qazwini, Shaykh Jawad Ansari, imam Hisham Husainy, imam Muhammad Ilahi, and Shaykh Mukhtar Fyzee for sharing their personal insights of the American Shi‘i community with me. I have also benefited considerably from the comments and advice of scholars who read parts of my manuscript and offered many incisive comments. Professors Abdulaziz Sachedina, Vernon Schubel, John Kelsay, ix x Acknowledgments Marcia Hermansen, and Hamid Mavani all made invaluable suggestions for improving this work. I would also like to mention my colleagues in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Denver. All of them have been gracious and offered suggestions that helped me formulate ideas on this work. Ms. Jennifer Hammer, the acquisitions editor at the New York University Press, was exceptionally patient and helpful in preparing this study for publication. Various research assistants assisted me with the mailing of the survey and making sense of the data I gathered. I am grateful to Francis Sanzaro, Danielle Dillard, Christa Kuberry, Catherine Bunge, and Patrick Bowen. Needless to say, I am entirely responsible for any mistakes or shortcom- ings in this study. Many other figures within the Shi‘i community also helped me with this study, too many to mention. To all of them, I would like to extend my deepest appreciation. However, I feel that I should mention the following figures who, in various capacities, shared their knowledge and personal observations of the Shi‘i community: Zeinab Chami, Abbas Kanji, Madina Humkar, Julia Harajali, Nayfee Kruger, Mariam Uthman, Chuck (Khalil) Alawan, Jihad Saleh, Zahir Janmohamed, Haji Ibrahim Hakim, Haji Hu- sein Hakim, and Hussein Abraham all devoted considerable time to re- spond to my various questions. I would also like to mention John Walbridge whose wife Linda died tragically a few years ago. John volunteered to share Linda’s notes with me. At the time of her death, Linda was working on a project on the role of the Shi‘i ‘ulama’ in America. She left behind a good deal of material that she had accumulated for this project and for her earlier work on Shi‘ism in Dearborn. I benefited greatly from her observations and comments, which helped me gain a deep insight into the history and contemporary manifestation of the Dearborn Shi‘i community. I am grateful to John for his generosity. Finally, I am eternally indebted to my wife Fatima and our children. They have all made great sacrifices, which have enabled me to complete this work. Wa Ma Tawfiqi illa bi’llah. Introduction The twentieth century witnessed a dramatic increase in the migration of Muslims to the American shores. The increased presence and visibility of Muslims in America means that Islam can no longer be char- acterized as a Middle Eastern or South Asian phenomenon. Given that it is the fastest growing religion in America, Islam is now a very American phenomenon. The composition of the American Muslim community is far from ho- mogeneous. In fact, American Islam is a mosaic of many ethnic, racial, sectarian, and national groups. Most scholars who have studied Islam in America have limited their research to the majority, Sunni Muslims. Even in academic discourses and classes, most discussions equate Islam in America with the Sunni experience or with that of the indigenous Af- rican American Muslims. Very little has been written about the origins and experiences of minority groups within the American Muslim community.1 Those who restrict their study to a generalized analysis of Mus- lims in America tend to ignore the nuances that characterize and differ- entiate the diverse Muslim groups in America. This monolithic view has also obscured the proper recognition and understanding of the religious experience of a significant religious minority in America. This study will examine the origins and contemporary experience of the Shi‘i community in America.2 The Origins of Shi‘ism The term Shi‘a 3 refers to the partisans of ‘Ali b. Abi Talib (d. 661), the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. For the Shi‘is, ‘Ali was the legitimate successor to the Prophet Muhammad having been des- ignated by him at Ghadir Khum and at other occasions.4 Shi‘is further maintain that differences within the Muslim community regarding succession to the Prophet began even before he died, referring specifically to 1 2 Introduction the Prophet’s companions’ refusal, at his deathbed, to give him pen and paper so that he could dictate his wishes to them.5 Shi‘is believe that the companions conspired to dispossess ‘Ali of his rights as the rightful and divinely appointed successor of the Prophet. While the majority of Muslims affirmed the leadership of the first four caliphs, Abu Bakr (d. 634), ‘Umar b. al-Khattab (d. 644), ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan (d. 656), and ‘Ali b. Abi Talib, Shi‘is rejected the authority of the first three caliphs. With the coming of ‘Ali to power in 656 CE, Shi‘ism emerged as an effective religio-political movement. The massacre of Husayn, the son of ‘Ali, and his forces at Kerbala by the Umayyad caliph Yazid (d. 684) in 680 CE was an important milestone in Shi‘i history; it affirmed notions of injustices endured by the progeny of the Prophet and exacerbated a passion for martyrdom. Due to the brutal nature of his death and close connection to the Prophet, Husayn has been revered in both Shi‘i and Sunni literature. He is also admired for not compromising his principles against the threats of a dictator, preferring instead to die rather than live in humiliation. The Shi‘i view that the rights of ‘Ali and the family of the Prophet (also called the ahl al-bayt) were usurped by the companions meant that from the very beginning, Shi‘ism rose as a dissenting group in opposition to the Muslim majority. This dissent manifested itself in different forms during the course of Shi‘i history. Initially, Shi‘i protest expressed itself by con- testing Abu Bakr’s succession to the Prophet, advocating instead the succession of ‘Ali based on the principle of divine designation. Later conflicts between ‘Ali and Mu‘awiya (d. 679), Husayn and Yazid, and the various Shi‘i revolts against both the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties were further manifestations of these differences.6 Subsequently, political opposition and rebellion against a central, Sunni-dominated government formed the basis of the development of a distinct sectarian movement that postu- lated its own concept of religious authority and leadership.

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