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Gelotophobia and Bullying: the Assessment of the Fear of Being Laughed at and Its Application Among Bullying Victims

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Gelotophobia and Bullying: the Assessment of the Fear of Being Laughed at and Its Application Among Bullying Victims Psychology Science Quarterly, Volume 51, 2009 (2), pp. 135 - 147 Gelotophobia and bullying: The assessment of the fear of being laughed at and its application among bullying victims 1 2 3 TRACEY PLATT , RENÉ T. PROYER & WILLIBALD RUCH Abstract Within the framework of social interaction this paper relates experiences of being bullied to the fear of being laughed at (gelotophobia) in two empirical studies. Study 1 (N = 252) describes the adaptation of a German-language instrument for the assessment of gelotophobia into English (the GELOPH<15>). The translation yielded good psychometric properties (high reliability; α = .90). The one-factor solution of the original version could be replicated. Gelotophobia existed independently of age and gender but was more prevalent among those who were single. 13% exceeded a cut-off score, indicating a slight expression of gelotophobic symptoms. Study 2 (N = 102) used the English GELOPH<15> together with an instrument for assessing emotional reactions in mean-spirited ridicule and good-natured teasing situations (the Ridicule Teasing Scenario questionnaire; Platt, 2008). Results indicated that being a victim of bullying yielded higher shame responses to teasing scenarios, and lower happiness and higher fear in response to both types of laughter situations. Stepwise multiple regression showed that self-reported experiences of having been a victim of bullying were best predicted by low happiness during teasing and high fear in response to ridicule, but gelotophobia accounted for most of these effects. Results are discussed within the context of future studies on gelotophobia-bullying social relationships. Key words: bullying; gelotophobia; humour; test adaptation 1 Tracey Platt, MSc, University of Hull, UK, who is now at the University of Zurich, Department of Psychol- ogy, Personality and Assessment, Binzmühlestrasse 14/7, CH-8050 Zürich, Switzerland; Phone: +41 (0) 44 63 575 31, Fax: +41 (0) 44 63 57529, Email: [email protected] 2 René Proyer, Dr., University of Zurich, Department of Psychology 3 Willibald Ruch, Prof. Dr., University of Zurich, Department of Psychology 136 T. Platt, R. T. Proyer & W. Ruch Since the first empirical studies on bullying were conducted, in the 1970's, by Olweus, the bullying phenomenon has attracted attention among researchers and practitioners around the globe. Different models for explaining what is behind bullying were set up (e.g., Salin, 2003). Research dealt with specific groups of persons (e.g., Atria, Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2007; Ireland, 2000; Strohmeier, Spiel, & Gradinger, 2008) or with measurement issues (e.g., Cowie, Naylor, Rivers, Smith, & Pereira, 2002). However, comparatively less attention has been given to the role of the victim in the bullying-relationship. In a study by Hawker and Boulton (2000) victimization was most strongly associated with depression and less so with (generalized and social) anxiety. It is not proposed that victims are the cause of bullying (though this should also be considered in multi-causal models of bullying; cf., Zapf, 1999) but the possibility is raised that there might be specific characteristics of certain persons that could lead them to misinterpret harmless social interactions. Thus, we present a study that does not deal with causes or prevalence rates of bullying; instead, we are interested to see how an individual difference phenomenon (i.e., the fear of being laughed at) relates to ex- periences of having been bullied. Thus, the main point is not whether someone has really been bullied or not but to find out how differences in the way people deal with laughter might be a clue towards a better understanding of the interaction between putative agents and targets of bullying. So far the perception of humour has not been a topic for bullying re- search. However, this seems to be a crucial point for both, humour research (from a person- ality psychology perspective) but also for bullying research, as a systematic misperception of humorous productions during social communication might in some cases lead to the impres- sion of having been bullied. In recent time, much effort has been spent on empirical research on the fear of being laughed at (gelotophobia; Ruch, 2009; Ruch & Proyer, 2008ab). This phenomenon seems to be well suited for research into the role of the perception of laughter by others in bullying- related situations. Gelotophobes do not experience laughter and smiling from their interac- tion partners as something positive but as something others do in order to put them down. They are very observant when they are with other people and get suspicious easily when hearing laughter from others. Having the conviction they are ridiculous, gelotophobes as- sume they are being laughed at for good reasons. Recently, gelotophobia has been studied with regard to emotions, virtuousness, intelligence, humour, and the recollected frequency of having been laughed at. Furthermore, the universal existence of the fear of being laughed at was substantiated in a cross-cultural study involving 73 nations (see Ruch, 2009). Gelotophobia and bullying No direct research on gelotophobia and bullying exists so far. However, gelotophobia has already been studied in relation to bullying-type of situations. For example, one study fo- cused on the gelotophobes' reaction towards two different kinds of laughter-related situations – harmless and playful teasing among colleagues and friends vs. mean-spirited ridicule, i.e. bullying laughter. Gelotophobes are unable to differentiate between these situations and experience negative emotions, not only to mean-spirited ridicule but also to good-natured teasing (Platt, 2008). This supports the theoretical accounts on gelotophobia (Ruch & Proyer, 2008a) namely that gelotophobes have the suspicion of having been laughed at – even in Gelotophobia and bullying 137 harmless, non-threatening (good-natured) situations. Thus, it seems as if gelotophobes misin- terpret these laughter-related situations. Coyne, Seigne and Randall (2000) found a significant difference between victims and non-victims personality on the ICES personality inventory (Bartram, 1994, 1998) in a work- place setting. The victims of bullying had an inclination to be submissive and preferred to not get involved in conflicts. As well as being traditional and conscientious, they were found to be anxious and sensitive and not able to cope effectively. Indeed, in the PEN-model of personality gelotophobes were seen to be introverted neurotics with higher P (Psychoticism) scores (Ruch & Proyer, 2009). Likewise, in a study of the five factor-model of personality gelotophobes were primarily low in emotional stability and introverted. However they also displayed lower scores in openness and friendliness (Ruch, Proyer, & Popa, 2008). Olweus (1993) defined the personality characteristics of child victims of bullying as be- ing: anxious, insecure and unhappy, albeit a descriptor of child victims, Platt and Ruch (2009) show that gelotophobes are not predisposed to experience happiness. Various studies suggest that being bullied has negative outcomes on a variety of variables in adults as well (e.g., subjective well-being, health-related variables etc; cf. Niedl, 1996; Zapf, Knorz, & Kulla, 1996). Gelotophobes experience much lower levels of happiness when compared to individuals without fear of being laughed at. These compelling similarities within the per- sonality of gelotophobes and bully victims would allow for the hypothesis that the two are associated in some way, even if, as suggested, it is not solely the causal effect. In an experimental study by Ruch, Altfreder and Proyer (2009) gelotophobes experi- enced acoustically presented, positively motivated laughter as more unpleasant than non- gelotophobes, and the gelotophobes were also more prone to indicate that the laughing per- son was in a state of negative affect. Those without fear of laughter experienced an increase in positive mood and a decrease in negative mood after hearing the laughter task, whereas the gelotophobes remained unaffected (i.e., laughter was not contagious to them). In a sec- ond study, gelotophobes gave more answers, in a semi-projective test, that expressed mock- ery and fear of being laughed at than the other subjects; i.e., they more often interpreted laughter in ambiguous situations to be of a derogatory nature. Thus, gelotophobes might be the ones raising false alarms of being laughed at more often than the non-gelotophobes. This might be due to having been bullied in the past (Titze, 2009). However, as no convincing data exist proving a causal effect – and as first empirical studies conducted to test the hy- pothesis fail to support it (Ruch, Proyer, & Ventis, 2009) – no statement on the origins of the fear of being laughed at is made. Nevertheless, the above-mentioned hypothesis is orthogo- nal to causality. As gelotophobia is a relatively new concept, it is hard to predict what kind of results are to be expected from England. According to bullying literature, 11.4% of females and 9.9% of males experience workplace bullying (Hoel & Cooper, 2000). A clearer indicator of the scale of the problem is offered by the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS) a service funded primarily by the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regula- tory Reform an independent council in the United Kingdom who claim that reports of work- place bullying in the U.K. rose to over 45,000 in the period of 2004/5 (ACAS, 2006). Thus, bullying seems
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