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Guide to Hydrological Practices

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Guide to Hydrological Practices World Meteorological Organization GUIDE TO HYDROLOGICAL PRACTICES Fifth edition 1994 DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING, ANALYSIS, FORECASTING AND WMO-No. 168 OTHER APPLICATIONS CONTENTS Page Preface ..................................................................... xxix PART A — GENERAL CHAPTER 1 — INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE ...................... 1 1.1 Scope of the Guide ................................................. 1 1.2 Plan and content of the Guide ....................................... 1 1.3 Cross-reference between the Guide and the HOMS Reference Manual ............................................................ 3 CHAPTER 2 — WATER-RELATED ACTIVITIES OF WMO ............ 5 2.1 General overview .................................................. 5 2.1.1 Purpose and scope of water-related activities ........................ 6 2.1.2 Programme organization ........................................... 9 2.1.3 Programme implementation ........................................ 10 2.1.4 Human-resources development ..................................... 11 2.1.5 Technical cooperation .............................................. 11 2.2 International databases ............................................. 11 2.2.1 Hydrological Information Referral Service (INFOHYDRO) ........ 11 2.2.2 Global Runoff Data Centre (GRDC) ................................ 12 2.2.3 World Climate Data Information Referral Service (INFOCLIMA) . 13 2.3 The Hydrological Operational Multipurpose System (HOMS)....... 14 2.3.1 Structure of HOMS ................................................ 14 2.3.2 Organization and operation of HOMS .............................. 15 2.4 Training in hydrology .............................................. 19 References .................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 3 — HYDROLOGICAL SERVICES ........................... 23 3.1 Functions of Hydrological Services ................................. 23 3.1.1 Uses of hydrological information ................................... 23 3.1.2 Functions and responsibilities of a Hydrological Service ............ 24 3.1.3 Types of data required .............................................. 25 3.1.4 Real-time forecasting of extremes .................................. 28 3.2 Organization of Hydrological and Meteorological Services ......... 29 References .................................................................... 30 iv CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 4 — HYDROLOGICAL STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS .......................................... 33 4.1 Units and symbols ................................................. 33 4.2 Recommended practices and procedures ............................ 33 4.3 Accuracy of hydrological measurements ............................ 48 4.3.1 Basic principles .................................................... 48 4.3.2 Definitions of terms related to accuracy ............................. 48 4.3.3 Types of error ..................................................... 52 4.3.4 Sources of errors ................................................... 52 4.3.5 Secondary errors of measurement .................................. 53 4.3.6 Characterization of instruments and methods of observation ........ 54 4.3.7 Recommended accuracy of hydrological measurements ............. 55 4.4 Hydrological codes ................................................ 55 4.4.1 General ............................................................ 55 4.4.2 Code forms ........................................................ 57 4.4.3 Hydrological observing station identification ........................ 57 4.4.4 BUFR and GRIB codes ............................................ 57 References .................................................................... 58 CHAPTER 5 — INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED WITH HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES .... 59 5.1 General ............................................................ 59 5.2 Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) ............................ 59 5.3 Nature and interrelationship of the activities of the UN organizations in water-resources development .................................... 59 5.4 Arrangements for inter-organizational cooperation at the global, regional, and sectoral levels ........................................ 72 5.5 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) .......................... 72 5.6 Institutionalized cooperation in international river and lake basins . 82 References .................................................................... 82 PART B — HYDROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION AND ESTIMATION CHAPTER 6 — OVERVIEW OF HYDROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION ................... 83 6.1 The hydrological cycle as the subject of observation ................ 83 6.2 Emerging technologies ............................................. 86 6.2.1 Remote sensing .................................................... 86 6.2.2 Micro-electronics .................................................. 86 6.2.3 Microprocessors ................................................... 87 6.2.4 Multi-parameter data loggers ....................................... 88 References .................................................................... 90 CONTENTS v Page CHAPTER 7 — PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT .................... 91 7.1 General requirements .............................................. 91 7.2 Gauge location ..................................................... 91 7.3 Non-recording gauges .............................................. 94 7.3.1 General ............................................................ 94 7.3.2 Standard gauges ................................................... 94 7.3.3 Storage gauges ..................................................... 94 7.3.4 Methods of measurement ........................................... 95 7.3.5 Errors and accuracy of readings .................................... 96 7.3.6 Correction of systematic errors ..................................... 96 7.4 Recording gauges .................................................. 100 7.4.1 Weighing type ..................................................... 100 7.4.2 Float type .......................................................... 102 7.4.3 Tipping-bucket type ................................................ 103 7.4.4 Rainfall-intensity recorder .......................................... 104 7.4.5 Methods of recording .............................................. 104 7.5 Snowfall ........................................................... 104 7.5.1 Depth of snowfall .................................................. 104 7.5.2 Water equivalent of snowfall ....................................... 105 7.6 Observation of rainfall by radar ..................................... 105 7.6.1 Uses of radar in hydrology ......................................... 105 7.6.2 The radar-rainfall equation ......................................... 106 7.6.3 Factors affecting measurements .................................... 107 7.6.3.1 Precipitation type .................................................. 107 7.6.3.2 Beam width ........................................................ 107 7.6.3.3 Refraction of beam ................................................. 107 7.6.3.4 Atmospheric attenuation ........................................... 108 7.6.3.5 Range attenuation .................................................. 109 7.6.4 Methods and procedures ........................................... 109 7.6.4.1 Photographic methods ............................................. 109 7.6.4.2 Manual techniques ................................................. 109 7.6.4.3 Automatic techniques .............................................. 110 7.6.5 Doppler radar ...................................................... 110 7.7 Observations by satellite ........................................... 111 7.8 Dew ............................................................... 112 7.9 Sampling for precipitation quality .................................. 113 7.9.1 Sample collectors .................................................. 113 7.9.1.1 Rain collectors ..................................................... 113 7.9.1.2 Snow collectors .................................................... 114 7.9.1.3 Dry deposition collection ........................................... 114 References .................................................................... 114 vi CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 8 — SNOW COVER ............................................ 117 8.1 General ............................................................ 117 8.2 Snow courses ...................................................... 117 8.2.1 Points of measurement ............................................. 118 8.2.2 Snow-sampling equipment ......................................... 118 8.2.3 Snow-sampling procedures ......................................... 121 8.2.4 Accuracy of measurements ......................................... 121 8.3 Depth and extent of snow cover .................................... 122 8.3.1 Measurement with graduated snow stakes .......................... 122 8.3.2 Measurement with snow tubes ...................................... 122 8.3.3 Measurement by photogrammetric methods ........................ 122 8.4 Radioisotope snow gauges ......................................... 123 8.4.1 Vertical radioisotope snow gauges .................................. 123 8.4.2 Horizontal radioisotope snow gauges ............................... 124 8.5 Snow pillows
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