ABSTRACT

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF CONSUMPTION AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS ON CELEBRATION DAYS COMPARED TO TYPICAL DAYS

by Kathryn Alexandra Witmer

College students experience both positive and negative consequences in each drinking occasion. In a longitudinal study, 62 college students reported on their alcohol consumption patterns and experience of positive and negative consequences over the course of 7 weeks. Celebration day alcohol consumption and consequences relates to typical day experiences. Blackout experiences were most commonly reported during the baseline assessment. In addition, heavy and light drinkers did not differ across consequences on celebrations days. College and universities might use this information to tailor interventions and develop prevention strategies with respect to celebration days. Implications are discussed.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS ON CELEBRATION DAYS COMPARED TO TYPICAL DAYS

A Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Kinesiology and Health by Kathryn Alexandra Witmer Miami University Oxford, OH 2014

Advisor ______Rose Marie Ward, PhD Advisor ______Susan Cross Lipnickey, PhD, JD Reader ______Kyle Timmerman, PhD Table of Contents Page Number Chapter One: Introduction 1 Outcomes of High-Risk Drinking 2 Celebration Drinking 4 Additional Contexts of Student Drinking 7 The Present Study 9 Chapter Two: Methods 10 Participants 10 Measures 10 Procedure 12 Chapter Three: Results 13 Chapter Four: Discussion 16 References 20 Tables 25 Appendix A: Consent Form 41 Appendix B: Demographics 43 Appendix C: Timeline Followback (TLFB) 45 Appendix D: Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ) 46 Appendix E: Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ) 48 Appendix F: Secondhand Effects of Alcohol Consumption 49 Appendix G: Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ) 50 Appendix H: Debrief Form 51

ii List of Tables Page Number Table 1: Demographics. 25 Table 2: Survey Procedure. 26 Table 3: Correlations for the YAACQ Social-Interpersonal Consequences 27 Subscale. Table 4: Correlations for the YAACQ Impaired Control Subscale. 28 Table 5: Correlations for the YAACQ Risk Behaviors Subscale. 29 Table 6: Correlations for the YAACQ Blackout Drinking Subscale. 30 Table 7: Correlations for the YAACQ Self Perception Subscale. 31 Table 8: Correlations for the YAACQ Self-Care Subscale. 32 Table 9: Correlations for the YAACQ Academic/Occupational Consequences 33 Subscale. Table 10: Correlations for the YAACQ Physical Dependence Subscale. 34 Table 11: Correlations for the Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire. 35 Table 12: Independent t-tests Comparing Light and Heavy Drinkers across the 36 YAACQ subscales. Table 13: Proportion of People who Consumed a Certain Type of Alcohol on a 38 Respective Date.

iii Chapter One: Positive and Negative Outcomes of Alcohol Consumption among College Students on Celebration Days Compared to Typical Days High-risk drinking on college campuses is one of the most serious national health concerns currently facing young adults (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson, & Lee, 2002). High-risk drinking is also referred to as and is defined as the consumption of five or four drinks for men or women, respectively, on one drinking occasion (Wechsler & Nelson, 2001). This risky behavior leads to several negative consequences. For example, students frequently report having hangovers after drinking (Mallett, Bachrach, & Turrisi, 2008), and those who drink excessively are more likely to have lower GPAs (Singleton & Wolfson, 2009) and be involved in fights (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, & Wechsler, 2005). More seriously but less often reported, students are at risk for hospitalization and even death when they consume high amounts of alcohol (Knight, Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Weitzman, & Schuckit, 2002). In national samples, approximately 80% of college students have reported drinking alcohol within the past year, with more than one in five consuming alcohol to binge levels two or more times in a two-week period (Wechsler et al., 2002). Over the last few decades, the rate of alcohol consumption among college students has remained relatively stable (Wechsler et al., 2002). Students typically drink the most on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays (Del Boca, Darkes, Greenbaum, & Goldman, 2004; Neal & Fromme, 2007; Ward, Bonar, Taylor, Witmer, Brinkman, Cleveland, & Messman-Moore, 2013). Although, research has shown that alcohol consumption is the highest on holidays and special occasions; more students drink and get drunk on these celebratory occasions, consuming greater quantities, drinking over longer periods of time, and experiencing negative consequences as a result (Lewis, Neighbors, Lee, & Oster-Aaland, 2008). Despite these experiences with alcohol- related negative consequences, college student drinking persists. Researchers attribute these actions to the positive experiences students endure while they are under the influence, such as enhanced sociability due to lowered inhibitions (Park, 2004). Little research has explored the combination of students’ positive and negative experiences on holidays and other high-risk celebratory occasions. Therefore, the current proposal is to examine college student drinking and experiences with negative and positive consequences on celebration days and normal drinking days.

1 The purpose of the current proposal is to examine the multiple factors that influence high- risk drinking among college students, including (a) positive and negative outcomes of alcohol consumption; and (b) student drinking on celebration days (i.e., holidays, special occasions, and school breaks). Examination of the interplay and underlying themes between these factors will generate a greater understanding of high-risk drinking in terms of who is most at risk, and the social and physical environments that contribute to the dangerous consequences associated with this behavior. Such knowledge can then inform intervention and prevention efforts to minimize student drinking and limit the amount of negative consequences they experience.

Outcomes of High-Risk Drinking Negative Outcomes and Consequences. Compared to their counterparts, students who engage in frequent binge drinking (i.e., binge drinking 3+ times in a 2-week period) experience a greater amount of alcohol-related consequences (Del Boca et al., 2004; Presley & Pimentel, 2006). The most frequently reported consequence of drinking is a hangover. Other negative alcohol-related consequences reported are nausea and vomiting, blackouts, arguing, memory loss, and doing something that was later regretted (Park & Grant, 2005; Perkins, 2002; Presley & Pimentel, 2006; Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994). Another commonly reported consequence is decreased academic performance, resulting from missed classes and poor grades on projects and exams due to drinking; therefore, students who drink more tend to have lower GPAs (Perkins, 2002; Presley & Pimentel, 2006; Singleton, 2007; Singleton & Wolfson, 2009). Binge drinkers and frequent binge drinkers are more likely (3 times and 8 times, respectively) than students who drink moderately (i.e., non-binge drinkers) to fall behind in schoolwork (Perkins, 2002); nearly 70% of binge drinkers have missed a class due to alcohol use, and more than half have fallen behind on schoolwork as a result of drinking (NCASA, 2007). Furthermore, frequent binge drinkers are at the greatest risk for alcohol dependency and other long-term health consequences, including death (Hingson et al., 2005; Knight et al., 2002; Presley & Pimentel, 2006). In conjunction with these individual consequences, college student binge drinking is also influenced on the social level. Binge-drinking students are more likely to be involved with sexual violence and engage in risky sexual behaviors (Abbey, 2002); both men and women are less inclined to use protection while under the influence (Neal & Fromme, 2007; Perkins, 2002).

2 More than 20% of students who drink have engaged in unplanned sexual activity due to intoxication (NCASA, 2007). Further, the likelihood of males sexually coercing females increases as levels of intoxication rise (Abbey, 2002; Neal & Fromme, 2007), which has serious implications in terms of sexual assault in that the majority of sexual assaults on college campuses involve alcohol (NCASA, 2007). Females particularly are at an increased risk of being victims of sexual violence due to the inhibiting effects of alcohol. That is, an individual’s ability to make decisions, interpret messages, and decline unwanted sexual advances is lessened as intoxication increases (Perkins, 2002). Moreover, a majority of college students (approximately 77%) have experienced negative consequences as a result of someone else’s drinking. Such consequences are known as the secondhand effects of alcohol consumption (Wechsler et al., 2002). The most common secondhand effects are being awakened during sleep, disrupted during study, having to take care of a drunk-sick friend, and being humiliated or insulted by someone who had been drinking (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000). Additional secondhand effects experienced by students include fights, sexual assaults, property damage, and noise disruptions (Wechsler, 2002; Wechsler & Nelson, 2008). In addition to individual and social levels of influence, students impact their communities when they participate in risky drinking behaviors. On the community level, students who binge drink are more likely to engage in violence like property damage, and verbal and physical altercations (Hingson et al., 2005; Perkins, 2002; Wechsler et al., 1994). Additionally, approximately one-third of college students have driven under the influence of alcohol (Perkins, 2002), and half of motor vehicle deaths are alcohol- related with college students accounting for more than 30% of these deaths (Hingson et al., 2005). Consequently, 80% of campus arrests are alcohol-related to some degree (NCASA, 2007). In addition, the costs and burdens placed on universities and families as a result of students’ involvement in vandalism and assaults after drinking can further add to the secondhand effects of overconsumption of alcohol (Perkins, 2002). Unfortunately, the negative health risks associated with binge drinking do not have as much of an influence on future drinking behaviors than do the positive experiences that occur simultaneously. Whereas previous research has predominantly examined the dangers of high-risk drinking, a greater understanding of the perceived positive consequences might lend more insight as to why students continue to drink to dangerous levels.

3 Positive Outcomes. Regardless of their experience with the aforementioned negative consequences, students continue to engage in high-risk drinking behaviors, which research suggests is likely due to the positive experiences they encounter while they are under the influence (Lee, Patrick, Neighbors, Lewis, Tollison, & Larimer, 2010; Park, 2004). The immediate positive effects of drinking may be a more salient influence on future drinking behaviors, rather than the later onset of negative outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). Positive outcomes of drinking include but are not limited to becoming more sociable and meeting new friends, relieving stress, feeling sexier as a result of lowered inhibitions, and being better able to express feelings (Park, 2004). Students experience more positive than negative alcohol-related outcomes (Park, 2004; Park & Grant, 2005). Specifically, more students report positive outcomes, like having fun and drinking to relax, than they do negative social or personal outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). Consequently, as the number of drinks consumed on a single occasion increases, so does the number of both positive and negative outcomes (Park, 2004). Generally, positive outcomes have a greater influence on future drinking behavior than do negative consequences in terms of the overall drinking experience (Park, 2004). However, those who encounter negative social consequences (e.g., fighting) have been more likely to report fewer positive outcomes and an overall negative drinking experience (Lee et al., 2010).

Celebration Drinking The majority of alcohol consumption among college students occurs on weekends (Del Boca et al., 2004) with Friday and Saturday accounting for nearly 60% of weekly drinking (Maggs, Williams, & Lee, 2011). Recent literature has evidenced increases in Thursday night drinking as well (Ward, Cleveland, & Messman-Moore, 2013), with an additional 17% of drinking occurring on this weekday (Maggs et al., 2011). However, alcohol consumption is highest among students on holidays and special occasions (e.g., spring break, Halloween). More students drink and get drunk on these days compared to typical days and weekends (Michigan State University, 2002). In addition to consuming greater amounts of alcohol on celebration days, students drink for longer periods of time. Students drink for roughly 1-2 hours longer on celebration days than typical days (Michigan State University, 2002), resulting in higher-than- average Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC; Glindemann, Wiegand, & Geller, 2007). Moreover,

4 with each .01 increase in average BAC there is a significant rise in engaging in risky behaviors (Neal & Fromme, 2007), and the most severe negative consequences (e.g., alcohol poisoning) usually occur when students are drinking on holidays or for celebration purposes (Neighbors, Oster-Aaland, Bergstrom, & Lewis, 2006). A majority of the research examining celebration drinking has focused on the following special occasions, holidays, and/or school breaks: 21st birthdays, spring break, Halloween, St. Patrick’s Day, and sporting events. As such, the following sections are divided accordingly. In addition, the current proposal examines alcohol consumption on a local occasion known as Green Beer Day, which is described in its section below. 21st birthdays. Few studies have examined alcohol consumption on specific events like the 21st birthday. However, among participants in the studies that have been conducted, a vast majority (90%) of students reported drinking alcohol in celebration of their 21st birthdays (Neighbors, Spieker, Oster-Aaland, Lewis, & Bergstrom, 2005), and they drank considerably more during the week of their birthdays compared to typical weeks (Lewis et al., 2009). Of these students, nearly three-quarters drank to binge levels on the occasion (Neighbors et al., 2005). In addition, more than one in five students who drank on their 21st birthdays reached BAC levels of .26 or higher, more than triple the legal driving limit of .08. Intoxication to these levels can result in detrimental effects, including coma and death (Neighbors et al., 2005). Students experience a number of negative outcomes on their 21st birthdays, most commonly hangovers, vomiting, and blackouts (Lewis et al., 2009). Furthermore, students who typically were lighter drinkers experienced more negative consequences as a result of drinking on the occasion (Lewis et al, 2009). Although some participants may report drinking to celebrate their 21st birthdays, it was not expected that many students in the current study participated in this particular celebratory occasion given the short time period of data collection. Spring break. In terms of alcohol consumption, spring break has been recognized as a high-risk context for many students (Del Boca et al., 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2009; Michigan State University, 2002). Compared to other times of the academic year, student alcohol consumption peaks during the week of spring break (Del Boca et al., 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005); students consume a greater number of drinks and over a longer period of time, compared to a typical week (Michigan State University, 2002). Students who drank during the week of spring break were more likely to experience negative outcomes as a result, and typically

5 lighter drinkers experienced more negative outcomes than their counterparts (Lee, Lewis, & Neighbors, 2009). Halloween and St. Patrick’s Day. Halloween and St. Patrick’s Day are two specific holidays throughout the academic year that are associated with high-risk drinking among students (Glindemann et al., 2007; Michigan State University, 2002). Due to the time of data collection, the current study assessed student drinking for St. Patrick’s Day but not for Halloween. However, the two holidays are often studied in conjunction with one another and display similar drinking patterns among students (Glindemann et al., 2007; Michigan State University, 2002). Of those who reported drinking on either of these holidays, approximately 57% got drunk, with slightly more students reporting they drank on Halloween (32%) than St. Patrick’s Day (26.4%; Michigan State University, 2002). Although an overall greater amount of students drank on Halloween, participants drank a greater average number of drinks on St. Patrick’s Day. The average number of drinks consumed on both holidays outweighed the average number for a typical weekday (Michigan State University, 2002). Green Beer Day. Relatively few studies have explored college student drinking on holidays or special occasions that are specific or unique to a single university, community, or institution. The current proposal assessed drinking patterns on a local, unofficial holiday known as Green Beer Day. Established by the student body several decades ago, Green Beer Day was created in an attempt to regain their St. Patrick’s Day celebration, which fell during the week of spring break. Celebrated annually on the Thursday before spring break, Green Beer Day has grown and evolved over the years into an all-day (or longer) event in which students wake up around 5 AM to begin drinking. Off-campus houses host “green eggs and kegs” and other themed parties, and bars stay open all day and night serving green beer and offering a variety of drink specials. Despite the fact that Green Beer Day is indeed a school day, many students choose not to attend their regularly scheduled classes in order to continue drinking for the duration of the day and night. Glindemann et al. (2007) have suggested that regardless of the occasion, students drink more when they are doing so for celebration purposes. As previously mentioned, students who drink on celebration days but are not frequent or heavy drinkers may be at an increased risk for experiencing negative alcohol-related outcomes due to their lower tolerance and relative inexperience with excessive alcohol intake. Moreover, contextual situations at parties or bars

6 may further promote and encourage high-risk drinking (DuRant, McCoy, Champion, Parries, Mitra, Martin, Newman, & Rhodes, 2008).

Additional Contexts of Student Drinking When surveyed about their most recent involvement with binge drinking, students often reported being in the context of either a party or another type of social event, most commonly an off-campus bar or someone’s home (Clapp, Shillington, & Segars, 2000). In one study, 75% of students who drank on their 21st birthdays went to a bar to celebrate (Neighbors et al., 2005). In addition, students were more likely to drink heavily when they attended a house party where they did not know the host (DuRant et al., 2008), and when their friends were present (Clapp et al., 2000). Having friends present while drinking has been shown to have a reciprocal relationship with alcohol consumption. That is, students who drink with their friends are more likely to consume more alcohol (Clapp et al., 2000; DuRant et al., 2008), which increases their likelihood of danger; however, friends also serve as a protective factor and are more likely to look out for one another while under the influence (Clapp et al., 2000; Michigan State University, 2002). Additionally, fraternity parties yield interesting findings in terms of alcohol consumption. Whereas more students report attending non-Greek off-campus parties and bars, students who attend fraternity parties are more likely to drink (DuRant et al., 2008; Harford, Wechsler, & Seibring, 2002). Moreover, themed parties attract a greater number of attendees, involve more alcohol, and are more likely to be broken up by the police than non-themed parties; students have reported observing more fights at these parties than typical parties (Clapp, Ketchie, Reed, Shillington, Lange, & Holmes, 2008). The manner in which students drink and the environment in which they do it can negatively serve as encouraging contextual situations and lead to more alcohol-related problems. For instance, students who play drinking games at parties or social gatherings are more likely to drink greater amounts of alcohol and experience negative outcomes on that occasion (Borsari, Boyle, Hustad, Barnett, O’Leary, Tevyaw, & Kahler, 2007; Clapp et al., 2000). Drinking games have been defined as games with established rules in which players are required to drink as a consequence of their, or someone else’s, actions (Borasri et al., 2007). Nearly half of students who drink alcohol play drinking games once or twice a month (Borsari, Bergen-Cico, & Carey, 2003). Those who frequently engage in heavy drinking are significantly more likely to

7 participate in drinking games. However students who reported drinking only a few times in the past month were found twice as likely to play drinking games than those who drank even less (Borsari et al., 2003). This implies that drinking games are likely to be played by a majority of students who drink alcohol, regardless of the quantity and frequency in which they typically do it. Additionally, one study found drinking games to be a more prevalent occurrence at specific themed parties, particularly those with sexual themes (e.g., lingerie, pimp and ho, anything but clothes; Clapp et al., 2008). Further, participation in drinking games and attendance at themed parties both were associated with higher BAC levels (Clapp et al., 2008), which increases the likelihood of behavioral risk-taking (Neal & Fromme, 2007). Another contextual situation that has been shown to influence alcohol consumption is the notion of “” (also referred to as prepartying or preloading), which is a common practice among students that involves consuming alcohol before going to a party or bar, usually where more drinking occurs (Pederson & LaBrie, 2007; Read, Merrill, & Bytschkow, 2010). Students who pregame drink large amounts of alcohol (three or four drinks) in a short amount of time (less than two hours; Pederson & LaBrie, 2007; Read at el., 2010) often with the purpose of feeling the effects of alcohol prior to attending their destination (Clapp et al., 2008). Further, pregaming behaviors result in overall greater amounts of alcohol consumed on the occasion, as well as higher BAC levels and more negative consequences experienced (Borsari et al., 2007; Pederson & LaBrie, 2007). Additionally, one study found that a majority (91%) of students who pregamed also participated in drinking games, further exacerbating their risk for harm (Read et al., 2010). Notably, few studies have reported specific types of alcohol consumed by students on particular drinking occasions. Clapp and colleagues (2008) briefly stated that students reported liquor to be more often present at themed parties compared to typical parties, although they did not measure students’ consumption of different alcohol types. Additionally, one qualitative study indicated that students reported drinking liquor while pregaming, with some students claiming to have consumed as many as 12 or 13 shots in less than one hour (Usdan, Martin, Mays, Cremeens, Weitzel, & Bernhardt, 2008). The current proposal assessed types of alcohol students consumed on each drinking occasion. These findings may assist in better understanding the potential causes of some negative consequences (e.g., blackouts, alcohol poisoning) compared to others.

8 Whether they are drinking to celebrate or it is just a typical drinking occasion, students who engage in risky drinking behaviors are placed more at risk of experiencing negative consequences as a result. Due to the widespread prevalence of high-risk drinking on college campuses, a number of intervention and prevention strategies have been implemented in universities to combat the issue, some with more success than others.

The Present Study The negative effects of alcohol consumption among college students have been researched widely. In addition, several studies have examined the positive outcomes students experience while under the influence. However, a majority of these studies, negative and positive outcomes alike, have focused on typical drinking occasions. Few studies have explored these experiences on specific days of celebration despite the strong supporting evidence that alcohol consumption on these days often is most dangerous for students. The current proposal addresses spring break, St. Patrick’s Day, and a local occasion known as Green Beer day. Moreover, a limited amount of research has examined the relationship between different types of alcohol consumed and the subsequent experience with negative outcomes, particularly on specific events and occasions where consumption of one or more types of alcohol may be more likely to occur. The current proposal identified different types of alcohol consumed on each drinking occasion in regard to outcomes the drinker experienced on those days. As such, the following research question has been developed: Do students experience more positive and negative alcohol-related outcomes as a result of drinking on celebration days than on typical drinking occasions? Two main hypotheses were tested: (1) students will report more positive and more negative outcomes on celebration days; and (2) typically lighter drinkers will experience more negative outcomes on celebration days. In addition, due to the sparse amount of studies that have measured specific alcohol types in relation to experienced outcomes, a third hypothesis was added in this study: (3) describe the types of alcohol that students consume on specific occasions and negative outcomes on that occasion as well.

9 Chapter Two: Methods Participants Participants were recruited through undergraduate courses in the Department of Kinesiology and Health. With permission from instructors, emails seeking voluntary participants were sent to students in approximately seven courses. Those who were willing to participate received extra credit in their respective courses and were sent an email with a description of the study, a consent form (see Appendix A) and a link to the online surveys. Eighty-five students began the study at the first time point. Participants with complete data across all three time points included 62 students from Miami University. The mean age of participants was 21 years old and the majority were female (69%), white (93%), and seniors (40%). More than half (53%) of participants were not affiliated with a Greek organization. See table 1 for additional demographic variables. Measures Demographic information was collected to include age, gender, year in school, grade point average (GPA), academic major, residential status (e.g., off-campus house or apartment, on-campus dorms), ethnicity, Greek affiliation, and athletic status. The complete assessment used for demographics is available in Appendix B. Timeline Followback (TLFB; Sobbell & Sobbell, 1992, 1994 as cited in Del Boca et al., 2004). The adapted TLFB was used to measure baseline alcohol consumption from the month prior to beginning the study. To utilize this measure, a calendar of the previous month was created highlighting any holidays, special occasions, and school breaks; this assisted participants in remembering specific days they drank. Participants filled in each day with how many drinks they consumed, the amount of time they spent drinking, and the type(s) of alcohol they consumed on each occasion. Measures for internal consistency have shown to be .92 for moderate drinkers and .97 for heavy drinkers (Carney, Tennen Affleck, Del Boca, & Kranzler, 1998 as cited in Del Boca et al., 2004). The complete assessment used for the TLFB can be found in Appendix C. Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ; Read, Kahler, Strong, & Colder, 2006). The YAACQ was used to measure negative consequences of alcohol consumption within a specific time period (e.g., past month, past year). Initial use of the

10 YAACQ measured negative consequences experienced within the previous three months. Throughout the course of the study period, the YAACQ was administered to measure negative outcomes from the past three months (time 1), the previous two weeks (time 2), and the previous week (time 3). This 48-item assessment contains eight subscales, one of which each of the 48 items falls into. The subscales include Social-Interpersonal Consequences, Academic/Occupational Consequences, Risky Behavior, Impaired Control, Self-Care, Self- Perception, Blackout Drinking, and Physical Dependence. Responses are dichotomous (yes/no) and scores are obtained both from the overall sum of all 48 items and from a sum of each item within each subscale (Read et al., 2006). Specific items listed on the assessment include, “I have passed out from drinking,” and, “I have gotten into physical fights because of drinking” (Read et al., 2006). One study conducted by Read, Merrill, Kahler, & Strong (2007) indicated that average YAACQ scores decreased across three time periods: T1 M = 10.25 (SD = 7.19), T2 M = 8.70 (SD = 7.31), and T3 M = 7.18 (SD = 7.48). Further, internal consistency scores across the three time periods were .96, .97, and .98, respectively (Read et al., 2007). In the current study, internal consistency scores across all three time points were .93, .96, and .94, respectively. Tables 3-10 include the means and standard deviations of each subscale at each time point. The complete assessment used for the YAACQ can be found in Appendix D. Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ; Corbin, Morean, & Benedict, 2008). The PDCQ was used to assess the positive outcomes of drinking. Initial use of the PDCQ was used to assess students’ experiences with positive outcomes in the three months leading to the beginning of the study (time 1). Thereafter, the PDCQ measured outcomes from the previous two weeks (time 2), and the previous week (time 3). The assessment lists 14 positive drinking consequences containing five response options that are grouped by the number of times the participant has experienced them in the past three months (e.g., 0 times, 1-2 times, 3-5 times, 6- 10 times, >10 times). Examples of positive consequences on the assessment include, “I told a funny story or joke and made others laugh,” “I stood up for a friend or confronted someone who was in the wrong,” and, “I felt especially confident that other people found me attractive” (Corbin et al., 2008). Internal consistency measures have yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .88 (Corbin et al., 2008). Across all three time points in the current study, internal consistency scores were .92, .94, and .92, respectively. Table 11 includes the means and standard deviations for the

11 PDCQ across all three time points. The complete assessment used for the PDCQ can be found in Appendix E. Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ; Collins, Parks, & Marlatt, 1985 as cited in Mallett et al., 2008). The DDQ was used to measure daily alcohol consumption throughout the course of the study period. Participants were asked to report how many drinks they consumed on each day of the week. Further, they were asked to specify the type of alcohol they consumed and the amount of time they spent drinking on the occasion. Celebration days were highlighted as done with the TLFB and included Green Beer Day, spring break, and St. Patrick’s Day. Students also were asked to label any days that they considered celebratory occasions other than those already highlighted. The complete assessment used for the DDQ can be found in Appendix F. Procedure Approval from the university’s Institutional Review Board was obtained prior to beginning data collection. Participants were emailed at three different time points over a 5-week period with a link to online surveys containing demographic information and the aforementioned measures. The survey for Time 1 was opened and sent to participants on the morning of Sunday, February 26 at 8:00 AM and remained open for completion until Friday, March 2 at 11:59 PM. The first survey contained demographics, the TLFB, YAACQ, PDCQ, and a secondhand effects assessment (see Appendix G), and measured drinking behaviors from the previous 3 months (with the exception of the TLFB, which assessed the amount and type of alcohol students consumed each day of the previous month). The survey for Time 2 was opened and sent to participants at 8:00 AM on Sunday, March 11 and remained open for completion until 11:59 PM on Friday, March 16. The second survey included the DDQ, YAACQ, PDCQ, and secondhand effects assessment, and measured drinking behaviors from the previous two weeks, including Green Beer Day and spring break. The survey for Time 3 was opened and sent to participants on Sunday, March 18 at 8:00 AM and remained open for completion until Friday, March 23 at 11:59 PM. The third survey included the DDQ, YAACQ, PDCQ, and secondhand assessments, and measured drinking behaviors from the previous week, including St. Patrick’s Day. Participants were sent reminder emails throughout the week until they began the survey. Table 2 outlines the detailed survey procedure. Participants were provided with a debrief form (see Appendix H) on the final page of the surveys at each time period.

12 Chapter Three: Results The purpose of this study was to examine college students’ positive and negative experiences with alcohol consumption on celebration days compared to typical days. Three specific celebratory occasions were measured: Green Beer Day, spring break, and St. Patrick’s Day. Previous literature has not examined the combination of positive and negative outcomes on celebration days. Furthermore, most studies conducted with regards to alcohol consumption among college students are cross-sectional. The current study’s longitudinal design allows for more accurate recollection and covers a longer period of time. Three main hypotheses were tested. Hypothesis One: Students will report more positive and more negative outcomes on celebration days compared to typical days. Due to the variables referencing unequal number of days (e.g., baseline – reflecting on the last month, versus Green Beer Day – reflecting on one day), correlations were run to test this hypothesis. The goal of this statistic was to determine the amount of shared variability with respect to each referenced time (e.g., baseline, Green Been Day, etc.). Results indicate that students’ previous drinking behaviors tended to predict their future drinking behaviors. That is, their negative drinking consequences were significantly correlated across time and across occasions. In addition, most of the correlations were fairly strong. Therefore this hypothesis was not supported. For example, those who reported negative Impaired Control Consequences at baseline also reported Impaired Control Consequences across the two later time points (r = .58; r = .58 respectively), as well as all three celebration occasions (GBD: r = .51; SB: r = .62; SPD: r = .39). The same was found for other negative sub-scales of the YAACQ, including Blackout Drinking, Self-Perception, and Self-Care. Blackout Drinking and Self-Care were the two most reported categories of consequences across all three time points, all three celebratory occasions, and between both groups of drinkers (light and heavy). Students’ positive drinking consequences were also significantly correlated across time, and students reported experiencing more positive consequences during the week of spring break (M = 24.48) than on Green Beer Day or St. Patrick’s Day (M = 21.10 and M = 20.73, respectively). See tables 3-11 for full results.

13 Hypothesis Two: Typically lighter drinkers will experience more negative outcomes on celebration days than heavier drinkers. Participants in this study were separated into two drinking categories. Those who consumed more than 14 standard drinks per week were considered a heavy drinker, and those who consumed 14 or less standard drinks per week were considered a light drinker (Presley & Pimentel, 2006). To test this hypothesis a series of independent t-tests were run. Due to low sample sizes and statistical power issues, t-tests were chosen over MANOVA. This hypothesis was partially supported. Consistently at baseline, lighter drinkers experienced fewer consequences than heavier drinkers. Additionally consistent with the hypothesis, there were fewer significant differences between groups on celebration days. More specifically, differences at baseline were found on six out of eight categories of consequences between light and heavy drinkers. These categories included Social-Interpersonal Consequences, Impaired Control, Risky Behaviors, Blackout Drinking, Self-Care, and Physical Dependence. On Green Beer Day differences were found on four out of eight categories of consequences between light and heavy drinkers: Risky Behavior, Blackout Drinking, Academic/Occupational Consequences, and Physical Dependence. During spring break, differences were found in three of eight categories of consequences: Risky Behavior, Blackout Drinking, and Physical Dependence. On St. Patrick’s Day differences were found on only two of the categories of consequences: Risky Behavior and Academic/Occupational Consequences. Although lighter drinkers did not experience more consequences than heavier drinkers at any given time, lighter drinkers demonstrated drinking patterns more consistent with those of heavier drinkers during times of celebration. Refer to table 12 for full results. Hypothesis Three: Describe the types of alcohol consumed by students on different occasions and the relationship with negative and positive consequences. Descriptive statistics were run to determine what types of alcohol were consumed on each day of the study. There were seven possible combinations of alcohol types: (1) beer, (2) wine, (3) liquor, (4) beer and wine, (5) beer and liquor, (6) liquor and wine, and (7) all three types. Overwhelmingly, participants reported consuming beer a majority of the time. However, due to the small sample size of the study it was not possible to accurately determine how consequences were affected by type of alcohol consumed, although the findings of types of alcohol consumed on each day did yield some interesting results. For example, approximately

14 28% of participants reported drinking beer on Green Beer Day. The next highest day of beer drinking was about 18%, all celebration days included. This is an approximate 60% increase in beer drinking on Green Beer Day compared to every other day in the study. Moreover, Green Beer Day saw the highest percentage of students drinking combinations of alcohol, specifically beer and liquor combined, at about 15%. In addition, more liquor was consumed during the week of spring break than on any other day throughout the study, with one exception of Saturday, February 18, for reasons unknown. See table 13 for the frequencies of all types of alcohol consumed across each day of the study.

15 Chapter Four: Discussion College student alcohol consumption continues to be at problematic levels. The results of this study could provide information to guide prevention and intervention efforts. Specifically, this project informs university efforts to alter celebration alcohol consumption. Consistent with previous research (Del Boca et al., 2004; Neal & Fromme, 2006; Ward et al., 2013), this study found that students consume the most alcohol on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays. In addition, the results of this study suggest that students’ previous drinking patterns tend to predict their future drinking patterns, but also that there are some differences between students’ experiences with positive and negative consequences on celebration days compared to typical drinking occasions. Overall, students’ previous drinking behaviors tend to predict their future drinking behaviors, and they tend to experience the same types of consequences across time. Typically lighter drinkers experience fewer consequences than heavier drinkers; however, there are fewer differences between these groups on celebration days. Specifically, lighter drinkers experience consequences at similar levels to heavier drinkers on celebration days. At baseline, there were differences between light and heavy drinkers in six of the eight categories of negative consequences. On Green Beer Day differences were found between groups in four of the eight categories of consequences. During spring break differences were found between groups in three of the eight categories of negative consequences. This is consistent with previous research that has found alcohol consumption to peak during the week of spring break (Del Boca et al., 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005). On St. Patrick’s Day differences between groups were found in only two of the eight categories; this finding is consistent with previous research on celebratory drinking that has found St. Patrick’s Day to be a high-risk drinking event (Glindemann et al., 2007; MSU, 2002). As evidenced by high correlations, students consistently experience the same consequences across time, regardless of the occasion. If one experiences a blackout on a regular drinking occasion, he or she is likely to experience a blackout on a celebratory occasion. Notably, students reported experiencing more blackouts at baseline than compared to Green Beer Day. However, baseline covered three months of consequences whereas Green Beer Day assessed for only one day of consequences. Moreover, those who experience positive

16 consequences on regular occasions are likely to have positive experiences on celebratory occasions as well. Future studies could expand upon these findings by capturing consequences for a specific typical drinking day to compare directly to a specific celebration day, collecting data across the same number of typical days and celebration days. Furthermore, students overwhelmingly reported drinking beer more than either wine or liquor, or any combination of the three. This was especially true on Green Beer Day, more so than any other day, all celebration days included. Green Beer Day also reflected the greatest amount of students drinking a combination of alcohol types, specifically beer and liquor together. In addition, more liquor was consumed over spring break than almost any other day. This finding was consistent with previous literature that has shown alcohol consumption among students to peak during the week of spring break (Del Boca et. al, 2004; Greenbaum et al., 2005); however pinpointing the type of alcohol consumed on specific events is a novel finding. Due to the small sample size in this study it could not be determined whether negative consequences were influenced by the types of alcohol consumed. Future studies with larger sample sizes could provide a more accurate explanation of this. Previous literature has demonstrated that students continue to drink alcohol at dangerous levels despite their experiences with negative consequences, perhaps due to their positive experiences while drinking (Lee et al., 2010; Park, 2004). The findings of this study support previous research in such regard, specifically during the week of spring break. Students reported experiencing more positive consequences during the week of spring break than on any other celebration day; as previously mentioned, they also drank the most liquor during this week than any other time throughout the study, and lighter drinkers displayed similar patterns to heavy drinkers in terms of their negative consequences experienced during this week. Although direct comparisons could not be made between type of alcohol consumed and consequences experienced, the patterns demonstrated a relationship between type and amount of alcohol consumed and consequences experienced, both positive and negative. Perhaps the greatest limitation in this study was the small sample size. A larger sample size could have allowed for a different statistical analysis, as well as an accurate interpretation of the influence of types of alcohol consumed on consequences experienced. However, the longitudinal design of the study was a major strength and something missing from the majority of studies on student alcohol consumption. Data in this study was collected to cover a total of 49

17 days, yielding over 700 variables for assessment. In addition to small sample size, another limitation was comparing experiences on one celebratory occasion to experiences over an extended period of time; this design made direct comparisons difficult. Future studies might collect data for negative consequences on a daily basis in order to directly compare a specific celebration day to other specific days (e.g., Green Beer Day is on a Thursday—compare consequences to other Thursdays that are not Green Beer Day). A third limitation of this study was that it used self-report data. Although self-report data is the norm in alcohol research and has consistently shown to be accurate (White, Kraus, Flom, Kestenbaum, Mitchell, Shah, & Swartzwelder, 2005), it could have been even more accurate if data were collected on the day immediately following the celebratory occasion, rather than a few days or weeks later. However the measures of drinking consequences in this study are both valid and reliable, and it is likely that students actually underestimate the amount of alcohol they consume when they self-report. College students experience both positive and negative consequences when they drink alcohol. The consequences they experience on typical drinking days are similar to those they experience on celebration days. Additional research is needed to determine if they experience more consequences while celebrating than on typical days. Light and heavy drinkers also tend to have fewer differences across drinking consequences on celebration days. Recent research indicates that 50% of college students reported experiencing a blackout (White & Hingson, 2013). Blacking out was the most commonly reported consequence in this study, specifically at baseline. In addition to Blackout Drinking, Self-Care consequences were of the most commonly reported throughout the entirety of the study. Self-Care response options from the YAACQ include, “Because of my drinking, I have not eaten properly,” “I have been less physically active because of my drinking,” and “Because of my drinking, I have not slept properly.” It seems that their alcohol consumption consistently interfered with their ability to maintain good self-care. Colleges and universities might use this information to inform future intervention and prevention efforts for student alcohol consumption. These could be focused around the influence of drinking on overall health and self-care, specifically at the university where this study was conducted because the culture of the student body is that of maintaining physical fitness, attractiveness and appearance, and overall good health. Using social norms campaigns to promote healthy behaviors and educate about the negative effects of alcohol on overall health

18 could potentially be an effective strategy for decreasing risky drinking behaviors and lessening the negative outcomes of students’ alcohol consumption.

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24 Table 1. Demographics of the Participants. Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

N = 85 N = 68 N = 62 Mean age 21 21 21 Gender Male 31.8% 29.4% 30.6% Female 68.2% 70.6% 69.4% Race/ethnicity White/Caucasian 94.1% 94.1% 93.5% Asian/Asian American 3.5% 2.9% 3.2% Black, African American, or 1.2% 1.5% 1.6% Haitian Hispanic or Latino 1.2% 1.5% 1.6% Year Freshman 16.5% 19.1% 17.7% Sophomore 11.8% 13.2% 12.9% Junior 24.7% 23.5% 25.8% Senior 44.7% 41.2% 40.3% Greek affiliation Current member 42.4% 42.6% 43.5% Intend to pledge 3.5% 2.9% 3.2% Not a member 54.1% 54.4% 53.2%

25 Table 2. Survey Procedure. Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Sunday February 26 Sunday March 11 Sunday March 18 Open 8:00am 8:00am 8:00am Friday March 2 Friday March 16 Friday March 23 Closed 11:59pm 11:59pm 11:59pm Demographics DDQ DDQ TLFB* YAACQ YAACQ Scales YAACQ PDCQ PDCQ PDCQ Secondhand effects Secondhand effects Secondhand effects Assessment Previous 3 months Previous 2 weeks Previous week period *Previous month Notes: TLFB = Timeline Followback; YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; PDCQ = Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire.

26 Table 3. Correlations for the YAACQ Social-Interpersonal Consequences Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. SOC_1 1.58 (1.55) .59** .46** .38** .56** .31* 2. SOC_2 0.96 (1.39) - .68** .49** .81** .57** 3. SOC_3 0.59 (1.10) - .32* .69** .62** 4. SOC_GBD 0.47 (0.82) - .59** .02 5. SOC_SB 0.79 (1.31) - .49** 6. SOC_SPD 0.30 (0.61) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SOC = Social- Interpersonal Consequences; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2- tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

27 Table 4. Correlations for the YAACQ Impaired Control Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. CONTR_1 1.61 (1.53) .58** .58** .51** .62** .39** 2. CONTR_2 1.18 (1.59) - .73** .75** .82** .44** 3. CONTR_3 0.90 (1.33) - .71** .66** .75** 4. CONTR_GBD 0.74 (1.19) - .65** .41** 5. CONTR_SB 0.90 (1.44) - .46** 6. CONTR_SPD 0.48 (0.96) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; CONTR = Impaired Control; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

28 Table 5. Correlations for the YAACQ Risky Behaviors Subscale. Mean 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. (SD) 1. RISK_1 1.13 (1.36) .50** .26* .48** .52** .17 2. RISK_2 0.75 (1.38) - .59** .81** .86** .65** 3. RISK_3 0.41 (0.73) - .35** .46** .66** 4. RISK_GBD 0.47 (0.98) - .78** .42** 5. RISK_SB 0.63 (1.14) - .48** 6. RISK_SPD 0.24 (0.56) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; RISK = Risky Behaviors; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2-tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

29 Table 6. Correlations for the YAACQ Blackout Drinking Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. BLKOUT_1 2.61 (2.32) .66** .51** .58** .55** .32** 2. BLKOUT_2 1.68 (2.18) - .61** .68** .91** .37** 3. BLKOUT_3 0.97 (1.55) - .56** .67** .75** 4. BLKOUT_GBD 1.01 (1.61) - .62** .30* 5. BLKOUT_SB 1.32 (2.13) - .42** 6. BLKOUT_SPD 0.59 (1.30) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; BLKOUT = Blackout Drinking; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2-tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

30 Table 7. Correlations for the YAACQ Self Perception Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. SELF_P1 0.79 (1.21) .56** .65** .39** .51** .33** 2. SELF_P2 0.63 (1.09) - .61** .57** .75** .41** 3. SELF_P3 0.49 (0.99) - .49** .62** .69** 4. SELF_P_GBD 0.28 (0.78) - .78** .44** 5. SELF_P_SB 0.38 (0.98) - .39** 6. SELF_P_SPD 0.17 (0.66) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SELF_P = Self-Perception; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

31 Table 8. Correlations for the YAACQ Self-Care Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. SELF_C1 1.72 (2.07) .74** .61** .55** .66** .57** 2. SELF_C2 1.69 (2.32) - .74** .73** .86** .57** 3. SELF_C3 1.38 (2.06) - .69** .74** .78** 4. SELF_C_GBD 1.40 (2.06) - .73** .44** 5. SELF_C_SB 1.38 (2.27) - .54** 6. SELF_C_SPD 1.00 (1.75) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SELF_C = Self-Care; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

32 Table 9. Correlations for the YAACQ Academic/Occupational Consequences Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. AC_OCC1 0.56 (0.98) .36** .40** .56** .28* .18 2. AC_OCC2 0.44 (0.93) - .53** .55** .09 .41** 3. AC_OCC3 0.43 (0.89) - .56** .30* .25* 4. AC_OCC_GBD 0.82 (1.26) - .22 .18 5. AC_OCC_SB 0.07 (0.31) - .13 6. AC_OCC_SPD 0.07 (0.27) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; AC_OCC = Academic/Occupational Consequences; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; * correlation is significant at the .005 level (2-tailed); ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

33 Table 10. Correlations for the YAACQ Physical Dependence Subscale. Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. PHYS_DEP1 0.35 (0.59) .68** .43** .45** .69** .18 2. PHYS_DEP2 0.44 (0.90) - .41** .49** .87** .09 3. PHYS_DEP3 0.19 (0.43) - .61** .55** .57** 4. PHYS_DEP_GBD 0.41 (0.69) - .62** .35** 5. PHYS_DEP_SB 0.44 (0.92) - .19 6. PHYS_DEP_SPD 0.23 (0.46) - Notes: YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; PHYS_DEP = Physical Dependence; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

34 Table 11. Correlations for the Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire. Subscale Mean (SD) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. PDCQ_1 31.24 (10.79) .62** .58** .53** .54** .59** 2. PDCQ_2 26.97 (10.89) - .57** .68** .91** .58** 3. PDCQ_3 22.76 (8.48) - .74** .73** .94** 4. PDCQ_GBD 21.10 (8.72) - .66** .71** 5. PDCQ_SB 24.08 (11.42) - .73** 6. PDCQ_SPD 20.73 (8.06) - Notes: PDCQ = Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire; 1 = time 1 (previous three months); 2 = time 2 (previous two weeks); 3 = time 3 (previous week); GBD = Green Beer Day; SB = Spring Break; SPD = Saint Patrick’s Day; ** correlation is significant at the .001 level (2-tailed).

35 Table 12. Independent t-tests Comparing Light and Heavy Drinkers across the YAACQ subscales. Baseline Light Drinker Heavy Drinker t test Cohen’s d M (SD) M (SD) SOC 1.35 (1.57) 2.33 (1.45) t(59) = -2.15, p = .04 0.65 CONTR 1.43 (1.54) 2.60 (1.55) t(59) = -2.54, p = .01 0.76 RISK 0.87 (1.33) 2.47 (1.06) t(59) = -4.23, p < .001 1.33 BLKOUT 1.87 (2.18) 4.47 (1.92) t(59) = -4.12, p < .001 1.26 SELF_P 0.65 (1.18) 1.27 (1.39) t(59) = -1.68, p = .10 0.48 SELF_C 1.54 (2.15) 2.87 (2.42) t(59) = -2.01, p = .05 0.58 AC_OCC 0.43 (0.89) 0.93 (1.10) t(59) = -1.78, p = .08 0.49 PHYS_DEP 0.28 (0.62) 0.73 (0.59) t(59) = -2.47, p = .02 0.74 Green Beer Day Light Drinker Heavy Drinker t test Cohen’s d M (SD) M (SD) SOC 0.42 (0.75) 0.73 (1.03) t(58) = -1.26, p = .21 0.34 CONTR 0.60 (1.16) 1.27 (1.39) t(58) = -1.84, p = .07 0.52 RISK 0.33 (0.83) 0.87 (1.13) t(58) = -1.97, p = .05 0.54 BLKOUT 0.51 (1.06) 2.60 (2.26) t(58) = -4.85, p < .001 1.18 SELF_P 0.22 (0.64) 0.33 (0.82) t(58) = -0.54, p = .59 0.15 SELF_C 1.22 (2.01) 2.00 (2.00) t(58) = -1.26, p = .21 0.39 AC_OCC 0.56 (1.14) 1.73 (1.44) t(58) = -3.24, p = .002 0.90 PHYS_DEP 0.22 (0.52) 1.07 (0.88) t(58) = -4.52, p < .001 1.17 Spring Break Light Drinker Heavy Drinker t test Cohen’s d M (SD) M (SD) SOC 0.69 (1.22) 1.27 (1.62) t(58) = -1.46, p = .15 0.40 CONTR 0.73 (1.32) 1.53 (1.88) t(58) = -1.81, p = .07 0.49 RISK2 0.47 (0.99) 1.27 (1.44) t(58) = -2.40, p = .02 0.65 BLKOUT 1.09 (2.05) 2.40 (2.50) t(58) = -2.02, p = .05 0.57 SELF_P 0.27 (0.84) 0.73 (1.28) t(58) = -1.62, p = .10 0.42 SELF_C 1.44 (2.44) 1.60 (2.29) t(58) = -0.22, p = .83 0.07 AC_OCC 0.07 (0.33) 0.13 (0.35) t(58) = -0.66, p = .51 0.17 PHYS_DEP 0.36 (0.77) 0.93 (1.33) t(58) = -2.06, p = .04 0.52 St. Patrick’s Day Light Drinker Heavy Drinker t test Cohen’s d M (SD) M (SD) SOC 0.22 (0.51) 0.47 (0.74) t(59) = -1.45, p = .15 0.39

36 CONTR 0.33 (0.89) 0.80 (0.94) t(59) = -1.75, p = .08 0.45 RISK 0.14 (0.46) 0.53 (0.74) t(60) = -2.38, p = .02 0.63 BLKOUT 0.51 (1.30) 0.86 (1.35) t(60) = -0.91, p = .36 0.26 SELF_P 0.15 (0.63) 0.06 (0.26) t(59) = 0.51, p = .61 0.13 SELF_C 0.89 (1.80) 1.33 (1.67) t(59) = -0.83, p = .40 0.25 AC_OCC 0.04 (0.20) 0.20 (0.41) t(60) = -1.98, p = .05 0.51 PHYS_DEP 0.19 (0.44) 0.40 (0.50) t(60) = -1.51, p = .13 0.45 Notes. YAACQ = Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire; SOC = Social- Interpersonal Consequences; CONTR = Impaired Control; RISK = Risk Behaviors; BLKOUT = Blackout Drinking; SELF_P = Self Perception; SELF_C = Self Care; AC_OCC = Academic/Occupational Consequences; PHYS_DEP = Physical Dependence; Light Drinker defined as consuming fewer than 14 standard drinks per week; Heavy Drinker defined as consuming 14 or more standard drinks per week.

37 Table 13. Proportion of People who Consumed a Certain Type of Alcohol on a Respective Date. Beer & Beer & Liquor Date Beer Wine Liquor All Wine Liquor & Wine Jan 29 1.2% 0 0 0 0 0 0 (n = 1) Jan 30 1.2% 1.2% 2.4% 0 0 0 1.2% (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 2) (n = 1) Jan 31 3.5% 1.2% 0 0 0 1.2% 1.2% (n = 3) (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 1 1.2% 2.4% 2.4% 0 1.2% 0 1.2% (n = 1) (n = 2) (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 2 18.8% 1.2% 3.5% 0 9.4% 1.2% 2.4% (n = 16) (n = 1) (n = 3) (n = 8) (n = 1) (n = 2) Feb 3 20.0% 2.4% 8.2% 0 12.9% 1.2% 2.4% (n = 17) (n = 2) (n = 7) (n = 11) (n = 1) (n = 2) Feb 4 17.6% 1.2% 9.4% 1.2% 14.1% 2.4% 3.5% (n = 15) (n = 1) (n = 8) (n = 1) (n = 12) (n = 2) (n = 3) Feb 5 3.5% 0 0 0 1.2% 0 0 (n = 3) (n = 1) Feb 6 0 1.2% 1.2% 0 0 0 0 (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 7 4.7% 1.2% 0 0 1.2% 0 0 (n = 4) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 8 1.2% 0 0 1.2% 2.4% 1.2% 0 (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 2) (n = 1) Feb 9 14.1% 0 2.4% 0 5.9% 3.5% 1.2% (n = 12) (n = 2) (n = 5) (n = 3) (n = 1) Feb 10 18.8% 1.2% 8.2% 1.2% 14.1% 1.2% 2.4% (n = 16) (n = 1) (n = 7) (n = 1) (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 2) Feb 11 12.9% 2.4% 7.1% 2.4% 12.9% 0 1.2% (n = 11) (n = 2) (n = 6) (n = 2) (n = 11) (n = 1) Feb 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Feb 13 0 3.5% 1.2% 0 2.4% 0 0 (n = 3) (n = 1) (n = 2) Feb 14 3.5% 8.2% 7.1% 1.2% 2.4% 0 0 (n = 3) (n = 7) (n = 6) (n = 1) (n = 2) Feb 15 4.7% 0 0 0 0 0 0 (n = 4) Feb 16 15.3% 2.4% 7.1% 0 5.9% 1.2% 3.5% (n = 13) (n = 2) (n = 6) (n = 5) (n = 1) (n = 3) Feb 17 18.8% 2.4% 10.6% 1.2% 14.1% 1.2% 1.2% (n = 16) (n = 2) (n = 9) (n = 1) (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 18 14.1% 1.2% 15.3% 0 10.6% 2.4% 1.2% (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 13) (n = 9) (n = 2) (n = 1)

38 Feb 19 3.5% 0 0 0 0 0 0 (n = 3) Feb 20 0 2.4% 1.2% 0 1.2% 0 0 (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 21 2.4% 0 2.4% 0 2.4% 0 0 (n = 2) (n = 2) (n = 2) Feb 22 4.7% 1.2% 0 0 1.2% 0 1.2% (n = 4) (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 23 14.1% 1.2% 5.9% 1.2% 5.9% 1.2% 1.2% (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 5) (n = 1) (n = 5) (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 24 15.3% 2.4% 10.6% 1.2% 10.6% 1.2% 0 (n = 13) (n = 2) (n = 9) (n = 1) (n = 9) (n = 1) Feb 25 12.9% 1.2% 9.4% 2.4% 11.8% 0 4.7% (n = 11) (n = 1) (n = 8) (n = 2) (n = 10) (n = 4) Feb 26 0 0 2.4% 0 0 0 0 (n = 2) Feb 27 1.2% 0 1.2% 0 0 0 0 (n = 1) (n = 1) Feb 28 1.2% 0 0 0 0 0 0 (n = 1) Feb 29 8.2% 0 0 0 1.2% 0 0 (n = 7) (n = 1) Mar 1 28.2% 0 0 0 15.3% 1.2% 3.5% (n = 24) (n = 13) (n = 1) (n = 3) Mar 2 12.9% 1.2% 4.7% 0 0 0 0 (n = 11) (n = 1) (n = 4) Mar 3 14.1% 1.2% 14.1% 0 5.9% 0 0 (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 12) (n = 5) Mar 4 10.6% 1.2% 11.8% 0 9.4% 0 2.4% (n = 9) (n = 1) (n = 10) (n = 8) (n = 2) Mar 5 10.6% 3.5% 14.1% 0 8.2% 0 2.4% (n = 9) (n = 3) (n = 12) (n = 7) (n = 2) Mar 6 14.1% 1.2% 12.9% 0 9.4% 0 1.2% (n = 12) (n = 1) (n = 11) (n = 8) (n = 1) Mar 7 9.4% 1.2% 11.8% 0 9.4% 0 2.4% (n = 8) (n = 1) (n = 10) (n = 8) (n = 2) Mar 8 10.6% 2.4% 11.8% 0 9.4% 0 1.2% (n = 9) (n = 2) (n = 10) (n = 8) (n = 1) Mar 9 17.6% 2.4% 9.4% 0 5.9% 0 2.4% (n = 15) (n = 2) (n = 8) (n = 5) (n = 2) Mar 10 7.1% 2.4% 4.7% 1.2% 4.7% 0 1.2% (n = 6) (n = 2) (n = 4) (n = 1) (n = 4) (n = 1) Mar 11 3.5% 0 3.5% 0 0 0 0 (n = 3) (n = 3) Mar 12 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 0 0 0 0 (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 1)

39 Mar 13 4.7% 1.2% 3.5% 0 3.5% 0 0 (n = 4) (n = 1) (n = 3) (n = 3) Mar 14 7.1% 2.4% 1.2% 1.2% 0 0 0 (n = 6) (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 1) Mar 15 14.1% 0 3.5% 0 5.9% 1.2% 1.2% (n = 12) (n = 3) (n = 5) (n = 1) (n = 1) Mar 16 12.9% 1.2% 9.4% 0 8.2% 0 2.4% (n = 11) (n = 1) (n = 8) (n = 7) (n = 2) Mar 17 17.6% 0 7.1% 1.2% 12.9% 0 5.9% (n = 15) (n = 6) (n = 1) (n = 11) (n = 5)

40 Appendix A: Consent Form Dear Participant, You have been asked to take part in the research project described below. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact Kathryn Witmer, the person mainly responsible for the study.

Description of the research: The purpose of the study is to gather information from students about alcohol consumption and associated outcomes. You will be asked questions concerning your drinking patterns, and your experiences with alcohol-related consequences. Please be aware that you may be asked to admit to illegal activity like underage drinking, however you will not be penalized in any way for admitting to this. Although every effort will be done to ensure confidentiality of your responses, all Internet-based communication is subject to the remote likelihood of tampering from an outside source. IP addresses will not be investigated and data will be removed from the server. If you are participating in this study to receive extra credit in a course, your instructor will not have access to the results of individual subject surveys.

1. YOU MUST BE AT LEAST 18 YEARS OLD to be in this research project.

2. Research procedures: If you decide to take part in this study, your participation will involve filling out a survey pertaining to your alcohol consumption and your experiences with related consequences. Some questions will ask about your behaviors, specifically alcohol use history.

3. Time required for participation: The survey will take approximately 20-30 minutes to complete.

4. Potential risks: The possible risks or discomforts of the study are minimal, although you may feel some embarrassment answering some of the questions about private matters. Participants might find that some of the questions that are related to behaviors while intoxicated might make them feel uncomfortable. In addition, some of the questions ask you to admit to potentially incriminating behavior. Resources are provided at the conclusion of this consent form. While extremely unlikely, someone might try to identify you based on your demographic answers and link your identity to your survey responses. Data confidentially is of the utmost importance for this data collection. We are taking a number of steps to protect your responses.

5. Potential benefits: Although there are no direct benefits of the study, your answers may increase your awareness of your alcohol consumption patterns. Your answers will serve as a basis for understanding college student drinking in the literature. You may also be awarded extra credit at the discretion of your instructor based on the proportion of study completeness. Your contact information and responses will not be linked, and your instructor will not have access to the results of individual subject surveys.

6. Confidentiality: Your part in the study is confidential. That means your answers to all questions are private. No one else can find out what your answers are. Scientific reports will be based on group data and will not identify you or any individual as being in this project.

7. Voluntary participation: You do not have to participate and you can refuse to answer any question. You can stop participating at any time by closing the survey. If you wish to withdraw from the study completely, none of your data will be used. Please contact Kathryn Witmer at [email protected] if you would like to officially withdraw.

8. Compensation for injury: Participation in this study is not expected to be harmful or injurious to you. However, if this study causes you any injury, you should write to Kathryn Witmer at [email protected]. No compensation for injury as a result of this study will be provided.

9. Contact information: If you have questions about the study you can contact the investigator, Kathryn Witmer at [email protected]. If you have any questions or concerns about your rights as a subject, you may contact Miami University’s Office for the Advancement of Research and Scholarship, (513) 529-3600 or [email protected].

41 You are at least 18 years old. You have read the consent form and your questions have been answered to your satisfaction. Your filling out the survey implies your consent to participate in this study.

If these questions are upsetting and you want to talk, please use the phone numbers below: Miami University Student Counseling Service 529-4634 Psychology Clinic Psychology Building 529-2423 Community Counseling and Crisis Center 523-4146

Thank you, Kathryn Witmer Principal Investigator

Faculty Advisors: Dr. Rose Marie Ward, [email protected] Dr. Susan Cross Lipnickey, [email protected]

42 Appendix B: Demographics 1. Year in School a. Freshman b. Sophomore c. Junior d. Senior e. 5th year f. Graduate student g. Non-matriculated 2. Academic major (fill in) 3. Current GPA (fill in) 4. Age in Years (fill in) 5. Race/ethnicity a. Asian or Asian American b. Black, African American, or Haitian c. American Indian or Alaskan Native d. Hispanic or Latino (Latina) e. Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander f. White (Caucasian) g. Other (fill in) 6. Gender a. Male b. Female 7. Varsity sports a. Yes b. No 8. Greek affiliation a. Yes, current member b. Yes, I intend to pledge c. No, not a member and do not intend to pledge

43 9. Marital status a. Married b. Not married, but living with partner c. Not married d. Separated e. Divorced f. Widowed g. Don’t know 10. Current residence a. On-campus dorm b. On-campus apartment c. Off-campus house d. Off-campus apartment e. With parents f. Other (fill in) 11. Family history of alcoholism a. Yes b. No 12. Spring break destination a. Beach/tropical b. Mountains c. Home with parents d. Mission trip e. Abroad f. Stay in Oxford g. Other (fill in)

44 Appendix C: Timeline Followback (TLFB) Directions: For each day on the calendar, please indicate how many drinks you consumed, the type of alcohol you consumed (i.e., beer, liquor, wine, or a combination) and the amount of time (in hours) you spent drinking on each occasion in the past month. One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 1.5 ounces (one shot) of liquor, or 5 ounces of wine.

Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Jan. 29 30 31 Feb. 1 2 3 4 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______

12 13 Valentine’s 15 16 17 18 # ______# ______Day 14 # ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ # ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time______Time______Type_____ Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______19 President’s 21 22 23 24 25 # ______Day 20 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ # ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time______Type_____ Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______Time______

45 Appendix D: Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire (YAACQ)

Directions: The following is a list of things that sometimes happen to people during, or after they have been drinking alcohol. Select either YES or NO to indicate whether that item describes something that has happened to you in the past three months/two weeks/week.

In the past three months/two weeks/week… NO YES 1 While drinking, I have said or done embarrassing things. No Yes 2 The quality of my work or my schoolwork has suffered because of my drinking. No Yes 3 I have felt badly about myself because of my drinking. No Yes 4 I have driven a car when I knew I had too much to drink to drive safely. No Yes I have had a hangover (headache, sick stomach) the morning after I had been 5 No Yes drinking. 6 I have passed out from drinking. No Yes 7 I have taken foolish risks when I have been drinking. No Yes 8 I have felt very sick to my stomach or thrown up after drinking. No Yes 9 I have gotten into trouble at work or school because of drinking. No Yes 10 I often drank more than I originally had planned. No Yes My drinking has created problems between myself and my 11 No Yes boyfriend/girlfriend/spouse, parents, or other near relatives. 12 I have been unhappy because of my drinking. No Yes 13 I have gotten into physical fights because of drinking. No Yes 14 I have spent too much time drinking. No Yes I have not gone to work or have missed classes at school because of drinking, a 15 No Yes hangover, or other illness caused by drinking. 16 I have felt like I needed a drink after I’d gotten up (that is, before breakfast). No Yes 17 I have become very rude, obnoxious or insulting after drinking. No Yes 18 I have felt guilty about my drinking. No Yes I have damaged property, or done something disruptive such as setting off a false 19 No Yes fire alarm, or other things like that after I had been drinking. 20 Because of my drinking, I have not eaten properly. No Yes 21 I have been less physically active because of drinking. No Yes I have had “the shakes” after stopping or cutting down on drinking (e.g., hand 22 No Yes shakes so that coffee cup rattles in the saucer or have trouble lighting a cigarette). 23 My boyfriend/girlfriend/spouse/parents have complained to me about my drinking. No Yes 24 I have woken up in an unexpected place after heavy drinking. No Yes

46 NO YES I have found that I need larger amounts of alcohol to feel any effect, or that I could 25 No Yes no longer get high or drunk on the amount that used to get me high or drunk. As a result of drinking, I neglected to protect myself or my partner from a sexually 26 No Yes transmitted disease (STD) or an unwanted pregnancy. 27 I have neglected my obligations to family, work, or school because of drinking. No Yes 28 I often have ended up drinking on nights when I had planned not to drink. No Yes 29 When drinking, I have done impulsive things that I regretted later. No Yes 30 I often have found it difficult to limit how much I drink. No Yes 31 My drinking has gotten me into sexual situations I later regretted. No Yes 32 I’ve not been able to remember large stretches of time while drinking heavily. No Yes 33 While drinking, I have said harsh or cruel things to someone. No Yes 34 Because of my drinking, I have not slept properly. No Yes 35 My physical appearance has been harmed by my drinking. No Yes 36 I have said things while drinking that I later regretted. No Yes I have awakened the day after drinking and found that I could not remember a part 37 No Yes of the evening before. 38 I have been overweight because of my drinking. No Yes 39 I haven’t been as sharp mentally because of my drinking. No Yes I have received a lower grade on an exam or paper than I ordinarily could have 40 No Yes because of my drinking. 41 I have tried to quit drinking because I thought I was drinking too much. No Yes 42 I have felt anxious, agitated, or restless after stopping or cutting down on drinking. No Yes 43 I have not had as much time to pursue activities or recreation because of drinking. No Yes 44 I have injured someone else while drinking or intoxicated. No Yes 45 I often have thought about needing to cut down or stop drinking. No Yes 46 I have had less energy or felt tired because of my drinking. No Yes I have had a blackout after drinking heavily (i.e., could not remember hours at a 47 No Yes time). 48 Drinking has made me feel depressed or sad. No Yes

47 Appendix E: Positive Drinking Consequences Questionnaire (PDCQ)

Directions: Please indicate the number of times you have experienced each of the following consequences of drinking in the past three months/two weeks/week. Please do not report experiencing consequences simply because you believe that they ordinarily occur when you drink. Think about actual drinking occasions and report the consequences experienced on these occasions.

0 1-2 3-5 6-10 >10 1. I approached a person that I probably wouldn’t have spoken to otherwise. 2. I told a funny story or joke that made others laugh. 3. I revealed a personal feeling or emotion that I might had previously kept secret. 4. I felt like I had enough energy to stay out all night partying or dancing. 5. In a situation in which I would have usually stayed quiet, I found it easy to make conversation. 6. I stood up for a friend or confronted someone who was in the wrong. 7. I found myself in a frightening situation and I felt surprisingly fearless. 8. I found a creative solution to a problem I might otherwise have had difficulty solving. 9. I felt especially confident that other people found me attractive. 10. The intensity of a sexual experience was enhanced. 11. I acted out a sexual fantasy that I might ordinarily be embarrassed to reveal or attempt. 12. On a particularly stressful day, I noticed a release of tension from my muscles and nerves. 13. Something that would have ordinarily made me upset or emotional didn’t really get me down. 14. Things that I had been worrying about all day no longer seemed important.

48 Appendix F: Secondhand Effects of Alcohol Consumption Participants will be asked the following questions about the secondhand effects of their peers’ drinking behaviors. The same assessment will be used at all three time points, accounting for three different periods of time: Baseline Assessment: previous three months Second Assessment: previous two weeks Final Assessment: previous week

49 Appendix G: Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ) Directions: For each day on the calendar, please indicate how many drinks you consumed, the type of alcohol you consumed (i.e., beer, liquor, wine, or a combination), and the amount of time (in hours) you spent drinking. One drink is defined as 12 ounces of beer, 1.5 ounces (one shot) of liquor, or 5 ounces of wine.

Sun 2/26/12 Mon 2/27/12 Tues 2/28/12 Weds 2/29/12 Thurs 3/1/12 Fri 3/2/12 Sat 3/3/12 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____

Sun 3/4/12 Mon 3/5/12 Tues 3/6/12 Weds 3/7/12 Thurs 3/8/12 Fri 3/9/12 Sat 3/10/12 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____

Sun 3/11/12 Mon 3/12/12 Tues 3/13/12 Weds 3/14/12 Thurs 3/15/12 Fri 3/16/12 Sat 3/17/12 # ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______# ______Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Type_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____ Time_____

Holiday – Green Beer Day (3/1) and St. Patrick’s Day (3/17) Spring Break – 3/2 – 3/10

50 Appendix H: Debrief Form Debrief Research Description:

Thank you for helping with this study. The purpose of the study is to gather information from students about patterns of alcohol use and the associated outcomes. You were asked questions concerning your drinking consumption, and your experiences with both negative and positive outcomes. It is hopeful that through the answers gathered from you and others like you, the issues surrounding student alcohol consumption can be further understood.

Alcohol use among college students is a serious health concern on college campuses, especially heavy episodic alcohol consumption (Hustad et al., 2010). Approximately 40% of all college students engage in heavy episodic drinking, which is defined as consuming 5 for more drinks for men and 4+ for women in one drinking episode (Hustad et al., 2010). This type of behavior is related to a number of negative consequences, including academic difficulties, property damage, risky sexual activity, blackouts, alcohol poisoning, and death (Hingson et al., 2002; Jackson, Sher & Park, 2005; Wechsler & Isaac, 1992). However, students continue to drink to dangerous levels regardless of their experiences with these negative consequences; this is perhaps due to the more immediate nature of positive effects of alcohol consumption that students encounter while drinking (Park, 2004; Park & Grant, 2005). Understanding the relationship between the negative and positive experiences students have on particular drinking occasions, specifically celebration days, can help us build intervention programs that decrease the likelihood of these negative outcomes.

Your participation in this study is greatly appreciated.

If these questions were upsetting and you want to talk, please use the phone numbers below: Miami University Student Counseling Service 529-4634 Psychology Clinic Psychology Building 529-2423 Community Counseling and Crisis Center 523-4146

If you would like more information concerning the theories used, please read:

Hingson, R., Heeren, T., Winter, M., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Magnitude of alcohol-related mortality and morbidity among U.S. college students ages 18-24: Changes from 1998 to 2001. Annual Review Of Public Health, 26(1), 259-279. Hustad, J.T.P., Barnett, N.P, Borsari, B., & Jackson, K.M. (2010). Web-based alcohol prevention for incoming college students: a randomized controlled trial. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 183-189. Mallett, K., Bachrach, R., & Turrisi, R. (2008). Are all negative consequences truly negative? Assessing variations among college students' perceptions of alcohol related consequences. Addictive Behaviors, 33(10), 1375- 1381. Michigan State University (2002). College students and celebration drinking. Available at: http://ippsr.msu.edu. Park, C. L. (2004). Positive and negative consequences of alcohol consumption in college students. Addictive Behaviors, 29(2), 311.

If you have questions/comments, or if you are interested in getting information about the results, please email Kathryn Witmer at [email protected].

Faculty Advisors: Dr. Rose Marie Ward, [email protected] Dr. Susan Cross Lipnickey, [email protected]

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