Urban Agriculture in Central Italy

A CITY COMPILATION

UA MAGAZINE 16 - 28 www.ruaf.org Traditional food specialties in Riga. Photo: Didzis Grodzs Contents: and organic markets in Lima 10198 Using Innovations Treated in DomesticProducer-Market Wastewater Link forages: Urban Urban Agriculture field schools and Addis Abeba 3 Solid Waste Recycling in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Making a business of waste management London Green Areas; The case of Lima 6 Innovative livestock-keeping in Ethiopian cities building resilient neighbourhoods in London Amman 104 The Role of Urban Agriculture in Building Resilient Cities: Examples of 8 Developing Value Chains in Amman, Jordan 107 TheMelbourne Elephant and the Castle; towards a London Edible Landscape Amsterdam 109 Adapting to Climate Change and Building Urban Resilience in Australia

11 Athens Municipal Policy Influencing: Experiences of Gardeners in Amsterdam Mexico City

114 Energy Balance in a Suburban Chinampa Agroecosystem in the 13 UrbanBangk Agriculturok e Springs Up in Greece 112 The Role of Urban Agriculture in Waste Management in Mexico City 17 Coping with Flooding in Bangkok Nairobi Southeast of Mexico City Beijing 117 Creating Market Opportunities for Poor Women Farmers in Kenya 23 Different types of Agricultural Cooperatives with Periurban 120115 Community-BasedOrganising Urban F Urarmers’ban Agriculture Groups in inthe Two City East of Nair Africanobi and Capitals Environs 20 Farmers The Beijing in China:Urban twAgriculturo cases e Policy Guidelines: A milestone 26 Emerging Migrant Farmer Communities in Periurban Beijing 126 Low-tech Innovations in Vertical Farming: Nairobi, Kenya 123 A Garden in a Sack: Experiences in Kibera, Nairobi 30 Adapting to water scarcity: improving water sources and use in New Orleans 28 urban Innovations agricultur in Greeenhouse in Beijing Rainwater Harvesting System in Beijing 130 An Update from New Orleans 129 A Report from New Orleans: Growing Food in a recovering city 33 ResilientBelo Horizonte Chinese Cities: Examples from Beijing and Shanghai New York City

York City 35 The Productive Garden: An experience in the city of Belo Horizonte 133 137 Innov Urbanations Agricultur in Urbane as GrAgricultureeen Infrastructure: and their TheImpacts: Case Aof Study New Tour to 38 Creating the Urban Agriculture Forum in Belo Horizonte: a the USA multi-stakeholderBerlin experience Paris 140 Community Supported Agriculture: French approaches 42 Bogota Introducing Rooftop Greenhouses to the City of Berlin 143 A Comparison of Urban Agriculture and Short Food Chains in Paris and Tunis in Bogotá, Colombia 4845 Technologies Promoting a City for thewithout Production Hunger of and Edible Indiff Plantserence: in Bogota,urban agricultur Colombiae Quito 51 Commercial Substrates for Urban Agriculture in Bogota 147 Building the Resilience of Vulnerable Communities in Quito: Adapting local food systems to climate change Cairo 149 Promoting Value Chains in Urban Agriculture for Local Development 53 Urban and Periurban Agriculture Producers’ Organisations in Cairo in Quito

Cape Town Rome 55 Concrete Actions: Cape Town’s Urban Agriculture Assistance 151 Community Supported Urban Agriculture: The Orti Solidali Programme project in Rome

Rotterdam 58 The Siyazama Community Allotment Garden Association, Cape Town 61 Chicago Vegetable Box Scheme in Cape Town, South Africa Approach in Practice 65 Municipal and Civil Society Food Systems Policy Development 157154 Rott FarmerZwam, City and Edible Hortus Mushrooms Aquarius: A from Modular Rotterdam and Synergetic Design

68 Urban Agriculture as a Social Justice Change Agent and Shanghai 66 Economic Growing Home Engine and the Emergence of Urban Agriculture in Chicago 160 Urban Agriculture development in Minhang, Shanghai 71 The Suburban Farm: An innovative model for civic agriculture Toronto Dakar 163 Promoting Urban Agriculture through the Community Food Centre 73 Alliances Between Farmers and Other Actors in Dakar Model 76 Micro-gardens in Dakar 166 Carrot City: Designing for urban agriculture 168 FEEDing the City: Approaches to the Upscaling of Urban Agriculture in Hanoi Almere, Toronto, Lima and Milan

80 Assessing Patterns of Nitrogen Managament in Periurban Agriculture Danforth, Toronto 78 Closing the Phosphorus Loop in Hanoi, Vietnam 171 Growing a Healthy Community: the Green Roof at Access Point on 82 The Role of Farmer Organisations in Marketing Periurban ‘Safe Vancouver ofVegetables’ Hanoi, Vietnam in Vietnam 174 Creating and Implementing Food Policies in Vancouver, Canada 177 Beyond Food Security: Urban Agriculture as a form of resilience in Istanbul Vancouver, Canada 85 The Development of a Women Producers’ Cooperative in Istanbul

Lima

from Lima, Peru 87 92 Agricultural Integration of Business Urban Agricultur Associationse in inMunicipal Urban and Agendas: Periurban Experiences Areas

Responsibility 94 Urban Agricultural Experiences from the Perspective of Social

96 From Eradication to Innovation: Towards healthy, profitable pig raising Solid Waste Recycling in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Making a business of waste management IBH

The major partners in this Solid Waste Management (Bio Recycling) project are: Bioeconomy Association (BEA) – Non-governmental organisation Addis Ababa City Administration (Clean, Beautifiction and Park Agency) - Governmental organisation Arada Sub City of Addis Ababa - Governmental organisation Birhane Clean and Environment Sanitation Association – Private business organisation. Training crop production using soil mixed with bio compost ORGANIC SOLID WASTE Solid waste management is a major challenge facing the cities in the Organic solid waste is collected from the developing world. The commercial recycling of organic waste into a valuable central fruit and vegetable marketplace organic fertiliser called “Bio-compost” is new in Addis Ababa and it is having in Addis Ababa and from residences and a noticeable impact on improved organic waste management and urban shops located around the market. Tackling agriculture. this waste takes up a considerable part of the municipality’s budget.

ntegrated Biofarm Enterprise quality, sustainable productivity and low The assembly of wastes occurs at two (IBE), a private limited company in levels of waste and environmental loss. levels. The first is at market and house- I Ethiopia, began operations in Addis Since then, IBE has served as a national hold level. The fruit and vegetable whole- Ababa in 1998, based on a philosophy model for waste management, environ- salers and retailers at the market collect of working with nature to achieve high mental restoration, resources manage- wastes in garbage tanks, while waste from ment and food production to benefit residences and shops around the market the surrounding community (Getachew area is collected by a private business Tikubet, 2002). organisation called Birhane Clean and For the past eight years, IBE has also Environment Sanitation Association. A functioned as a training and demonstra- fee is paid for this service to the association centre. It now also operates field tion. The second level of assembly from stations in different regions of the country the market area to the project area and (Assella, Mekele, Assossa and Gurage), other dumping areas is carried out by which strengthen training and research the municipality. About 40 m3 or 3500 opportunities has involved urban organic kg organic waste is collected from this waste recycling and utilisation in collabo- market area per day. But only 16 m3 or ration with different partners. 1400 kg is used for this project because of Berihun Tefera: Bioeconomy Association The major objectives of this project are capacity problems. The rest needs to be Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. to increase awareness, set up the produc- dumped outside the city by the munici-  [email protected] tion of organic fertiliser from solid waste pality. IBE received about 534,000 kg Getachew Tikubet: Integrated Biofarm collected from residential areas and of waste in 2006. Separation of organic Enterprise, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. marketplaces and stimulate its use for wastes from non-organic wastes and  [email protected] urban and rural agriculture. sorting are done at both levels of collec-

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42 2 *;A;TCH? Table 1. Cost-benefit of IBE u From page 40 Items Revenue/ agriculture projects and encourage local Cost communities to produce and consume In Birr In USD traditional crops. Revenue (from sale of bio-compost) 539,325 63,450 Labour 49,746 5,852 The sharing of experiences and innova- Implements 15,000 1,765 tions between urban and rural farmers is Soil nutrient analysis 4,500 529 important and efficient because rural Packing costs 85,440 10,052 farmers have knowledge that has been Marketing costs 12,000 1,412 generated over many decades. For Salary and administrative costs 48,000 5,647 instance, the Msinga people have devel- Others 12,250 1,441 oped innovative ways to cook, process Opportunity costs 177,200 20,847 and mix indigenous vegetables in order to Assembling at the market 14,400 1,694 preserve them and balance nutrients in Loading 10,800 1,271 their diet (Njokwe, 2006). Rural areas Transport to project area and unloading 144,000 16,941 have more wild varieties of indigenous Others 8,000 941 vegetables than urban areas, which have Total Cost (including opportunity costs) 404,136 47,545 fewer or no wild areas at all. On the other Total Cost (not including opportunity costs) 226,936 26,698 hand, urban farmers have invaluable Profit (including opportunity costs) 135,189 15,905 experience on how to survive on very Profit (not including opportunity costs) 312,389 36,752 scarce resources with limited or no support, and they have access to markets. These and other lessons are being shared The business is financially feasible if the Agriculture is an important part (85%) through the network of rural and urban bio-compost is sold at a price that is not of Ethiopia’s economy and labour force. farmers interacting through the FSG. lower than the break even price of 1.52 But, due to land degradation, agricultural The farmers’ evaluation reports showed Birr (0.18 USD) considering opportunity production has become dependent on that the yield of exotic and indigenous costs and 0.85 Birr (0.10 USD) per kg fertiliser application. As a result, Ethiopia vegetable cultivated in trench and raised without consideration of opportunity imports vast amounts of inorganic ferti- plots is very high. Production costs are costs. Since IBE is a private limited liser. Bio-compost thus has important low compared to the conventional company, any profit earned is reinvested. potential in this country. farming system. Through various experiments conducted References PROMOTION together with farmers and at Ukulinga Getachew Tikubet 2006. The BioFarm: An IBE promotes bio-compost organic Integrated Farming Approach to Restore, Create farm, FSG will further strengthen the fertiliser and urban waste management and Sustain Wealth. In: Resource Management for exposure of urban and rural farmers to Poverty Reduction Approaches and Technologies, recycling in general in the following ways: Assefa, A., Getachew, T. & Johann, B. (eds), Selected innovative techniques Eventually, a - By managing bio-compost marketing Contributions to Ethio-Forum 2002. The Regal market development strategy will be Press Kenya Ltd, Nairobi. centres. adopted to allow the communities to raise - By inviting officials of different govern- income to meet some of their needs. mental and non-governmental organisa- Notes tions to visit the project. IBH 1) In Msunduzi, these institutions include CINDI - Through the media (advertisements) Network, Institute of Natural Resources, Department and publications including brochures, of Health, Department of Social Welfare, Department of Agriculture, the Farmer Support Group (FSG) of the newsletters and posters. University of KwaZulu-Natal, and the School of The municipality also actively promotes Agricultural Science and Agribusiness of the same university. urban agriculture and the use of bio-com- References post. Farmer Support Group, 2004. Promoting Agricultural Innovation in AIDS affected Rural CONCLUSIONS Households. An Action Research in KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa. Progress Report for March Waste management is a big issue in urban Partial view of Biofarm, Assela Branch 2004-December 2004. management, especially in mega cities Njokwe, B.J., 2006. Msinga Indigenous Vegetables that Could Provide People with Most Needed like Addis Ababa. Land is scarce in these Micronutrients to mitigate HIV/AIDS and Food IBH cities and it needs to be used productively Insecurity. A Paper presented at PELUM South Africa Workshop on Food First on 28-29-Sep- and efficiently. Therefore, businesses tember 2006, Ascott Inn, Pietermaritzburg. that recycle organic wastes and produce Njokwe, B.J., and J. McCosh 2005. African Roots: Traditional Foods to address Nutrition in the standardised and packed organic fertilisers Modern World. A Paper Presented to the Urban as described here are vital. They contribute Micro-Farming and HIV/AIDS Workshop, Johannesburg and Cape Town, South Africa 15-26 to urban waste management but also August 2005 indirectly to the promotion of safe agricul- Van Diepen, I., 2004. “The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Rural Livelihoods of Farmer Households”, An ture in the city by providing organic fertil- ethnographic study in Msinga sub-district. KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa iser to urban farmers in small packs. Tree seedling production using biocompost

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As urbanisation increases in Ethiopia, city dwellers are responding in innovative ways to

problems of high unemployment Bayer Wolfang and opportunities of high market demand by growing crops and raising animals. Many people in poor families, especially women and youth, take these initiatives because they already knew farming before they migrated to town, or they learned it from others who were farming in town.

A donkey can earn income through fetching water, flour and other goods

rrigated vegetable farming in Addis Poor urban families that have little to encourage urban dwellers, especially the Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital, is now invest usually start with chickens, which poor and formally unemployed, to raise I partly in the formal sector. Eleven need little space, find their feed almost “fast-return” animals. In some cases, even marketing service cooperatives of urban anywhere and bring quick returns for some technical advice and veterinary farmers produced almost 12,000 tons of immediate needs. A local chicken costs services are provided for urban livestock- vegetables for the city market in 2006 about 25 Ethiopian Birr (roughly 3 USD). keepers. (Addis Ababa City Government 2006). In Families with a bit more money for initial contrast, livestock production is mainly in investment (about 50 USD) buy a donkey, Most of the urban farmers, however, still the informal sector. The forms of which can earn income through fetching have to depend primarily on their own livestock-keeping differ depending on the water, flour and other goods. knowledge and ingenuity. Faced with space and initial capital available. many problems of keeping animals in the Livestock-keepers in the larger towns cities, they have been obliged to find SPECIES FOR SPACES face problems in obtaining feed and innovative ways of obtaining animal feed, Households with more living space keep water for their animals. Another problem water and medicines. dairy cows, sheep, goats, or oxen for is conflicts with neighbours because of fattening, sometimes combined with bees the smell of the animals and the manure. Some urban farmers collect residues and poultry. Poorer households with less Ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) often from local beer-making, flour-mill dust, space – usually in rented rooms, with have intestinal problems because, to grain residues etc to use as feed. Some several people living in one room – keep supplement their daily rations, they collect grass or tree foliage from woody only one or two sheep or goats, or a scavenge in urban wastes and sometimes areas in and around the town. Others donkey or chickens. eat indigestible plastics. access feed by taking waste from vegetable markets; this also helps to keep INNOVATION BY NECESSITY the marketplaces clean. Hailu Araya, Alemayehu Ayalew, In many large regional towns and cities in Azeb Werqu and Nigusie HaileMariam Ethiopia, e.g. Mekelle in Tigray Region, Only better-off urban dwellers can afford Institute for Sustainable Development, the municipal governments are gaining to give tap water to their animals. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia interest in urban farming. As part of their  [email protected] poverty-reduction programmes, they Continued on page 58 u

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Most urban farmers of rural origin have traditional knowledge about treating animal diseases, e.g. chopping and mixing local plants to control lice in chickens; or using the flesh of Ire (an Aloe species) to treat bloat in cattle. Some farmers without traditional knowledge use modern (chemical) human medicines such as Ampicillin and Tetracycline as an immediate measure for sick sheep or goats.

People who keep large ruminants (especially cattle) sell the manure for use as fuel or compost, or use it at home to reduce their fuel expenses. Youth groups Yilma Getachew, sharing experiences on vegetable farming in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia collect manure and other urban waste from city streets and compounds and make compost that they either use in It is with great sadness that we announce the loss of Yilma Getachew who passed gardening or sell to other growers of away in 2007. For all those of us who were fortunate enough to have worked with vegetables or flowers. such a dignified and knowledgeable practitioner, there is no questioning the prolific role that Yilma played in the development of urban agriculture, as an activist, RURAL LEARNING FROM URBAN researcher, teacher, innovator and pioneer of the urban field. With over thirty years LIVESTOCK-KEEPERS of work experience as a researcher, lecturer, rural development practitioner and Innovations made by urban people are writer Yilma dedicated his life to food security issues and in particular the develop- showing also rural people new possibili- ment of innovative grass root technologies in both the rural and urban settings. But ties. Grazing by unattended livestock is a his greatest passion was the small food-producing garden. Growing walls, container problem in many parts of rural Ethiopia. gardening, intercropping with legumes, basket composting, manure tea and organic Without extension support, urban waste recycling were some of the technologies that he promoted but always holisti- livestock-keepers have developed systems cally and in one garden or on one plot. Yilma’s greatest challenge was to develop of tethering and cut-and-carry feeding. gardens that could sustain poor families on the smallest possible plot size, using an Government extension agencies use these approach that Yilma referred to as bio-intensive gardening. His own homegarden in urban examples to show farmers living Addis Ababa bore testament to this approach. near towns the importance of controlled A. Adam-Bradford grazing. Also the innovative feedstuffs such as vegetable wastes provide examples to rural farmers.

In some cases, the women’s and youth u From page 56 groups keeping livestock in towns, e.g. in Allen, P. 2004. Together at the table: Sustainability California Press. Addis Ababa and in some municipalities and sustenance in the American agrifood system. Lyson, T. A. 2004. Civic agriculture: Reconnecting in Tigray Region, have been successful in Penn State Press. farm, food, and community. Tufts University Press. DeLind, L. B. 2002. Place, work, and civic agriculture: Munoz, S. S. 2007. For sale: Condo with chicken building up their animal numbers. Some Common fields for cultivation. Agriculture and coop. Wall Street Journal Online. May 18, 2007. youth have accumulated so many animals Human Values 19, (3): 217-224. Norberg-Hodge, H., T. Merrifield, and S. Gorelick. Feagan, Robert. The place of food: Mapping out the 2002. Bringing the food economy home. Kumarian that they want to go back to rural areas to 'local' in local food systems. Progress in Human Press Bloomfield, Conn. have easier access to feed and more space Geography 31, (1) (2007/2/1): 23-42. Plas, Jeanne, and Susan Lewis. 1996. Environmental Feenstra, G. 2002. Creating space for sustainable factors and sense of community in a planned town. for the livestock. This illustrates the cycles food systems: Lessons from the field. Agriculture and American Journal of Community Psychology 24, (1) of innovation and development in urban Human Values 19: 99-106. (02/12): 109-143. Hinrichs C.C. 2000. Embeddedness and local food Prairie Crossing Holdings Corporation. Prairie farming that can even lead to urban-to- systems: Notes on two types of direct agricultural Crossing - A conservation community. in Prairie rural migration. market. Journal of Rural Studies 16, : 295-303. Holdings Corporation. Grayslake, IL, 2007. http:// Kloppenburg, J., J. Hendrickson, and GW Stevenson. www.prairiecrossing.com/pc/site/index.html. 1996. Coming in to the foodshed. Agriculture and Watson, JS. 2006. Preservation of the environment Human Values 13, (3): 33-42. Reference and open space through free market housing incen- Lawson, L. J. 2005. City Bountiful: A century of Urban tives. University of Illinois at Chicago. Addis Ababa City Government. 2006. community gardening in America. University of Agriculture Department Report. Addis Ababa.

58 2 *;A;TCH? Developing Value Chains in 54 Salwa Tohme Tawk Amman, Jordan Ziad Moussa Shadi Hamadeh Diana Abi Saiid

The city of Amman is the capital of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and lies in the northern part of the Kingdom, covering an area of 1700 km2 with an estimated population of 2,200,000 inhabitants. Annual average rainfall is 275 mm. The poverty rate in Amman reached 8.5 percent in 2008 (Directorate of Statistics, 2010); 25 percent of poor reside in the capital and the unemployment rate is 12.7 percent (ibid). In this context urban agriculture can play a crucial role in positively affecting the standard of living of farming families and individuals.

The total planted area in the city of Amman is almost 32 M dounoums* (or 3.2 M ha) representing 18.4 From Seed to Table project percent of total national production, while livestock raising The region selected for the “From Seed to Table” (FStT) project in the city represents 19 percent of total production. Two is an agricultural valley (Iraq el Amir) in Amman, where farm- types of urban crop production can be distinguished: (i) irri- ers are organised in extended families (which form the basis gated agriculture: mainly practiced in the centre of the city for community and tribal relations). The women in these around the old flood path and the artesian wells and springs, families take care of agriculture and daily household duties Wadi El Sir and Al Mqabalain; and (ii) rain-fed agriculture: and seek to earn additional income through a local not-for- practiced in most parts of the city except in the eastern area profit cooperative called the Iraq el Amir Women’s where the larger plots range between 50 and 100 dnms* Association, established in 1993. The men are mostly civil each (whereas the areas available for home gardens range servants or unskilled workers. Women have a strong interest between 200 and 1000 m2 each). The main products produced and daily involvement in agriculture, but because of the type are fruit (about 840,260 ha of fig, grape, pomegranate, stone of funding available to them before the project began they and pome fruits), vegetables (197,776 ha of mainly tomato, had only developed their handicraft skills (weaving, pottery, cucumber, squash, okra and various leafy vegetables), and paper making, ceramics, etc.) and had established a commu- grains (351,452 ha of wheat, barley, chickpeas, and some other nal kitchen and a bed and breakfast facility through the grains). Cucumber, tomato, strawberry, red and yellow sweet cooperative. The members of the cooperative were strug- pepper and different varieties of lettuce are also exported. gling to keep these facilities operational and to find an Livestock production comprises 390,500 head of sheep, income-generating activity that could sustain the coopera- goats and cows (Greater Amman Municipality, 2007). tive in the long run.

*One dounoum (dnm) is 1000 square metres or 1/10 hectare Implementation The project was planned and designed by the project team and a selected group of farmers (both men and women) representing the region. The team was composed of two coordinators and three members of the cooperative; and the group of farmers was composed of 10 women and 20 men. Together this team initiated an urban producer organisation (UPO) and built close relations with farmers in the area through Urban Producers Field Schools (UPFS) and other project activities. For cultural reasons, initially only men registered to participate in the project. Therefore, disaggregated data were collected per task and activity to identify who would attend Women of the cooperative at the wholesale market (Photo: AUB-ESDU) the Field Schools, and who needed to be contacted for the

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org marketing institutions and the ministry of trade and commerce; - decision-making on money expenditure; - linking with extension service providers, mainly the ministry of agriculture for the provision of training; 55 - linking with institutions that provide (free) training in management and administration; - the organisation of regular meetings to follow-up on advancement of the project and proper implementation

Greenhouses in the Iraq el Amir valley in Amman (Photo: AUB-ESDU) of activities, bookkeeping for main activities and register- ing of data on farmers; meetings etc. Eventually the project reached 72 families from - exploring potential marketing channels (including in the two regions in the valley: Hay el Bassa and Hay el Karyat, and export market) and participation in national fairs and 75 percent of the project’s direct recipients were women. farmers’ markets, as well as promotion of urban agricul- The most significant step in the project was establishment ture at these venues. of an urban producers’ organisation (UPO) as a separate unit (with assigned and independent staff), within the women’s For example, the UPO managed to get a stand free of charge cooperative. This UPO consists of one director, one treasurer, at the Friday market of Amman, and it has received training one secretary, and 42 members, all of whom are women. This on proposal writing and bookkeeping from the Queen Nour unit manages the business, which consists of all operations Foundation. The members of the UPO team have learned related to the production and marketing of one selected type how to stay updated on market prices and how to use this of produce (see box) together with the participating farmers. information both in the planning of production and to This unit manages the business through a team formed of ensure a constant supply to the market. The latter requires the director, the treasurer, the secretary (all women) and 2 good communication with the farmers. They have also women for packaging and 2 others for marketing. This unit acquired a better business-sense and have learned that is responsible for the coordination of related activities, everything has a cost and a return, especially the image and production and marketing, of the selected product (see box) branding of the produce. for the business (42 farmers) and all the participating 72 The team also implemented a project on food security as an families. initiative on healthy food production and healthy meals for The FStT project coordinators initially assisted the UPO in children and teachers at a neighbouring school. making contacts with expert farmers, support institutions During the whole FStT project, men played a limited role, and and with potential buyers and donors. The experience of the only participated in specific activities such as meetings, the women who had already worked in the cooperative was a UPFS, and contacts with potential buyers in some cases. plus because they had already gained managerial skills and There is now a better recognition of the role women can play built trust with a number of institutions and with the fami- in society: not only are they leading a business that men are lies in the region. engaging in, but they are gaining new information and The establishment of a group saving scheme to ensure support for their role in farming, which is an activity normally financial self-sustainability was an important mechanism led by men when practiced beyond the household level. The to enhance the role of the UPO. The terms and conditions participants have also gained more knowledge of credit were discussed with farmers, who agreed on an entrance fee institutions and extension services. of JD 5 to 10 (1 JD=1 Euro), depending on their capacity, and Challenges included difficulty in building immediate trust then a fee of JD 1 each month. They also pay marketing fees between the new UPO and the other urban farmers in the to the cooperative amounting to 14 percent of their gross region, especially since innovative management of agricul- revenue from sales, of which 6 percent goes to the UPO ture was being propagated in an area dominated by tradi- “revolving fund”. This fund is intended to cover accident tional approaches. Also, getting the farmers to respect the insurance, to pay for bad debts, to finance activities to conditions of planting and delivering on time took some improve skills, education and investment opportunities, and to build the fund. The other 8 percent covers marketing costs such as packaging, transportation and commission. Moreover, each farmer deposits 1 percent of their sales in “a reserve account” under his/her name to encourage the habit of saving, and to help control unnecessary consumption.

Results, impacts and challenges Through the FStT project and activities of the UPO, the farmers’ and the association’s capacities have been strengthened with respect to management, marketing and networking. Improvements have been noted in: - decision-making on the choice of marketing channels Participating women cleaning the green onions in the field before and contracts, and in building linkages and contacts with packaging (Photo: AUB-ESDU)

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Developing Value Chains in Amman, Jordan

export channels). The UPO will continue with more onion cycles and to apply the FStT approach to other crop/animal production chains, such as the production of figs and olives (which grow well in the region), production and drying of selected medicinal and Distribution of onion seedlings trays to farmers (Photo: AUB-ESDU) aromatic plants and processing of goat cheese. A key lesson for the farmers was the necessity to work along effort, especially since these conditions were set by a group the various stages of the value chain rather than focusing on of women. Additionally the buyers were not used to working the production process alone. The UPA continues to create with women, and building trust was not easy initially. Once linkages with other support agencies, and it is applying for the trust was there, the UPO struggled to sustain the image support for the further development of managerial and of the brand and to keep the farmers satisfied with the price organisational skills as well as for funds to sustain its current offered to them compared to that offered by middlemen and activities and develop more value chains approaches. other marketing channels. Management of the revolving fund is still a challenge for the new UPO, especially in dealing with the different expectations of the members, and in Most promising option (MoPO) in Amman- maintaining transparency. Jordan: Fresh green onion Innovations in Amman are: Lessons learned and future perspectives Based on the experiences in Amman, it is clear that efficiency • New variety of spring onions suited to local conditions: could have been better if the programme had started with a does not flower early (early flowering reduces the smaller group of farmers: 20 or 30 farmers instead of the commercial value), long shelf life, larger size, uniform proposed 100. The project could then have started with one produce or two first crop cycles before adding on the next group of 20 • Planting onion seedlings (from nursery) to accelerate to 30 farmers. In this way, the organisational and managerial production and reduce seedling loss skills and the relations and communication skills with farmers and the market could have been built gradually, and the • Year round production: three seasons per year for the process could have hence been less hectic and risky, espe- new onion variety (vs. one or at most two for local variety) cially since the newly formed team had no experience in • New harvesting and post-harvesting techniques (dry managing such a large group. the soil before harvesting, first cleaning in the field, sorting at household level, branding and packaging at Furthermore, creating a business plan and cost analysis the cooperative level); were difficult for the UPO, which lacked the necessary knowledge to do this and to support the farmers. Adequate risk • Drastic improvement in packaging and marketing: analysis had been done, but no alternatives in the event of 0.5 kg and 1 kg plastic bags ready to market; label indi- failure of the business were in place. Another lesson is that cating “geographic origin” and “healthy produce”, working with more than one type of produce (the most bypassing the middlemen chain through targeted promising option – see box) would allow a broader market marketing, social recognition, etc. approach and give more flexibility to the farmers.

In addition, several of the UPO meetings did not meet the Salwa Tohme Tawk farmers’ expectations since they expected materialistic AUB Amman support rather than theoretical lectures, especially on how Email: [email protected] to get organised. They are used to working more individually. Ziad Moussa, Shadi Hamadeh, and Diana Abi Saiid To improve the effectiveness of the approach in a context like Environment and Sustainable Development Unit, American Amman, we suggest that practical support be provided University of Beirut (ESDU, AUB) before working on organisational strengthening. Despite these challenges, the UPO has developed well, and the farmers have established a large nursery to produce seedlings to be sold to other References farmers at competitive prices. Greater Amman Municipality. 2007. Towards the Promotion of Urban For this purpose, an existing Agriculture in Amman: An Exploratory Study, Environment and and fully equipped greenhouse Sustainable Development Unit of the American University of Beirut, (1000 square metres) has been Lebanon. 85 pages United Nations Development Programme (Amman,Jordan) and the rented for one year. The UPO is Jordanian Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation. 2011. also aiming to link with neigh- Jordan Human Development Report, Jordan Small Businesses and bouring schools to sell fresh Human Development. 185 pages. and nutritious local produce, Directorate of Statistics, Jordan. 2010. Report on Poverty in Jordan as part of efforts to broaden its based on 2008 survey. 99 pages. Responsible production logo Amman (Photo: AUB-ESDU) market channels (and possible

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Municipal Policy Influencing: Experiences of Gardeners in Amsterdam

In 2001 the Amsterdam municipality started preparations for a new spatial plan, which became the basis for city planning development in the period 2002-2010. The plan, entitled Joanna Wilbers “Choosing urbanism”, aimed to place residential and economic functions within the city limits, while green areas were to be established on the city fringes. Among other steps, the plan involved sacrificing five allotment garden parks for housing construction and infrastructure developments. It compelled the tenant of the allotment garden parks, the Association of Allotment Gardens (or in Dutch: Bond van Volkstuinders, BvV), to choose an entirely new and different strategy for influencing Allotment garden in Amsterdam policy, of which this article provides an account.

llotment gardens in the with advancing their health and life in which are located outside the city limits Netherlands originated in the general and not so much with increasing due to changed boundaries or because the A second half of the 18th century. the gardeners’ incomes. The first gardens had to be moved from city land Well-to-do citizens established a society Amsterdam garden group was established that was no longer available. The BvV also in 1784 aimed at the intellectual growth in 1910. Nowadays, Amsterdam (the maintains a list of 1,500 aspiring members, of the ‘average’ people, such as workmen. largest city of the Netherlands with 22,000 who are on a waiting list to begin their One of the society’s activities was to ha and 740,000 inhabitants) has 39 allot- own gardens. rent out plots for gardening to labourers ment garden parks (300 ha) on its territory so that they could grow their own food encompassing 6,000 individual gardens. The BvV was established in 1917 as a and increase their family incomes. The land on which the garden parks are non-profit organisation. Per garden park Furthermore, gardening was seen as an located is owned by the municipality. the members choose the representatives activity to stimulate personal and societal Most allotment gardens are no longer for the General Assembly, the highest development. located where they originally started out, authority in the association. This authority while some have disappeared all together chooses the main board. The members The development of allotment gardens due to urban planning and infrastructure also choose park boards to perform the increased rapidly towards the end of the developments. management tasks for each garden park. 19th century when industrialisation took All board activities are performed by over in the Netherlands. The fast growth Twenty-six garden parks have a so-called members who receive a small compensa- of the labour population and the poor accommodation-recreational function, tion for costs made. The organisation has living circumstances were reasons for which means that each garden has a a small office with paid staff who provide many municipalities to rent out garden cottage in which one can stay overnight membership administration and support plots to cultivate potatoes and vegetables. from April through September. There are to the board. The challenge for the BvV four recreational parks where one cannot is to keep its structure and regulations Currently, the Netherlands has around stay overnight. This also applies to the as efficient, simple and cost-effective as 250,000 recreational allotment gardeners, nine food garden parks where gardeners possible for its members. Therefore these half of whom are members of gardeners’ mainly grow vegetables, herbs and fruits. are revised periodically and the results associations. A number of allotment Most parks are on the urban fringe, but of these revisions are incorporated in the gardeners’ associations have united in one park is located in the middle of a association’s policy plans. These plans a national union, the AVVN (Algemeen residential area and is part of a city park. describe the BvV’s activities and strate- Verbond van Volkstuindersverenigingen gies and are formulated by the General Nederland), which represents around Twenty-four of the 39 parks in Amsterdam Assembly. The current plan covers the 25,000 gardeners2). are rented to BvV (5,000 gardens), and the period 1998-20073), and the subsequent remaining 15 are rented to a total of 14 plan now being developed will be in effect AMSTERDAM other associations (1,000 gardens). until 2011. In 1909 the Committee for Allotment Gardens was established in Amsterdam. BVV Besides defending the interests of its The members were primarily concerned The BvV has 6,000 members, which makes members, the BvV’s goal is to acquire land it the largest allotment gardening associa- for the gardens and promote gardening Johan van Schaick tion in the Netherlands. In addition to as a form of active recreation and as a Association of Allotment Gardeners1) (BvV) the parks in Amsterdam, the association way to learn about the environment,  [email protected] rents five more parks (1,000 gardens), flora and fauna as well as the cultivation

14 2 *;A;TCH? Urban Agriculture 31 Springs up in Greece Nerea Morán Jose Luis Fernández de Casadevante

In recent years, urban agriculture has spread as a response to the low prices offered by intermediaries. remarkably in Greece, considering that there is no This was the most visible event of a movement that is reconnecting farmers and consumers, through direct selling, local historic tradition for this activity. Diverse actors, markets and community food groups. such as community groups, agro-diversity networks In the last years, community and institutional urban agricul- and local governments, are developing projects ture initiatives have arisen in Greek cities, merging food with various aims and organisational patterns. production, urban ecology, food sovereignty, social links and new ways of thinking and inhabiting the cities. Community They are all trying to deal with particular aspects of gardens are part of the social innovations developed by citi- the multidimensional crisis that Greece is facing. zens’ projects involving self-protection, social care (migrants and homeless support, self-managed health centres, Greece has been one of the first European countries suffer- community kitchens, etc.) and alternative sociality (coopera- ing from the present crisis. Financial crisis, bank rescue, tivism, occupied factories, barter networks or time banks), public indebtedness and austerity policies have contributed developing diverse alternatives to build a transition strategy to a situation of urban impoverishment, unemployment from the local level. and cuts in public services (social, health and education). One million people in Greece are unable to pay for their basic As well, municipal programs are addressing social vulnera- diet. The growing difficulty with food access for the most bility, developing social integration and food access strate- vulnerable population (unemployed and retired people) has gies for people in need. In addition, there is the remarkable led to a bigger concern about the agri-food system. The role of Peliti, a network for biodiversity and local seeds, which “potato movement” began in the spring of 2012, when Greek collaborates with most of the urban agriculture projects. farmers started to sell their potatoes directly to consumers Together, these initiatives represent interesting forms of

Agios Dimitros allotment garden. Photo: N Morán and JL Fernández

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org social innovation in response to the multiple crises that Examples of Community gardens Greek society is facing and which, increasingly, also is resulting in new forms of municipal policies to support urban Per.ka, an acronym for “periurban crops”, came to light agriculture and local food systems. 32 in 2011, in order to cultivate an abandoned military site, occupied and transformed into a public park by the people of northern Thessaloniki. The first Per.ka group began to grow food organically. As more interested people arrived, new groups were formed, composed of 30-40 people who take care of part of the site, demarcat- ing individual and common plots, and constructing resting and storing spaces. Presently there are 7 Per.ka groups, which makes about 200 people. This collective project is grounded in cooperation and ecology; they support public land property but also community Table: Allotments and community gardens, evolution 2008 – 2013 management. All of the Per.ka groups join in a fort- Community gardens nightly assembly where common tasks and activities are Community gardens have appeared within a context of decided upon. They also participate in the Movement of social protest movements. The first one, in December 2008, Direct Distribution of Products in Thessaloniki (Anoixto was due to the death of a 15-year-old boy shot by the police, Diktio). in the Athens neighbourhood of Exarchia. This fact set off massive mobilisations throughout the country, and the biggest riots in its recent history (Stavrides, 2010). In Athens Ellenikó Community Garden. The former Athens airport, we can find examples of community gardens from this first located on the southeast coastline of the city, was wave, developed by left-wing militant groups in occupied supposed to become a metropolitan park, but the crisis public spaces and facilities: Navarino Park in Exarchia; stopped this project. A community group conceived an Votanikos Social Centre, located in a closed municipal green- alternative development that could deal with the house; and Agros in Tritsi Park. environmental, economic, educational and social crisis. The Square’s Movement in 2011, in response to the austerity They worked with the university on their proposal, policies, and making visible the political and confidence collected signatures in support of the project, and staged crisis, led to local assemblies that began several projects in a symbolic olive-tree planting on the airport site. The the neighbourhoods. New community gardens appeared, municipality has lent them a 2,500 m2 area contiguous sometimes launched by people directly involved or close to to the airport, where they have begun a community the movement, or simply inspired by a new way of coping garden, diffusion and training activities as well as with big problems. These gardens are created by more diverse and heterogeneous communities, and they have traditional seed-giving, supporting garden projects in greater social support, but are not without conflict with the schools and sharing their products with municipal social local governments. Two projects that illustrate the progress kitchens. of the movement in different cities are Per.ka and Ellenikó Community Garden (see Box 1).

Maroussi allotment garden. Photo: N Morán and JL Fernández

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org The emergence of Municipal Garden ing economic relief for households; and “to strengthen the Allotments in Greece in times of crisis community bond and for leisure”, especially at this time of Currently, among the most popular paradigms of Urban crisis when people are also deprived of entertainment and 33 Agriculture in Greece are the Municipal Garden Allotments fun. After the first harvest, during focus-group discussions, (MGAs), which first appeared in 2011–12. The local municipal the growers highlighted conviviality, leisure and enhanc- authorities announced these gardens primarily as social ing community bonds as the most precious functions of policy projects and a means to alleviate some of the problems the garden, as well as re-connecting to their rural past. urban dwellers faced due to the economic crisis and the Obviously, in times of crisis and socioeconomic precarious- collateral lack of public support to vulnerable groups. ness, a sense of social safety is imperative. People have embraced the idea to be given, for free (or a symbolic price), a plot in order to grow their own food and The crucial question facing the municipal allotments is support the daily diet for the whole family. about their sustainability and viability. The analysis of the case studies showed that the MGAs are still more a short- In 2013, during field research in two MGAs in Northern term action of social policy rather than institutional and Greece (Alexandroupolis and Thermi-Raidestos), the long-term sustainable urban planning. In fact, urban agri- motives of the stakeholders were disclosed. The economic culture initiatives face a set of constraints (bureaucracy crisis played an important role in the decision of the delays, land use pressure and conflicts, financing difficulties, municipalities to establish vegetable gardens, given the etc.). Moreover, even if farm land is provided by local alarming phenomena of neo-poverty and malnutrition in authorities, it is used only on a temporary basis due to lack a growing portion of the urban population. At the same of a cadastre and of a proper institutional framework to time, another motivation expressed by local authorities legitimise urban agriculture as a specific land use. These was to cultivate social responsibility and solidarity by issues are critical for the duration of the projects and can be requiring that the growers offer 10 % of the crop in the strongly affected in the future by higher levels of real estate social grocery of the municipalities. Environmental speculation. For the moment it seems that it is the economic concerns are also at the forefront, through organic produc- crisis in relation to real estate collapse that “protects and tion, composting of urban food waste and greening the maintains” the municipal garden allotments in the absence city. Among the urban farmers, the main motivations to of other competitive land use. participate in the MGA were, according to specific ques- tionnaire responses (in order of importance): “to produce Theodosia Anthopoulou, Panteion University of Athens my own food”, in other words a social demand for food and Maria Partalidou, School of Agriculture, Aristotle re-appropriation; “to have affordable quality food”, mean- University of Thessaloniki. Email: [email protected]

Community gardens have become central actors in the have difficulty influencing public policies beyond the local reflection on the urban model, the future of public spaces, scale. The coordination between the projects is weak, and the role of abandoned or vacant plots within the city, by although there are informal networks and occasional collab- the reclamation of public land and the fight against its priva- orations. However, at least for the time being, they are tization. They are also bringing the food debate into the proving the civil society’s capacity to regain underused urban social movements, developing self-managed ways of urban spaces and to bind local communities. meeting human needs, collaborating in the spreading of local seeds and learning about organic farming. Finally, Municipal programs they’re linking the preservation and expansion of green In 2012 the first public policies promoting allotment gardens urban areas with the development of an agro-ecological (the Municipal Garden Allotments see BOX 2) entered the production model based on local resources. They’re doing all picture, developing social gardens for self-consumption for this through the development of small-scale projects that vulnerable groups. Initially, medium-sized cities, such as can be seen as field trial spaces, where alternative answers Alexandroupolis, started these programs that spread quickly to the crisis are being explored, and fragments of a new city across the whole country: Thermi, Kalamata, Tripoli, Larissa, are being tested. Veria, Edesa, Lesbos and Crete.

Nevertheless, these initiatives suffer from marked precari- Metropolitan districts of Athens are carrying out allotment ousness: insecure access to land, scarcity of economic garden programs as well. Maroussi and Agios Dimitros have resources, lack of political support, and such limiting factors been the first ones doing it. They have a similar procedure; as availability of water. Furthermore, community gardens the local government is responsible for preparing the land

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 34

Aristotles university garden, Thessaloniki. Photo: N Morán and JL Community garden Per.Ka.3. Photo: N Morán and JL Fernández Fernández

and the watering system, which, in both cases, is made up of and samples of them are being packaged and preserved. small tanks that are refilled by trucks. Individual plots (25–50 m2) are assigned to people living in the neighbourhood. Conclusion There are special requirements for access to these plots: low Municipal allotments and community gardens are different income, unemployment, retirement, large families. Another yet complementary. The former can, through the assignment selection criterion is proximity to the site, in order to make of individual plots, fulfil the basic food needs of families. accessibility and daily control easier. Community gardens focus on agri-food learning and reflection through common work and cooperation; moreover, they The plots are for free, although part of the products must be show that public spaces that can no longer be maintained by sent to municipal social services to be cooked in social kitchens. the public administration can be recovered by community Organic production systems are compulsory, and there is groups. technical support from municipal workers or from collaborating organisations such as the NGO Anodos, that works These social initiatives have shown by their small examples daily in the Agios Dimitros allotments, helping the gardeners that urban agriculture projects have the potential to impact to design their plots, and supervising the tool and water not only food access, but also social cohesion, education and distribution. employment, developing an alternative social, economic and environmental model, and making the most of public Social allotment gardens have triggered a new use for spaces and resources. vacant public plots; besides, they are playing several social roles, providing neighbourhood meeting places, and Still, much more can be done. All of these urban agriculture improving gardeners’ self-esteem when they enjoy the initiatives point to a wide range of opportunities; even activity, although some people can also experience it as a though big investments and large projects are no longer sign of social failure. possible, new ways of urban development can be explored through the agro-ecology and local development approach. Peliti One of the central entities holding up the agro-ecological Nerea Morán movement in Greece is the Peliti Alternative Community, a COST Action Urban Allotment Gardens in European Cities social network that works on biodiversity and local seeds. Email: [email protected] Peliti is the dialect name of the oak tree, which has traditionally been planted in the village squares, and around which local Jose Luis Fernández de Casadevante communities used to meet. In the shade of Peliti we can find Federation of Madrid Neighbours’ Associations – FRAVM professional farmers, amateur growers, allotments, school Email: [email protected] vegetable gardens or community gardens.

For almost 20 years, Peliti has been mobilising the preservation, collection, exchange and multiplication of Greek local varieties, References through a network that has now reached more than 120.000 Anthopoulou, T. (ed), (2013). Urban Agriculture. Social Inclusion and growers. Participants save seeds, and share and exchange them Sustainable City. Case study of two municipal gardens in Northern Greece. Athens: Panteion University. with others. Seeds are distributed freely by post or at local festi- Stavrides, S. (2010). Towards the City of Thresholds. Trento: vals. There are 12 local groups of Peliti throughout the country, Professional dreamers. organising exchange and training events. Since 1999 Peliti has For more information been holding an annual national festival, every April, with seed Athens Community Gardens blogs. exchanges, workshops and conferences. Per.Ka. http://perka.org Peliti: www.peliti.gr Anoixto Diktio: http://open-works.org/pages/anoihto-diktyo-ypostirixis In 2012 Peliti started a seed bank in Paranestiou, supported by City Farmer Greece: http://cityfarmer.gr the municipality; a database of local varieties has been created;

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org Coping with Flooding 37 in Bangkok Piyapong Boossabong

From late 2011 to early 2012 many areas in Bangkok, the capital and the biggest city in Thailand, faced the most terrible flooding in roughly 70 years. Even though flooding is common in some areas in the city, this time more than half of the city was flooded with water levels reaching up to more than 2 metres. Food shortages occurred as a result of this disaster. Policy networks on urban agriculture played an important role in dealing with the urban food problems that emerged during the floods.

Floods and food shortages in Bangkok Bangkok’s inhabitants mainly depend on food transports from outside the city, especially dominated by a few monopoly food corporations. Such corporations own discount and conve- nience stores, which can be found everywhere. A survey by Rapijun Phoorisumboon (2012) found that these stores control ϔ food production and distribution, shape consumer food Photo: Health-Me Organic Delivery culture, and also contribute to a reduction of local food variety. Urban agriculture: an alternative strategy for When flooding converted the main road into a river, trans- dealing with the urban food agenda during floods portation of goods was interrupted. Many food industries Small-scale farming in the city is one of the cultural identi- and distribution stores were flooded as well. As a result, ties of Bangkok. Not only are there still 13,774 full-time farm- consumer demand for food could no longer be met, and food ing households out of a total population of 5.7 million, who prices increased. On average, food prices increased by 3-4 cultivate over 70,000 acres located in Bangkok’s periurban times, while in the case of vegetables, prices were even ten fringe (Policy and Planning Division, 2012); there are also times higher. many communities, organisations and households growing vegetables in the inner city. The awareness on city farming As a consequence, about 41,500 households could not access has clearly developed since 1997, when Thailand faced a enough food, while others lacked specific types of food harsh economic crisis known as the ‘Tom Yum Kung’ crisis. At (mainly fresh products) (surveyed by Bangkok Metropolitan that time, the King, who is generally respected by Thai people Administration in 15 October 2011). Certainly, the urban poor as a father of the country, made a speech about growing food and marginalised people were the most vulnerable and in limited areas by low-input methods and for self-reliance. affected. His speech promoted Thai people to grow food everywhere. Even though inner city farming is of small scale and only The mainstream food aid system and its contributes to a minor extent to an alternative food system, problems in many respects it is able to play an important role, specifi- The mainstream aid system responded to the food crisis by cally for the urban poor and marginalised groups. City farm- providing food through public agencies with the support of ing has been supported by many actors, especially since 2010 many corporations and international organisations. Mainly when the City Farm programme was endorsed by the dried and processed food items such as instant noodles and National Health Promotion Foundation, the Prime Minister’s canned fish were provided, while fresh food was rarely avail- Office. The various actions implemented by different actors able. Because of the centralised allocation units, “one-size-fits- under the umbrella of the City Farm programme are defined all” approach and political bias of food allocation, food aids did here as policy networks on urban agriculture (for more on the not reach and meet the need of many vulnerable groups. concept of policy networks see Marsh, 1998, p.8).

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org Coping with Flooding in Bangkok

The City Farm programme was funded under the food and aid system. They did so by mobilising local actor networks nutrition programme of the National Health Promotion and by utilising the capacity of the local food system. The Foundation and managed by many non-governmental following are some examples of the interventions supported bodies led by the Thailand Sustainable Agriculture by the policy networks during the floods. 38 Foundation, Centre of Media for Development, Working Group on Food for Change and the City Farm Association (a Providing food for the most vulnerable people cooperation of different social enterprises). The programme during the disaster involved a variety of actors, such as the District Administration While the most vulnerable households, such as the urban offices (local government), Green Market Networks, Slum poor and the marginalised groups, did not receive specific Dwellers Networks and Informal Labour Networks, green attention from the mainstream food aid system, the policy food corporations, social enterprises, social activists and networks on urban agriculture prioritised support to them. community based organisations. As vegetables were rare and very expensive during the flood period, the policy networks mainly provided vegetables collected from local sources and the urban agriculture Policies should adequately projects developed by them. respond to the urban food Providing materials and training on producing emergency food agenda that is at stake during The proverb “to teach somebody to fish is better than to give extreme climate events him fish” became one of the principles of the work of the policy networks. Next to food distribution, the policy networks provided a set of materials, training and assistance to the flood victims on simple and short-period food produc- At the beginning of the programme the policy networks tion, such as sprouts and mushrooms. Each household could promoted urban agriculture as an activity to enhance city produce 3 kilogrammes of sprouts every 3 days, while they dwellers’ livelihoods. However, the extreme flooding led the could produce 20 kilogrammes of mushrooms from 20 policy networks to rethink and reshape their strategies. chunks provided to them. To cook food without electricity, During the floods, the policy networks worked intensively victims were provided a solar power cooking box. and collectively to respond to the urban food shortages that had occurred. They realised that urban agriculture not only Developing food innovations for living with contributes to enhancing livelihoods, but can also be water promoted as a strategy for climate change mitigation and Once the floods were forecasted to persist longer, many of adaptation. the policy networks organised meetings and focus groups for sharing experiences and to develop food innovations for In dealing with the food agenda during floods, the policy living with water. They established the temporary move- networks filled the gap that was left by the mainstream food ment named “GOD”: “Growing Out Disaster”. They tried to

Training on growing sprouts at Kehatungsonghong-Samsoonhok Photo: Centre of Media for Development

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org Discussion The possibility of urban agriculture to enhance the adaptive capacity of the city to respond to the urban food agenda during an extreme climate event has now been demonstrated in a country that always considered itself to be a land 39 where food is abundant. Nevertheless, the policy networks on urban agriculture in Bangkok are still insufficiently recognised as alternative food governance mechanisms and can only contribute on a small scale, mainly as a result of continued government priorities to support the industrial food system, and the absence of international recognition for urban agriculture as a disaster risk reduction strategy. Apart from that, the policy networks on urban agriculture are hindered by contradictory roles of the national and regional governments. For example, while they agree with the development of food innovations such as floating gardens, they do not allow any objects that may obstruct the water flow in the river. The policy networks are also challenged by the problem of accessing land for farming in the city and securing the land rights of the city farms. The policy networks are not able to respond to such challenges alone as this requires a transformation of the formal land ownership structure in Bangkok.

ϔ A positive outcome however is that city dwellers have Photo: Nardsiri Gomonpun, City Farm programme coordinator become more aware of the issues of food insecurity and the right to food. The number of requests for training is increas- teach and share food innovations for living with water and ing. The policy networks are also expanding, as many new promoted these amongst the city dwellers. Some of the inno- actors become engaged. An important question that vations include rooftop gardening, vertical gardening, grow- remains is how to further enhance the collaborative gover- ing food in containers, hanging gardens, floating gardens, nance of the policy networks on urban agriculture to respond and applying a farming technique called “EM ball” (an effec- adequately to urban food agendas that are at stake during tive microorganism ball for flood water decontamination). possible future extreme climate events.

Supporting mutual aid during floods Piyapong Boossabong Another contribution of the policy networks was the support Head of the Thai City Farm Programme Monitoring and Evaluation to mutual flood aid between city farm consumers and Team, PhD. Candidate, Development Planning Unit, UCL producers who had joined the Community Supported Email: [email protected] Agriculture (CSA) programme facilitated by the policy networks. For example, the green restaurant called “Health-Me Organic Delivery”, in cooperation with the Green Market Network and the Working Group on Food for Change, Note established free cafeteria nodes located near the places of This article is a summarised version of a full paper that was the farmers that were flooded. The temporary cafeterias presented at the RGS-IBG International Conference on Governance of Urban Environmental Risks in the Global South, Edinburgh, became a space for daily cooking and eating food from these Scotland, 3-5 July 2012. producers. The green restaurant provides information that these cafeterias could feed roughly 2,100 victims from 5 References different areas. The policy networks also mobilised collective Boossabong, P., 2012, Growing Cities for Growing Life: Ideas and Practices of Urban Agriculture, Bangkok: National Health Promotion actions to share seeds with the involved city farmers and to Foundation and Thailand Sustainable Agriculture Foundation. support the farmers to re-establish and habilitate their plots Hutapate, K., 2011, Green Life Bag, Natural Agriculture Magazine, and farms. Vol.14, No.10, pp.5-7. Marsh, D. (ed.), 1998, Comparing Policy Networks. Buckingham and Moreover, the policy networks also played an important role Philadelphia: Open University Press. Phoorisumboon, R., 2012, The centralisation of food distribution and in criticising the priorities of the government, under which its impacts on food security during Thai ﬂoods. The national farm areas were poorly protected, and the role of monopo- conference on seed freedom, food sovereignty and food security, lised and centralised food distribution in the mainstream Kasetsart University, 16-17th May 2012. food system. They played a role in raising awareness on Policy and Planning Division, 2012, Agriculture in Bangkok, Research urban food security, food sovereignty, environmental Report, Department of City Planning, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. sustainability, and adaptation to climate change.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 32

The Beijing Urban Agriculture Policy Guidelines: A milestone

This paper presents the main points of the draft policy guidelines for development of urban agriculture in Beijing. These guidelines are currently awaiting final approval by the Beijing People’s Congress and will be an important milestone in the development of urban and periurban agriculture in the city of Beijing in the coming decades.

overing an area of 16,808 sq. km, the municipality of Beijing is divided C into 16 districts and 2 counties. In 2004, the registered population numbered over 14.5 million, of which 3.2

million were living in the periurban areas. Liu Junping. Millions of people have migrated to Beijing in search of jobs and economic Awards handed out at the “village for folklore” tours in Beijing security. At present there are more than 4 million migrants in the city (who lack the ecological function also received more agriculture like agro-tourism and status of a registered citizen of Beijing). attention. ecological management.

New and expanding businesses and The Beijing municipal government A key element in the city’s efforts to residential areas have pushed the urban adopted sustainable development as its develop periurban agriculture is the boundaries far into the areas surrounding main strategy after 1995. It also “2-2-1 Action Programme on Urban the city, leading to a large loss of unofficially included (multi-functional) Agriculture”, a comprehensive farmland in the periurban areas (about urban agriculture in its land use policy, programme initiated by the Beijing 40,600 hectares in the period 1986-1995 since all land in Beijing was zoned and municipal government in April 2004 that: alone). given a specific function, such as grain • analyses market demand production, agro-tourism, ecological • strengthens development and CHANGING VIEWS ON THE protection, food processing, and so on. management of agricultural resources FUNCTIONS OF (PERI)URBAN The 1995 Land Use Policy is based on the • mobilises investment in agriculture and AGRICULTURE IN BEIJING conviction that agricultural land in and credit provision to farmers Until recently, the Beijing policy on • strengthens cooperation among farmers agricultural land use was focused entirely Other functions of the • stimulates agricultural technology on the production of grains (especially periurban areas of development and maintains an rice). In the late eighties and early Beijing have also become information centre as a platform for nineties various measures were adopted important sharing agro-technologies and to slow down the loss of farmland experiences (especially prime agricultural land) in the around the city cannot be effectively • supports key agro-enterprises and Beijing municipal area, including the protected by the local government, builds up agro-product brands, “Regulations on the protection of Basic unless its economic return is comparable marketing and certification Farmland” issued in 1994 and the and competitive to other types of urban • supports greenhouse agriculture and establishment of the Bureau of Land land use. The enhancement of the value introduces new seeds. Management in 1995. Tree growing (e.g. of agricultural land use in urban and along highways) and the creation of periurban Beijing, therefore, became a As a result, the productivity of urban and periurban zones with an key objective of the municipal and agricultural land in periurban Beijing has district governments of Beijing, both by increased and traditional farming (mainly CAI Jianming, LIU Shenghe, YANG Zhenshan, stimulating changes in the agricultural grains) has gradually given way to more YUAN Hong, JIANG Fang production structure as well as by intensive production systems often ✉ [email protected] promoting other functions of periurban linked with agro-enterprises that

32 UA-Magazine 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 33

undertake the processing and marketing Tourism Association, drafted the Beijing - Integration of agricultural (herbs, vegetables, animal products, Urban Agriculture Policy Guidelines, production with ecological and social flowers, tree seedlings, pot plants, etc.). which were recently submitted for services. The social and ecological approval as a Municipal Bye law. benefits of urban agriculture are just as Other functions of the periurban areas of These guidelines contain the views of the valuable as the economic gains of urban Beijing have also become more agriculture for sustainable city important. For instance, agro-tourism in Urban agriculture development. The development of the periurban Beijing has made great has proven to be a agricultural production function has to progress in the last decade and generates powerful development be combined with the development of new income opportunities for the force in Beijing the ecological and social functions of farmers. Agriculture also increasingly urban agriculture for Beijing city plays a role in environmental Beijing municipal government on the development. improvement (urban greening, dust and comprehensive development of - Cooperation and diversity at heat reduction by tree growing, water agriculture in the periurban areas of different levels. Cooperation is needed management, recycling of organic Beijing, addressing its multi-functional and will be facilitated at district, city and wastes, etc.). More recently, the role of character. Through the development of regional level, and differences in periurban agriculture in enhancing social urban agriculture, the policy seeks to agricultural assets and social economic security and income /employment enhance the urban and periurban conditions between the various locations generation, especially for the poor economy, improve urban farmers’ will be taken into account. migrants, has also received increasing income, generate employment, enhance attention. social security and improve the Implementation of the policy guidelines environment. All of these factors will on urban agriculture will mainly focus on The RUAF programme, through its contribute to the goal of creating a three aspects: spatial allocation, regional partner IGSNRR, supported the sustainable city. implementation of support programmes design and implementation of the 2-2-1 and financing for urban agriculture. programme, through training, a situation The municipal government is proposing a analysis, multi-stakeholder action two-step plan. The first step is to planning and monitoring activities. modernise local agriculture in the coming A number of lessons have been learned 3-5 years, by diversifying different types through this programme in the past two of specialised production, modernising years: facilities, improving production • Urban agriculture needs to be fully processes, and modernising management integrated into city planning. (and labelling of products). The second • Public participation is important and step, in the subsequent 5-10 years, is to needs to be enhanced. Many decisions strive for an urban agriculture system require public involvement, because so that is integrated in the city’s sustainable

far the farmers’ interests alone are not development. Lu Mingwei considered enough. Cherry picking in Sijiqing gardens, • There is a lack of investment in urban BASIC PRINCIPLES Haidian district, Beijing agriculture. This is the most common The principles of the new urban complaint from the urban agricultural agriculture development policy can be SPATIAL ALLOCATION stakeholders. summarised as follows: The spatial structure of Beijing has a • More research is needed on the impacts concentric configuration. Various belts of urban agriculture and its - Linking local conditions to the (i.e. the inner city belt, the inner suburban development needs to be more closely Beijing master plan. The development belt, the outer suburban belt, the monitored. of urban agriculture in each district or mountainous area, and surrounding rural There is too much duplication of projects, county of Beijing should comply with the areas) have different agricultural assets, e.g. redundancy of agro-tourism facilities requirements of the Beijing master plan such as land and water, which has led to in the same area. as well as take the specific characteristics the development of different types of Collaboration between agro-based of the local situation into consideration. agriculture and other activities. The enterprises and farmers (including - Market orientation. Agricultural Beijing Urban Agricultural Policy migrants) needs to be stimulated. production and management and agro- identifies a specific strategy for the industry production will more strongly development of urban agriculture in each THE (DRAFT) BEIJING URBAN follow market demand for agricultural zone. AGRICULTURE POLICY GUIDELINES products and other services (regional, (2006) national and international markets). IMPLEMENTATION PROGRAMMES Based on the experiences gained in the - Efficient use of resources. Furthermore, a number of programmes 2-2-1 programme, the Beijing Agricultural Introduction and use of new agricultural will be undertaken in each belt (see table) Bureau, assisted by the international technologies will be oriented towards a that link the development of urban RUAF-programme through its regional more efficient use of available resources, agriculture with the various objectives of partner IGSNRR and the Beijing Agro- particularly land and water. integrated city development.

October 2006 33 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 34

The modernisation of the agricultural sector will be stimulated by improving the basic infrastructure, building agricultural facilities, and human capacity building, including building greenhouses, irrigation systems and promoting new types of energy, such as wind and bio-energy. The presence of the city’s infrastructure and markets are important and the urban agricultural enterprises in Beijing will be stimulated to fully exploit the existing and future markets, establish agro-logistic systems, Spatial allocation of urban agriculture activities in Beijing and add output value by using new agricultural technologies. FINANCING • A facilitative environment will be Key sectors will be given priority, like Beijing will adopt the following policies created for further development of seed production and distribution, the for financing the development of urban urban agriculture, involving farmers and production of local specialised products, agriculture: consumers in the planning process by agro-processing and agro-ecotourism. applying a multi-stakeholder approach • Various sources of possible investment to project planning and implementation. The multiple functions of urban will be explored and stimulated, like • Local governments will strengthen agriculture will be fully exploited. fiscal budgets of municipal and local monitoring and management of the Activities to enhance the ecological governments, enterprise investments, implementation of these activities and functions include tree planting in the various types of bank loans, and foreign an impact evaluation system will be inner city, construction of green zones in investment. established. Participatory and self- the inner suburban areas, recovery of • Local governments will facilitate the evaluation is a necessary part of this system. Objective level Programmes Adjusting the agricultural industrial structure CONCLUSIONS Construction of agricultural facilities Urban agriculture has proven to be a pow- Agricultural Improvement of food security erful development force in Beijing. It has growth Improvement of industrial management and operation of improved the living standards of its inhab- agriculture itants by generating employment and Broadening the agricultural market income for resident and migrant urban Establishing an agro-technology service system and improving farmers. It promotes social cohesion by Rural public services in periurban areas engaging citizens in the urban-planning construction Improving the ICT infrastructure in periurban areas process. It maintains urban green spaces City Enhancing the social functions of urban agriculture and limits urban sprawl. It encourages development Strengthening the ecological function of urban agriculture proper management and recycling of urban water resources. Table 1 Implementation programmes and related policy objectives The new policy guidelines will foster the further development of urban and periur- degraded and waste lands, reduction of availability and implementation of ban agriculture in Beijing as an integral agricultural contamination, and critical and advanced agricultural part of its sustainable city development preservation of vegetation in the technologies. strategy. Approval of these guidelines will mountainous areas. The development of • Governments should guarantee basic be an important milestone in the develop- regulations for environmental protection infrastructure and agro-facilities, such ment of urban agriculture in Beijing. of vulnerable areas should protect areas as water, electricity and transport. that are of special ecological importance. PLANNING AND MONITORING References Social functions will be stimulated by In order to implement and monitor these Beijing Bureau of Land and Housing providing training and mutual learning in policy guidelines the following measures Management, 1997, Land resources in Beijing periurban communities and participation will be taken: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Statistics, 2004, Beijing Statistical Yearbook 2004, China Statistics of citizens in decision making. Press Agricultural associations are seen as an • Acceleration of the planning process on Beijing Urban Agriculture Development Policy important means to enhance the urban agriculture will be the main task Guidelines (Draft), 2006 Yang Zhenshan, 2005, Enterprise-based urban inclusion of migrants and small farmers for governmental agencies. In order to agriculture development in Peri-urban Beijing in this process and to link them with achieve this aim, close collaboration and (master’s thesis), Institute of Geographical agro-enterprises, NGOs and local coordination between various Sciences and Natural Resources Research Research Team, 2005, Study on Land use governments. departments and officials will be Strategy in Beijing, Institute of Geographical necessary. Sciences and Natural Resources Research

34 UA-Magazine Different types of Agricultural Cooperatives with Periurban Farmers in China: two cases

In 1978, China started to dismantle the commune system and the so- called “eating from the same big Hong Yuan pot” that existed for decades, i.e. absolute egalitarianism whereby everyone gets the same benefits irrespective of his/her performance. Village land began to be contracted to peasant families on a 30-year basis in most cases and a system of “household contract responsibility” was introduced that set farm output quotas for each household and linked remuneration to output.

his mobilised the peasants’ enthusiasm for agricultural production. T But as the market economy developed, the “household contract responsi- Cooperative chairperson Ms. Zan explains the history of the cooperative to visitors bility” system became less adequate, since it did not sufficiently stimulate moderni- some villages (like in the outer parts of village management may make arrange- sation of the farming systems and left the periurban region of Beijing), land is ments for large-scale production (or small-scale farmers in a weak position on allocated according to land-use rights and other land use e.g. agritourism parks) in the markets. Hence, agricultural coopera- managed by the villagers individually. In cooperation with one or more agro-enter- tives were created that facilitate capacity this situation farmer cooperatives can be prises and/or a (local, district, provincial) building and joint marketing, often closely built from the bottom up with the small- government, if the villagers holding land- linked to (party-led) village-level manage- scale farmers. In this type of cooperative use rights agree to participate. ment. There are currently about 150,000 the small farmers establish a contract with farmer cooperatives in the country, 1,000 the cooperative to which they supply their In such a top-down cooperative, the of which are located in periurban Beijing. products and from which they receive villagers may become shareholders by training, marketing and other services. contributing their land use rights while the Privately owned land does not exist in Such cooperatives are often relatively external partners bring in capital and/or China; all land is owned by the state (in loosely organised and their formation technology. urban areas) or by village collectives (in might be hampered by the scattered rural areas). This fact determines the way location of the small farmers in the Below we present two cases, one of a top- cooperatives are organised. Two main village area. In addition, the bottom-up down cooperative and one of a bottom-up forms of agricultural cooperatives can be cooperatives often lack sufficient capital, cooperative of periurban farmers, to illus- distinguished: technology and management skills. trate the strengths and weaknesses of both Top-down cooperatives (in which models in the actual Chinese context. Bottom-up cooperatives (in which governmental organisations and/or large farmers themselves play a key role): In agro-entreprises play a dominant role): THE DINGXIANG COUNTY GREEN In some villages, villagers hold land-use FOOD ASSOCIATION IN DINGXIANG: Feifei Zhang rights, but the land is managed collectively A TOP-DOWN PROCESS Institute of Geographical Sciences and rather than individually, and the village With a contribution by Mr Xishan Gong, Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR) committee will periodically allot dividends Engineer General in Dingxiang Agriculture Guoxia Wang to the villagers according to their land-use Bureau Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shangxi Province, rights. This situation can often be encoun- Jianming Cai tered closer to the cities where land prices Dingxiang is a county located in the IGSNRR are rising quickly as well as new produc- periurban area of Xinzhou, a small city Corresponding author: tion, processing and marketing opportuni- of about 150,000 inhabitants in Shanxi  [email protected] ties. Since the land is not distributed, the province. Dingxiang county used to be

36 2 *;A;TCH? René van Veenhuizen only on grape growing. Ms Zan was second strategy is to sell grapes to tourists elected as chairperson for the first term of (“pick your own fruits”). Since Huairou five years, mainly because she had demon- is located in a scenic mountainous area, strated her skills as a marketing manager thousands of tourists from Beijing visit the for the cooperative. region each year, many of whom enjoy picking grapes at local farms. Members After two years of operation, the coopera- sell some 20% of their products in this tive proved to be quite successful and the way. The third strategy is to sell cold- number of members increased to 1,108 stored grapes in the off season for much households. In 2006, the gross output of higher prices. The cooperative was able to grapes reached 3.1 million kg, with average build a 100 m2 low-temperature storage income per mu up to 15,000 yuan (more facility thanks to a 100,000 yuan grant Improved rainwater harvesting for grape than 40 times that of traditional grape from the Huairou scientific commission. production by migrants in Huairou growing). It is obvious that the members This prolonged the selling period by eight of the cooperative have increased their months and allowed the cooperative to HISTORY OF THE COOPERATIVE incomes substantially. obtain the trust required for long-term After completing a two-year study relationships with big traders. programme organised by the China TRAINING SERVICES SUPPLIED BY Grape Association Beijing Branch, Mr THE COOPERATIVE CHALLENGES AND FUTURE Qingzhong Zhao, together with his wife The cooperative not only supplies high- PERSPECTIVES Ms Xiaojing Zan, rented in 1998 a piece quality young plants at low prices to This bottom-up farmer cooperative has of land of 20 mu1) from the Angezhuang its members, but also provides training broken new ground. Its success demon- village commission and built up 5 green- and technical advice. Mr. Zhao provides strates the effectiveness of this new type houses to grow 17 new varieties of grapes. technical assistance to farmers under the of organisation. However, based on the The business was so successful that in condition that they buy their young plants experience of Huairou Grape Cooperative, 2000 they rented another 50 mu of land from him. Every Monday is consultation some challenges can still be identified: from Liyuanzhuang village to expand their day for grape farmers. Since 2002, the • The cooperative is still highly dependent activities. cooperative has been gathering informa- on its founders, Ms Zan, the chairperson tion about grape production, including the and able marketing manager, and her The success of their grape farm stimulated latest developments about grape growing husband Mr Zhao, who is very skilled in local farmers to start initiatives of their from the internet, and makes this informa- grape growing. This couple still does an own. They came to the couple asking for tion available to the farmers. Technicians excellent job and they complement each planting materials (which were initially from the China Agricultural University, other very well. However, the coopera- given for free), technical guidance and Beijing Agricultural College and China tive needs to train more persons to take marketing support. When more and more Grape Society are invited (and paid) by the on various specialised technical and producers started to consult the young cooperative to provide advise when more management tasks and to take over from couple, it became too much of a burden complicated problems are encountered the actual leaders when the need arises. and they could no longer afford to give and to provide training on the latest grape • Small bottom-up cooperatives like the away seedlings for free. growing technologies. So far, the coopera- Hairou Grape Cooperative encounter tive has organised 8 training workshops problems in obtaining sufficient govern- By then, the couple had begun considering for more than 3,800 participants, and ment support and generating the capital the idea of establishing a supply-produc- more than 20 domestic and foreign grape needed for required investments (cold tion-marketing cooperative. The coopera- varieties have been introduced in this way. storage, drip irrigation). tive would take care of the marketing of • The most urgent task of the coopera- their products, including cold storage The cooperative has also adopted a tive is to register and advertise its own facilities to store grapes that cannot be programme of “learning new things by brand and develop its own high-level sold directly to the markets. going outside” and has organised ten study green food certificate for its supermarket trips to Hebei, Shandong and Tianjin for channel. The initial phase of setting up this a total of 640 participants. This activity • Agritourism (sightseeing, fruit picking) cooperative was not easy due to the lack broadens not only the farmers’ knowledge is a good approach for raising the value of launching capital. Ms Zan persuaded but also their production and marketing of the agricultural products, since urban her family to sell their home and gathered channels. tourists show a strong interest in eating in this way 20,000 YUAN to initiate the or buying local food and experiencing cooperative with a dozen farm house- MARKETING SERVICES the production and harvesting process. holds as members. Standards for growing The cooperative applies three main More research on agritourism and the grapes and regulations for operating the marketing strategies. The first is to taste preferences of urban citizens is cooperative were defined. By 2004, the establish contracts with supermarkets. needed. cooperative was officially registered as Subsequently the cooperative makes “Huairou Fruit and Vegetable Production contracts with its members to pre-book NOTE 1) 1 mu equals about 667 m2. and Marketing Cooperative”, although the growers’ products. Members sell currently its production is still focused about 30% of their grapes in this way. The

s the capital and one of the biggest encounter is access to land. Farmland in tions of migrant farmers are also poor. cities in China, Beijing is one of Beijing is owned by village committees. They usually build their humble dwellings A the most favoured destinations for The only way for a migrant farmer to get beside the rented farmland or green- migrants. A one percent sampling popula- access to land is to rent it directly from the houses. Their homes are small, usually tion survey in 2005 found that there were local village committee or through one of only 20-40 square metres, and barely nearly 3.6 million migrants in Beijing, the local farmers. Since June 2004, the furnished. Kitchens and toilets are very 80,000 of whom were directly involved in Beijing government has been promoting simple and usually located outside. agricultural activities, and up to 524,000 of “the transfer of the contractual right of The homes have no heating devices, and whom were engaged in related activities. land” to make it easier for migrants to many residents use firewood and coal (out lease land. In reality, though, migrant of tradition or because of low costs). Research was undertaken in four villages farmers’ right to land is not clear, and The survey revealed that one of the in Chaoyang and Shunyi district as part of most often control remains with the land reasons for these poor living conditions the RUAF Cities Farming for the Future owner. Also irregularities in contracts is that many migrant farmers initially do programme. Chaoyang district is close create problems. This limits the flexibility not see this “city lifestyle” as a long-term to the built-up areas in Beijing, and has of migrant farmers in planning and thus situation. But as their incomes improve, various types of land use. Shunyi district in their development (competition they start investing in their homes (for is located about 40 km away from the city capacity). Also, irrigation water is still example, by adding LPG and electricity). centre. It is the area’s traditional bread provided by canals, which is not efficient basket, with relatively stable land use. The and highly wasteful. Agricultural cooperatives number of migrant farmers is higher in Migrant farmers sell their grains, vege- Chaoyang than in Shunyi. Access to financing is also difficult for tables and fruits in the following ways: migrant farmers. Most farmers rely (A) door-to-door, which is the most Livelihoods on informal private loans, which have popular way; (B) directly at wholesale Migrant farmers encounter a number of been affected by the reform of the rural markets; (C) to re-sellers or restaurants; difficulties after they arrive, for example banking system in China (which has (D) through farmers’ organisations; and in building a dwelling and in finding their further weakened the uncertain position (E) through agro-tourism arrangements place in the production chain. The first of migrant farmers). Both in buying inputs (field picking). For instance, migrant and most important problem they and in selling their products, migrant farmers in Dongjiangying in Shunyi farmers are almost always at a disadvan- sell their grains directly to the nearby tage, because of their lack of money and grain storehouse. In some cases, migrant information. Initially, the city had a restric- farmers organise themselves in a coopera- Zhang Feifei, Cai Jianming, Liu Gang tive registration policy for migrants, but tive, as in Xiaodian, in Chaoyang, where Institute of Geographical Sciences and this situation has improved considerably. the migrant farmers jointly acquired Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR), access to farmland and distributed it Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Other major problems migrant farmers among themselves. Such cooperatives Beijing (and other migrants) now face include the also organise their production and seek  [email protected] high cost of education and the relatively marketing channels.  [email protected] low quality of schools. The living condi-

'OFS 25 There is a noticeable trend among other well and trust each other, i.e. after The role of urban agriculture migrant farmers to develop and organise the migrant farmer has been in Beijing Since the mid-1980s, township and village themselves from the first stage of selling for several years (and is thus more enterprises have developed rapidly in their products directly to the consumers, integrated). Beijing, as local farmers in periurban through the next step of using inter- Beijing turn more and more to non- mediaries and finally to selling through Migrant farmers have strong links to their agricultural activities. This leads in turn to cooperatives, thereby consistently home towns and only gradually develop a lack of agricultural labour and deteriora- increasing their profits and saving time. connections to other migrants and to local tion of urban farmland. Villages in In this way migrant farmers are connected communities in the new city. Some older periurban Beijing have therefore gradu- to the city and contribute to the building migrant farmers go back home, but young ally imported migrant farmers from of communities. people mentioned in the survey that they Hebei, Henan, Shandong provinces, etc., would like to continue farming in the who are introduced to the area by their Migrant farmers’ social network city. Migrant farmers develop a relation- relatives and friends. At present Beijing Though they work and live in the city, ship with local communities initially only periurban agriculture is undertaken migrant farmers do not have formal through the market, as it is difficult to mainly by migrant farmers. This benefits connections to the city. The ties with their develop new social contacts. Although both migrants and the local population. home towns are quite close and most of the migrants share some of the same the migrant farmers go back home one to needs as other residents, the sometimes So gradually the living and production two times each year, have regular contact hostile environment keeps them isolated style and experiences of migrant farmers with their relatives, and send home remit- from the local community. It can also be change, that is, from rural agriculture to tances. Because of the high education difficult to build relationships among urban agriculture. This not only improves costs in the city, some children attend each other, as they may quarrel over such their own incomes, but also guaran- school at home and are taken care of by things as the order of watering land. tees productive use of periurban areas, their grandparents. However, the farmers often sell products supplies of niche products to the city jointly and generally collaborate to a high market, the development of other land use The incomes of most migrant farmers degree. functions (recreation and leisure), and the are higher after migration to the city building of new communities. Developing (increasing on average from 350 to 500 BUILDING NEW COMMUNITIES multi-functional urban agriculture could euros per person per year), but still After coming to the city, migrant farmers be a way of developing periurban land, lower than the average of local farmers face the challenge of building a new social maintaining green spaces, developing (800 euro). The cost of living in the city network. They are often prepared to take recreation and providing education for is higher than in the rural areas, and in up agriculture, while the local farmers children. If migrant farmers fulfil these addition migrant farmers are responsible increasingly find new jobs in the city. needs through organising themselves in a for houses and land both in their new city This relieves the tension between local cooperative, they will acquire a stronger and in their home towns. The average and migrant farmers to some extent. position in bargaining with policy makers “daily-life” expenditure per year is about Migrant farmers gradually adapt to the and integrating in the community. 400 euros, which is substantially lower new city. Most of them come to Beijing than the average expenditures on through relatives or countrymen who Increasingly migrant farmers play production (1,500 euros) and savings/ have been in Beijing for a period of time. valuable roles in the development of remittances (1,000 euros). After arriving in the city, new migrant urban and periurban agriculture, and new farmers need to build a network to protect migrant farmer communities continue Usually migrant farmers send a big part themselves and strive to earn profits in to emerge. Under current government of their earnings back home (and are an unknown environment. This includes policy, it is possible for innovative migrant thus able to save very little for their own uniting with other migrant farmers from farmers, in cooperation with local existing expenses in the city). The resulting lack different provinces, compromising to farmers’ cooperatives, to develop the of funds makes it difficult for them to buy satisfy local stakeholders and strengthen relatively weak ties among migrant inputs in the growing season. Migrant their original networks. farmers into strong cooperatives to farmers have three main sources from strengthen the process of integration and which to borrow money: Education is an important issue for as such facilitate the migration of more - People living in Beijing who come from migrants. Migrant farmers acquire a farmers to Beijing. the same region. This is very common higher income in the city, but suffer from since migrant farmers’ social networks a lower quality of life. Some of them do References Feng Xiaoying. 1996. Investigation and analysis of (as defined by Chinese rural tradition) not stay very long, but the children of farmer issues among Beijing’s migrants. are based on and strengthened by those who do remain grow up in the Economy Research Refernce.. familial and local ties. city and their feeling of community and Zhang, F. Wang, G. and Cai, J. 2007. Migrants’ Access to Land in Periurban Beijing. - Other migrant farmers. This is possible identity is based there. However, it is Urban Agriculture Magazine No.11:6-8. because the farmers live in close difficult for these children to get access to Website of Beijing rural work committee: communities (and are often rather high-quality education. They risk disap- the investigation on the transfer of the contractual right of land. isolated from the local community). pointment in life and subsequent psycho- http://www.bjnw.gov.cn/jqdt/tzggyjzcx/ncjtjj- - Local farmers. This is only an option logical problems or negative attitudes are cqzd/200607/t20060706_27816.html if the borrower and lender know each relatively high for this group.

26 2 *;A;TCH? Innovations in Greenhouse Rainwater Harvesting System in Beijing, China

Beijing is a city faced with a shortage of water. Less than 600 mm of rain rainwater. Water is guided through the falls per year; but this figure is highly variable and actual rainfall has been rainwater collection flume at the bottom lower than average in the past eight years. Less than 300 cubic metres of of the greenhouse into a deposit pool and water is available per person per year; this is one eighth of the average pumped into an underground storage volume per person available in the country as a whole and one thirtieth of pool, where the temperature of the water the world average. Because of the downward trend in rainfall, surface water increases and it is mixed with micro- is gradually drying up and the level of ground water is declining. compost. The water is then again pumped into a basin and through gravity it enters the micro-irrigation system. An average ture under the motto “tap new sources greenhouse of this type is about 85 metres he agricultural sector consumes a of supply, reduce consumption and long and 8 metres wide. The plastic roof large volume of water, 90% of which prevent pollution”. Rainwater harvesting measures about 900 square metres, while T is groundwater. Excessive use of is one of these projects. The technology the cultivable area under the roof is about water for agriculture threatens Beijing’s of using the surface of greenhouses 500 square metres. ecology and the availability of water for to collect rainwater was developed in consumption. The lack of a sufficient China in 2005 by the Beijing Agricultural This technology has a number of advan- water supply also influences glass- Technology Dissemination Station and tages. Firstly, it taps a new source of house agriculture around Beijing since the Soil & Compost Work Station. Both water – rainwater – thereby reducing the it is increasingly difficult to get access authorities fall under the Beijing Bureau of pressure on groundwater. In areas that are to groundwater. Thus, saving water in Agriculture. The construction of this type suitable for agriculture, but have limited agriculture has become an urgent task and of greenhouse is subsidised and farmers access to water, the technology allows a common goal for the whole society. are supported by exhibitions, training, agricultural production and increases farmer to farmer exchanges and websites. livelihood options. The rainwater is of In April 2007 the Beijing municipal good quality for irrigation and suitable government started to charge a fee The capturing of rainwater is combined for micro-irrigation. The chemical for agricultural water use exceeding with efficient irrigation techniques (drip composition of rainwater is such that it a particular quota (depending on the irrigation). The farmers are further stimu- rarely jams micro-irrigation pipes. The production type, e.g. paddy rice, wheat, lated to include a reuse component by technology provides a reliable supply of aquaculture, vegetable gardening, fruit composting and producing biogas (see water (especially important under erratic trees, or livestock). Now if farmers exceed figure). rainfall), and thus stimulates the produc- their quota, they have to pay 0.08 Yuan per tion of several harvests of a wider diversity extra cubic metre of water used for grain The technology consists of a greenhouse of crops. This increases the benefits for crops and 0.16 Yuan per cubic metre used (see figure) with a special roof that collects farmers, and subsequently stimulates the for other crops. Most farmers are able to limit their use to stay within the quota, but with decreasing rainfall, it is becoming more important to save water and find other sources, like rainwater. Farmers’ water use for home consumption is not limited by a quota (a separate system has been implemented for this type of water use).

A NEW TECHNOLOGY The Department of Water Saving, of the Water Authority, has undertaken a series of projects on saving water in agricul-

Zhang Feifei, Cai Jianming, Ji Wenhua IGSNRR [email protected] Structure of rainwater harvesting system (one greenhouse)

20 2 *;A;TCH? local economy. After the structure is built 2.5 m high). In the rainy season, the big other farmers in vegetable and fruit by local builders, it is relatively simple to pond cannot contain all of the collected production, aquaculture, fishing and use and maintain. rainwater, so excess water will then be other leisure activities. used for aquifer recharge. The cost of - Due to the enormous pull of the labour HUAIROU constructing a big pond is estimated to market in Beijing, more and more Supported by the city of Beijing and be 200,000 Yuan (20.000 Euro) (which is farmers are getting jobs in urban areas, implemented by the Bureau of Agriculture cheaper than constructing three smaller and as a result, only elders and women and the Beijing Water Company, two pilot ponds). are engaged in agriculture. The poten- projects have been started in Huairou tially higher income of urban agriculture disctrict (one of the 10 districts in Beijing). may keep labour in the area. By using a rainwater harvesting system and It costs 80,000 Yuan (8,000 euros) to build drop irrigation in Grapes production in a - It will improve the regional food system a small tank system, but these projects greenhouse, less money needs to be spent on and development direct linkages are being fully subsidised by the Beijing labour, pesticides and electricity for pumping between farmers and urban consumers water, thereby reducing costs to about 950 government. This technology is now being Euro per greenhouse per year. This system is of organic produce; used for the production of about 10,000 ha currently being tested. - It is important to improve the regional in Huairou, and accounts for 85.3% of all food system and develop direct linkages land under irrigation. In 2007, twenty new between farmers and urban consumers rainwater greenhouses were built. The structure of a rainwater harvesting of organic produce; system under construction in Huairou - It provides an experience with participa- Each greenhouse can collect up to about tive/bottom-up development of cooper- 200 cubic metres of rainwater per year The RUAF-CFF programme supports atives and famers' organisations. (capturing water from May to October). the organisational development of the However, in the past years this amount cooperative to improve its functioning and A number of challenges remain, which has never been reached due to erratic the support it provides to its members. are the focus of current research. A first rainfall. For one cropping cycle, grapes This involves the establishment of a multi- challenge is the technical design of the need 85-100 m3/mu, Chinese cabbage functional rainwater harvesting system pond, considering the distance over which needs around 100 m3/mu, cucumber and development of the agri-tourism water has to be pumped back to the needs 60-80m3/mu, and tomato needs 80 component. The SWITCH programme greenhouses and for other uses. Another m3/mu (1 mu is approximately 670 square supports this endeavour by conducting challenge concerns the amount of land metres; the standard greenhouse would research into water flows and water needed for this system. Research will have 500 square meters or about 0.75 mu). quality. have to look into the supply of water and whether this pond could meet the needs Capturing 200 cubic meters of rainwater The proposed system will be composed of: of agricultural production every year. One would allow for 2-3 cropping cycles per - five rainwater harvesting greenhouses of the main aims and challenges for the year. But due to the scarcity of rainfall and that will support the activities of cooperative is to reduce the use of ground- land to store the water, in practice most individual farmers in the greenhouse, water while at the same time improving farmers using this technology still need to additional farming on land outside the the farmers’ incomes. add groundwater. greenhouse, other activities and aquifer In addition work needs to be done in recharge; demonstrating the potential of this pilot IMPROVING THE SYSTEMS - reuse of household grey and black water project to cooperative members and Huairou Fruit and Vegetable Cooperative and organic waste for composting and related institutions. Therefore, not only is one of the government’s pilot projects a biogas installation (for light bulbs the technical aspects, but also the whole (see UA-Magazine no. 18). The cooperative in greenhouses; compost dissolved in development process in Huairou, will specialises in the production of grapes and irrigation water); be recorded for use elsewhere and for Chinese dates. The cooperative currently - a pond system designed as an ecological showing that the system can improve the encompasses 1108 households and it has landscape (with reed, duckweed and quality of water, and provide benefits to built five greenhouses in its contracted fish) and recreational facility; various stakeholders. This approach is also farmland. But according to the coopera- - tourism/leisure infrastructure (fishing, still being researched by the cooperative. tive’s leaders, the potential of this system houses, regional food and products). has not been fully explored. In light of the opportunities offered by the growing The development of this project is based market in Beijing and the multiple on the following arguments: functions urban agriculture can offer (see - It is easier to build a big pond than five earlier papers on this in UA-Magazine), small tanks (in terms of space available René van Veenhuizen the cooperative plans to extend the single and design), although the initial cost production units into an integrated system may be higher. by combining the five greenhouses that do - It could be used to promote agri-tourism not include a rainwater harvesting system. activities, such as fishing, and lodging. The rainwater from five greenhouses - A wider impact on the community will be collected in a big pond of about is sought by developing the multiple 500 cubic metres (20 m long, 10 m wide, functions of agriculture, by involving Growing a wider diversity of crops in the greenhouse

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg'(6eg^a'%&% www.ruaf.org Creating the Urban Agriculture Forum in Belo Horizonte: 21 a multi-stakeholder Ivana Cristina Lovo, Katia Maria Silveira Pessoa, Zoraya Bernadete Souza ,Sonia de Fátima Rabelo Coutinho, experience Ana Barros, Daniela Almeida

This paper summarises work attempting to Brazil and the Network for the Interchange of Alternative answer two apparently simple questions: Can Technologies (REDE). The Executive Secretariat has the role of leading the deliberations of the Plenary and the Steering urban agriculture reduce urban poverty? And, if it Committee and mobilising the different institutions to carry can, in what ways can poverty be reduced? It also out the planned activities and to implement outreach/ explores the role of value chain analysis in under- dissemination efforts. Finally, Working Groups are executive and operational bodies related to the strategic objectives of standing better the role of urban agriculture. the Action Plan. SMASAN has been serving as the Executive Secretariat since May 2010.

Since the election of the first democratic and popular administration in Belo Horizonte (BH), Brazil, in PLENARY – BH UA FORUM 1993, urban agriculture has steadily increased in this metro- City Strategic Agenda politan area1. In 2005, the NGO REDE and the municipality of Belo Horizonte (PBH) worked together in creating the condi- STEERING COMMITTEE tions for the RUAF Cities Farming for the Future Programme (CFF). The main result of the CCF Programme in BH was the Specific Exec. development of a planning and management instrument, Working Secretariat Groups the City Strategic Agenda (or Action Plan) on urban agriculture, which encouraged a dialogue between the public sector and civil society and created space for dialogue and management (implementing, reviewing and monitoring The Urban Agriculture Action Plan the impacts of the agreed activities). The Action Plan has six strategic objectives to be reached through operational objectives and strategic actions in the The multi-stakeholder Forum on urban agriculture in Belo short, medium and long term. It covers a period of 10 years Horizonte was created during CFF and officially inaugurated – from 2008 to 2018. The Action Plan requires constant during the seminar entitled “Belo Horizonte Farming for the dialogue and planning of actions, so that all those involved Future: Urban Agriculture as an Instrument for Managing the can agree on the short-term objectives and seek alternatives City”, on June 2, 2008. It currently consists of 49 institutions. as needed.

Management of the Forum is illustrated in figure 1. The The Action Plan itself has no specific budget, but consists of Plenary is the highest-level decision-making institution, actions proposed by the stakeholders of the Forum, made up of all those interested in working with the Forum. which can be already-planned activities or new projects. In The Plenary approves, monitors and evaluates the Action the 2009-2010 period, the Forum implemented actions at a Plan (or City Strategic Agenda); it further defines the total cost of USD 800,000 (see table 1). In addition to the priorities for each biennium, and also elects the Steering resources listed in the table, the Action Plan is also Committee and the Working Groups. The Steering supported through the efforts and resources of other Committee (Grupo Gestor) is made up of institutions actors, like the participating organisations of the selected by the Plenary, together with the Executive Metropolitan Urban Agriculture Organization (AMAU), Secretariat. It coordinates the Working Groups, implemen- the University of Minas Gerais, other NGOs and tation of the Action Plan and the various government departments of the PBH, and through the work done and sectors and civil society groups whose work is related to hours spent by the farmers participating in the productive urban agriculture, whether they are participants in the groups. Forum or not. The Steering Committee is currently made up of the municipality of Belo Horizonte (PBH), represented by the Deputy Municipal Secretariat of Nutritional Food Security (SMASAN) and the Municipal Park Foundation, IPES-

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Creating the Urban Agriculture Forum in Belo Horizonte

Table 1 - Investments in the Belo Horizonte Urban Agriculture Forum– (USD) 2009-2010 Items/ Institutions / SMASAN FPM Reg. SWITCH From Seed CAAUP- REDE TOTAL Projects (SMAAB) Barreiro Project to Table RMBH Admin. Project (FStT) 22 Training 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 22941.18 81236.71 74411.76 178589.64 Technical Assistance 128573.60 137031.80 0.00 0.00 48676.47 51550.03 115270.58 481102.48 Monitoring 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 20588.24 44673.70 5294.12 70556.06 Inputs and equipment 3716.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 33088.24 0.00 0 36804.71 Infrastructure 0.00 0.00 2328.82 7058.82 0.00 0.00 0 9387.65 Water 4129.41 13764.71 3352.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 21247.06

Electric power 3730.24 3867.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 7598.12 TOTAL 140149.72 154664.39 5681.76 7058.82 125294.12 177460.44 194976.46 805285.71 Exchange rate used: USD 1.00 = R$1.70

Biannual plans include a prioritised list of activities for each registered as micro-entrepreneurs, which provided them with period, and a division of responsibilities among the members official documentation that made it possible for the public of the Steering Committee and other stakeholders partici- schools to buy their products. This commercial initiative was pating in the Forum. Each local stakeholder has imple- unprecedented in Belo Horizonte. mented some activities in the Plan, in line with their own institutional priorities. With the objective of training farmers, public officials, community agents, and the university community in urban In the period 2008-2010, 25 percent of the strategic actions agriculture, agro-ecology and economic solidarity, the were implemented and 33 percent were in the process of Rede-MG carried out a number of activities under the being implemented. Particular progress had been made auspices of the CAAUP-RMBH – Urban and Periurban related to institutionalising a policy on urban agriculture Agriculture Support Centre of the Belo Horizonte in Belo Horizonte. In the period 2009-2010 three proposed Metropolitan Region. These activities became part of a laws related to urban agriculture were discussed by the City broad-based and ongoing training programme. Council. Law No. 9.959/10, related to the City Conference, a participatory process in city planning, was approved and The FStT Project and the CAAUP-RMBH were monitored included a review of the Master Land Use Plan, which recog- through the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), nises urban agriculture as an accepted form of non- based on the pioneering initiative of the Cities Farming for residential land use. Law No. 274/2009, on establishing a the Future Programme (CFF). The preliminary dissemination municipal urban agriculture policy, was discussed in 2009 of the impacts of urban agriculture led to the production of and 2010 within meetings of the Steering Committee of the academic publications (articles, monographs, master and Forum, and in an expanded meeting held in the City Council, doctor theses) and specialised journals. The next evaluation which led to substantive changes in the proposed law; the of the implementation of the Action Plan on urban agricul- revised version was approved on 9 June 2011. Other notewor- ture is scheduled to take place by mid-2011, with a municipal thy achievements in the area of institutionalisation are the seminar, during which participants will evaluate what was initiative of the Northeast Administrative Regional Office done during the previous two-year period (2011-2012) and to hold a series of debates about urban agriculture activities select a new Steering Committee. in 2010, and the Let Onça Drink Clean Water Movement, which incorporated urban agriculture concepts as one of its Lessons Learned main elements for planning land use to revitalise the Baixo Developing and agreeing on an Action Plan with a variety of Onça stream and to transform the local reality. stakeholders was an important step in realising collective action that involves civil society and the public sector. Among efforts to strengthen the organisation of farmers, The joint definition of priority objectives and actions was AMAU’s activities are worth mentioning. Throughout 2010 important to avoid duplication of efforts and the defence of AMAU had a well-diversified representation, especially among isolated institutional and organisational interests. In addi- community groups and grassroots organisations, housing tion, as Lovo (2011) states, the effectiveness of a certain stra- movements, land and agrarian reform movements, feminist tegic action depends on the interests and priorities of each groups, and permaculture and food collectives acting in eight institution. Therefore, the Action Plan focused not only on municipalities in the region. The RUAF From Seed to Table collective investments and actions, but also on the activities Project (FStT) was able to strengthen production and commer- and priorities of each individual institution. Each organisation cialisation by organising three groups (Jardim Produtivo, Vila incorporated and committed itself to the strategic objec- Pinho and the Grupo Macaubas/CEVAE Capitão Eduardo) to tives agreed on within the context of the Forum, thereby grow vegetables for municipal public schools. The work was maximising the potential of the points of convergence done along with the municipality of Belo Horizonte (PBH), among the different participants, creating synergies, and which offered technical assistance, water, electricity and not emphasising the differences between them. inputs for the groups of urban farmers. The farmers were Furthermore, including actions in the short, medium and

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org long term made it possible to engage in ongoing dialogue a more holistic discussion about the set of activities that each and planning, and to focus on the agreed objectives. stakeholder carries out could be one way to improve, integrate and maximise the available resources within implementation The Forum also provided an opportunity to experiment with of the Action Plan for urban agriculture. new ways of relating, primarily through the work of its Steering 23 Committee and the creation of the Working Groups. Especially One challenge in expanding urban agriculture in Belo important is the work of institutions which have historically Horizonte is to emphasise mechanisms that encourage the promoted urban agriculture in Belo Horizonte, but that did not involvement of the productive groups, so that they take communicate or enter into dialogue with other institutions ownership of the Action Plan and prioritise their participa- about their work. However, experiences with the Forum also tion in its planning, monitoring and execution. showed that there are limits in connecting civil society and government, such as those caused by differences in political Ivana Cristina Lovo, Advisor of Ipes-Brasil priorities and expectations in terms of the timelines of project Email: [email protected] and programme execution. On several occasions, habitual Katia Maria Silveira Pessoa, Advisor of Ipes-Brasil reactions prevailed, such as the authoritarian postures of the Email: [email protected] government, or civil society merely making demands. Zoraya Bernadete Souza, Technician, Deputy Municipal Secretariat of Food and Nutritional Security/PBH Initially the role of facilitator under the CFF programme (and Email: [email protected] as continued under FStT) was important, but increasingly the Sonia de Fátima Rabelo Coutinho, Technician, Municipal Parks participating institutions themselves became interested in Foundation/PBH continuation of the forum, and now see it as an important Email: [email protected] platform for dialogue and planning, as supported by Article Ana Barros, Technician, Alternative Technology Exchange Network 07 in Law 274/2009. However, Implementation of actions and Email: [email protected] spending is still done in an isolated manner in most cases. Daniela Almeida, Technician, Alternative Technology Exchange Each institution applies resources in their area of responsibi- Network lity, without discussing how to do this within the Steering Email: [email protected] Committee or the plenary meetings of the Forum. Achieving

Notes Philosophy and Human Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa 1) It was also around that time that the School and Community Garden Catarina, Florianópolis, 2011. Programmes and Pro-Pomar (a programme on fruit trees), all Lovo, Ivana Cristina. Report on the Urban Agriculture Seminar: Belo coordinated by the Deputy Municipal Secretariat for Food Supply, were Horizonte farming for the future. Belo Horizonte. Ipes. 2008. 19p. created. Another initiative that stood out at that time (and lasted until Relatório. 2001) was establishment of the Agro-Ecological Experience Centers Municipality Of Belo Horizonte and the Alternative Technology Exchange (CEVAE), which addressed the challenge of preparing and implementing Network. Agricultura urbana: Belo Horizonte cultivando o futuro. Ângela the local Agenda 21. The CEVAEs received international recognition. Christina Ferreira Lara e Daniela Almeida (org.). Belo Horizonte: Rede de Intercâmbio de Tecnologias Alternativas, 2008. 36p. References Municipality Of Belo Horizonte and the Municipal Parks Foundation. Lovo, Ivana Cristina. Agricultura Urbana: um elo entre o ambiente e a 2008-1018 Belo Horizonte Cultivando Agricultura Urbana: Plan of cidadania. 2011. 230f (Dissertation for a Doctorate in Human Sciences)– Action for Urban Agriculture in Belo Horizonte. Belo Horizonte: Interdisciplinary Programme in Human Sciences, Faculty of PBH & FPM, 2009. 21p.

National Urban Agriculture Policy and Programmes in Brazil Alain Santandreu, Gunther Merzthal

A complete version of this article has been published in the “Zero Hunger” collec- Brazilian urban farmers are conventional family farmers – tion, A Brazilian Story, published by the Ministry for Social Development and even though many of them are in the process of transitioning Hunger Combat, in 2011. to agro-ecological and organic farming (including certification) – located in periurban areas, indigenous and quilombolo Urban and periurban agriculture is not new to groups, poor urban residents located in inner and periurban Brazil. A study carried out in 2007 by IPES/RUAF and REDE for areas, and especially female heads of household and older the MDS/SESAN in the 11 Metropolitan Regions in Brazil iden- adults between 30 and 50 years of age. In Brazil, the govern- tified more than 600 experiences, some of them functioning ment (local, state and federal) is important in financing urban for more than 20 years (Santandreu and Lovo. 2007) and and periurban agriculture experiences, implemented by both practiced in all the regions in Brazil, in a wide range of municipal governments and by civil society. Community orga- contexts. The study also demonstrated that urban agricul- nizations and social movements, who implement urban and ture is important at the local level improving food security periurban agriculture activities by mobilizing their own and nutrition as well as generating employment and income. resources, is also a characteristic of the Brazilian experience.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org The urban and periurban agriculture policy in Brazil Of the 12 million families attended to by the Bolsa Familia Programme, more than 7 million live in urban areas, and it is for this reason that its efforts are focused in the cities and metro- 24 politan regions of Brazil. Within this programme and as part of Patches of unused land were used for the productive gardens in Belo its Zero Hunger strategy, the Ministry for Social Development Horizonte (photo: Ivana C. Lovo) and Combating Hunger (MDS) implements the National Urban and Periurban Agriculture Policy focusing its actions on the coordinate the actions of other stakeholders who carry out urban and periurban population, linking them to its Social interventions at the local level – such as NGOs, universities, Protection Network and its Network of Public Food and research institutes, municipalities and states, among others- Nutrition Establishments, which involves Soup Kitchens, Food who are considered to be policy implementers. Banks, Community Kitchens, Food Fairs and Popular Markets. Virtual and on-site training courses have been offered in The national policy for urban and periurban agriculture is partnership with IPES/RUAF and the FAO/RLC, designed to based on the principles of the Food and Nutritional Security improve the capacities of experts and managers who work Law (LOSAN) and forms part of the recently passed National for the Support Centres and the MDS team. Policy for Food and Nutritional Security (PNSAN) which promotes the “development of sustainable and de-central- The National UPA Group is a forum for participation and ized food production, extraction, processing and distribution consultation, strategy planning, monitoring and evaluation systems based on agro-ecological systems” in order to of policy implementation. It operates in close coordination strengthen “family agricultural processes and urban and with the Office of the Urban Agriculture Coordinator and is periurban food production” made up of representatives from the Centres.

The policy is based on a set of policy principles and guidelines Since 2006, the promotion of urban and periurban agricul- that include: i) promoting the production, processing and ture has also been part of south-south cooperation. The MDS commercialization of urban and periurban products; ii) has been part of the RUAF and IPES Regional Advisory Council strengthening urban and periurban farmer´s social organiza- for Latin America and the Caribbean, and as part of its outreach tions; iii) high quality training and technical assistance for urban activities has participated in International UPA Seminars and periurban farmers; iv) training for those that implement organized by the FAO, IPES, RUAF and various national and policy; v) support for agro-ecology techniques and economic local governments held in La Paz (2007) and Medellin (2009). solidarity; and vi) the formation of the Public Services Network. The MDS presented its experience at the 2008 World Urban Forum in China and co-organized a special event for the 2010 As from 2006, IPES and RUAF have been in contact with the World Urban Forum in Rio de Janeiro in conjunction with the MDS and have supported the processes of forming and imple- RUAF Foundation, IPES, the World Bank and the FAO. Finally it menting policy together with other national and regional has carried out technical support actions in the cities of stakeholders, like the NGO Network for the Exchange of Rosario (Argentina) and Lima (Peru), as well as providing Alternative Technologies (REDE) and the FAO’s Regional Office. support for the urban agriculture cooperation agreements with the Cuban and Ecuadorian governments. The MDS created an office of the General Coordinator of Urban Agriculture, and since 2004 has been funding public The design and implementation of Brazil´s urban and peri- tenders which, as of 2009, had resulted in the spending of urban agriculture policy demonstrates the importance of over US$34 million on promoting gardens in municipalities developing specific policies, which can contribute to policies (from 2004), implementing Support Centres for Urban and already in place, like food and nutritional security policies. Periurban Agriculture in Metropolitan Regions (from 2008), support for the development of urban agriculture economic Alain Santandreu,[email protected] solidarity projects with the Technological Incubators of Gunther Merzthal, [email protected], RUAF/IPES - Promotion of Popular Cooperatives (16 Brazilian Universities) (from 2007), Sustainable development (Peru) direct local commercialization through Popular Market Fairs (from 2007) and various actions to improve food security in areas that have experienced agrarian reform (from 2005). References The Urban and Periurban Agriculture Centres (UPAC) are FAO, IICA. 2009. Construcción del Sistema y de la Política de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional: la experiencia brasileña. important in the implementation of a decentralized opera- FAO and IICA, Brasilia, Brazil. tional system that supplies services to urban farmers, coor- SANTANDREU, Alain and Ivana LOVO. 2007. Panorama de la dinating initiatives and social stakeholders interested in agricultura urbana y periurbana en Brasil y directrices políticas supporting urban agriculture. A large part of the funds for para su promoción. Urban Agriculture Notebook N° 4, IPES, the UPACs have been used to provide high-quality, free public RUAF Foundation, REDE, FAO and MDS, Lima, Peru. SANTANDREU, Alain and Gunther MERZTHAL. 2011. Agricultura services for urban farmers, emphasising the social and Urbana e sua Integração em Programmeas e Políticas Públicas: A public nature of the policy, and helping to reinforce the role Experiência do Brasil, Em : Fome Zero: Uma história brasileira, of the State in policy implementation. The UPACs seek to Vol III, MDS, Banco do Brasil e FAO, Brasília, Brasil.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Introducing Rooftop Greenhouses to the 55 Kathrin Specht City of Berlin Rosemarie Siebert

What solutions are available to connect food and new types of urban food producers are focusing on production and buildings? Policy makers, planners, urban farming activities that are taking place around, but also in and on urban buildings. activists, homeowners, architects and other relevant stakeholders were brought together in The term ‘‘Zero-acreage farming’’ (ZFarming) is used by the authors to describe all types of urban agriculture that do not order to explore these options in a series of work- use farmland or open spaces: rooftop gardens, rooftop shops held between 2011 and 2013. greenhouses and edible green walls, as well as innovations such as indoor farms or vertical greenhouses (Specht et al. The aim was to identify possible farming models and 2014). In recent years, ZFarming has become a topic of inter- describe their implementation in or on urban buildings for est among a variety of local stakeholders in Berlin, even the metropolitan area of Berlin. This resulted in the develop- though it still faces several uncertainties. ment of a stakeholder network called “ZFarm – Urban agriculture of the future” (www.zfarm.de) and a manual As in many other cities worldwide, Berlin has seen an increase to enable the government, politicians, citizens and future in recent years in rooftop gardens, rooftop greenhouses and operators to deal with rooftop greenhouses in Berlin. indoor farms. These have been planned or set up by both activists and non-profit associations or private initiatives for Food production in and on buildings in Berlin social as well as commercial purposes. According to its The city of Berlin (Germany) has a long tradition of inner-city proponents, ZFarming promises to fulfil multiple functions gardening. Family-home gardens, school gardens and and produce a range of goods, all of which may have a posi- garden plots (so-called Schrebergärten) can be found all over tive impact on the urban setting. It promises environmental the city. These facilities have been used mainly to grow fruit benefits, such as reducing the environmental impact of and vegetables in wartime and in times of limited food avail- architecture, reducing food miles, and improving resource ability. But in recent years a new momentum has developed, and energy efficiency. The social benefits include improving

A photomontage of strawberries in a rooftop greenhouse overlooking the Potsdamer Platz in Berlin. Credit: J¯oichi It¯o (Wikimedia commons), photomontage by Axel Dierich

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org and launch of a project in detail, and includes from the outset the expertise and opinions of all relevant stakeholders (Phaal et al. 2004, Schwerdtner et al. 2010).

56 The ROIR process started with the identification of the relevant stakeholder groups. To achieve a balanced and comprehensive group, a variety of experts relevant to ZFarming were approached and invited to participate in the ROIR process. We invited stakeholders in each of the key expert groups: • Activists & projects – NGOs, project groups and initiatives currently planning or actually setting up ZFarming- related projects • Lobby groups, associations and unions – e.g., horticulture, real estate, landscape architecture, green roofs and farmers’ associations • Planning and construction – e.g., architecture, recycling and greenhouse planning • Politics and administration – e.g., departments of environment, health, consumer protection, urban development, climate • Researchers from fields associated with ZFarming – e.g., energy and building, aquaponics, urban planning, plant physiology, agriculture • Sales and distribution – stakeholders likely to grow, sell or distribute ZFarming produce, e.g., supermarkets, restaurants and university refectories.

Representatives of the various stakeholder groups met in a series of workshops held between 2011 and 2013. Initially, the Prototype of container farm tested by Efficient City Farming (ECF) stakeholders focused on all ZFarming types, including roof- with aquaculture in container and hydroponics in greenhouse. top gardens, rooftop greenhouses, vertical fruit and vegeta- Photo: ECF Farmsystems Berlin ble gardens, and even technologically complex multistory indoor farms. But as early as the first phase, the participants community food security, providing educational facilities, decided to focus on rooftop greenhouses as the most prom- linking consumers to food production, and serving as a ising type for the city of Berlin. First, the stakeholders defined design inspiration. In economic terms, it provides potential a list of sustainability aims that any ZFarming project should public benefits and commodity outputs (Specht et al. 2014). fulfil (e.g. improvement of water efficiency, energy efficiency or employment). For indoor farms the stakeholders saw the At the same time, because this is a very new concept for food required amount of energy as a major disadvantage, while production and is thus at an early stage of research and for rooftop gardens the climatic conditions in Berlin only development, it involves some limitations and difficulties. allow a very short growing season. Based on a comprehen- For some applications, the various individual technologies sive analysis of the expected economic, ecological and socio- are known, but they have never been used together as cultural effects of the various innovative proposals, a joint required for ZFarming. Other applications require entirely decision was made by the stakeholders in the second work- new building materials or cultivation techniques (especially shop in favour of rooftop greenhouses as having the most for indoor farming) that have not yet been developed. As well development potential. as technical constraints, other critical aspects pose problems, namely the high investment costs; the exclusionary effects In the following steps and meetings, the topic of rooftop (due to restricted accessibility, exclusive products and greenhouses was examined in detail. Due regard was paid to customers); and the lack of acceptance of soilless growing the technical, social, economic, environmental, administra- techniques (Specht et al. 2014, Thomaier et al. 2014). tive and political framework conditions required to ensure their successful implementation, and how these conditions Designing urban innovations together can be established. A participatory approach called “Regional Open Innovation Roadmapping” (ROIR) was chosen to investigate the potential During the roadmapping workshops, the stakeholder and problems involved in implementing ZFarming network (of around 50 participants) called “ZFarm- urban projects in Berlin. ROIR is an instrument for participatory agriculture of the future” (www.zfarm.de) was established decision-making and the implementation of innovations. It in Berlin; jointly, this network created a practical guide1 to depicts in advance the entire development, implementation enable the government, politicians, citizens, and future

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org operators to deal with rooftop greenhouses in Berlin (Freisinger et al. 2013). The topics covered include all of the steps involved, from initial brainstorming to the finished rooftop greenhouse. Among other things, checklists for site analysis, production planning, financial planning, and 57 public relations are provided.

The way forward Es wächst etwas As became evident during the ROIR process, rooftop green- auf dem Dach houses have some potential to contribute to the sustainable DACHGEWÄCHSHÄUSER c Idee c Planung c Umsetzung development of the city of Berlin. According to the members of the ZFarm network, rooftop greenhouses can help improve resource efficiency, increasing social capital and enhancing Berlin’s economic strength in the medium to long term. The Front-page practical guide “Something is growing on the roof” establishment of rooftop greenhouses offers opportunities for new partnerships and networks and requires interdisci- to continue to work hand-in-hand to establish pilot projects, plinary exchange among actors who have not cooperated whether on residential buildings, supermarkets or schools. before. Considering their aims, market orientation and From there, one can start to investigate the social, economic transformative potential, rooftop greenhouses have been and environmental effects of the rooftop greenhouse and classified in five categories (Thomaier et al. 2014): gain experience about what needs to be endorsed or adapted 1.) Commercial: the main purpose of the greenhouse is to to enable rooftop greenhouses to make a valuable contribution run an economically viable farming business; to sustainable urban development. 2.) Image-oriented: the greenhouse is not the main source of revenue but serves as an add-on to another food busi- Kathrin Specht & Rosemarie Siebert ness, such as a restaurant, that processes and sells the Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), produce; Institute of Socio-Economics 3.) Social and educational: the main purpose is to commu- Email: [email protected] nicate social and educational values, such as greenhouses on schools, universities or hospitals; 1) The manual “Es wächst etwas auf dem Dach. 4.) Urban living quality: the greenhouse serves as a recre- Dachgewächshäuser. Idee, Planung, Umsetzung” is available ational space on residential or commercial buildings, as a free download pdf at www.zfarm.de. The English where residents or employees can grow their own food version “Something is growing on the roof. Rooftop green- and enjoy a green oasis; houses. Idea, planning, implementation” will be available 5.) Innovation incubator: the greenhouse serves the purpose in January 2015. of promoting new food-production concepts; these greenhouses are often pioneer or demonstration projects operated by NGOs or research institutions.

Most stakeholders specified that the main project’s aims References should be to educate people, create social interaction and Freisinger, U. B., Specht, K., Sawicka, M., Busse, M., Siebert, R., demonstrate alternative forms of food production and Werner, A., Thomaier, S., Henckel, D., Galda, A., Dierich, A., Wurbs, S., Grosse-Heitmeyer, J., Schön, S., Walk, H. (2013): Es wächst etwas resource recycling, and that they should explicitly but not auf dem Dach. Dachgewächshäuser. Idee, Planung, Umsetzung. solely focus on “profitability”. Most of the stakeholders (Something is growing on the roof. Rooftop greenhouses. Idea, involved in Berlin emphasised that while projects should, of planning, implementation). Leibniz Centre for Agricultural course, be economically self-sufficient, their real value lies in Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg. the production of non-market goods. In keeping with this Phaal, R., Farrukh, C.J.P. & D.R. Probert (2004): Technology roadmapping – A planning framework for evolution and revolution. notion, they therefore reject purely consumption-driven Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 71, 5-26. models. Some even see it as a risk that large companies could Schwerdtner, W., Freisinger, U.B., Siebert, R. & A. Werner (2010): seize upon the idea of ZFarming and turn it into an exclu- Regional Open Innovation Roadmapping for sustainable regional sively profit-oriented and unsustainable business in which development. Practical Guide. Leibniz Centre for Agricultural ZFarming would be reduced to an urban version of industri- Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg. Specht, K., Siebert, R., Hartmann, I., Freisinger, U. B., Sawicka, M., alised rural production. In the case of Berlin, the participants Werner, A., Thomaier, S., Henckel, D., Walk, H., DierICH, A. (2014): of the ZFarm network largely agreed that operators need to Urban agriculture of the future: an overview of sustainability aspects use the positive potential meaningfully, by focusing on local of food production in and on buildings. Agriculture and Human resources and energy-efficient production, building new Values 31, 1, 33-51. market structures, and including social and educational Thomaier, S., Specht, K., Henckel, D., Dierich, A., Siebert, R., Freisinger, U. B., Sawicka, M. (2014): Farming in and on urban aspects. buildings: Present practice and speciﬁc novelties of Zero-Acreage Farming (ZFarming). Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 1-12 In order to successfully realise the sustainability of rooftop greenhouses, the various disciplines and stakeholders need

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org Just like other cities in the country and around the world, Bogotá, the capital of Colombia, is undergoing rapid population growth leading to more pronounced social inequalities. In 2005, this city of approximately 6.8 million people had a poverty rate of 38.5 percent, and most of the poor were suffering from significant nutritional deficiencies due to the lack of access to food in the necessary quantities and quality. Jardín Botánico de Bogotá There is always space for plants Promoting a City without Hunger and Indifference: urban agriculture in Bogotá, Colombia

n an effort to improve the popula- This initiative recognises the practices Bogotá is one of the pilot cities of the Cities tion’s standard of living, and as part of the residents and encourages growing Farming for the Future Programme (CFF) of I of its social policies, the current crops in urban areas as an alternative the RUAF Foundation, and implemented in municipal administration – led by Mayor source of food for self-consumption, in Latin America and the Caribbean by IPES - Luis Eduardo Garzon – implemented a addition to promoting environmental Promotion of Sustainable Development. district development plan called “Bogotá conservation, the strengthening of the As part of its activities, a local team made without indifference – A social commit- social fabric and the appropriation of land up of the Botanic Garden and the University ment against poverty and exclusion”. through citizen participation. of Rosario is developing a participatory This plan encompasses a number of diagnostic assessment of urban agriculture programmes, including Bogotá Without In general terms, the project’s activities in order to identify and analyse the stake- Hunger, which involves a number of are aimed at: holders, describe the legal and regulatory activities intended to improve the nutri- - complementing basic biological research framework, identify available spaces and tional status of vulnerable groups in the with applied research in an urban con- prepare a situational analysis of urban district. One of its main initiatives is the text, for the sustainable use of some agriculture and agriculturalists. The study urban agriculture project led by the Jose native plant species with high nutri- area encompasses the Bosa Central area, Celestino Mutis Botanic Garden. tional value; located in Bosa, one of the poorest districts - carrying out exchanges of agricultural of Bogotá. By the end of 2007, it is hoped that knowledge and know-how using clean there will be a multi-stakeholder alliance technologies in spaces called Educa- made up of various institutions and civil tional Nuclei with the communities of society organisations interested in urban the city of Bogotá; agriculture along with policy guidelines - promoting environmental education that promote urban farming as a permanent initiatives to improve awareness and activity in the Capital District. healthy habits and encourage the consumption of food with high nutritional value; URBAN AGRICULTURE IN BOGOTÁ - promoting participatory community The urban agriculture project in Bogotá Claudia Marcela Sánchez, Jairo Andrés alliances that can strengthen urban began at the end of 2004 and has Silva and Rolando Higuita agricultural activities and neighbour- made it possible to implement a wide José Celestino Mutis Botanic Garden hood ties, and thereby contribute to a variety of activities in applied research,  [email protected] better quality of life. thereby promoting local know-how and

16 2 *;A;TCH? improving the quality of life of the vulner- factors: a high level of economic depen- penitentiary. In some cases, it was even able communities of the district. dence, a lack of housing, malnutrition, a possible to arrange it so that the time lack of education and training, impossible spent working counted towards a reduc- Applied Research. This is one of the access to health care and living in settle- tion in the sentence. Many of the women central activities of the Botanical Garden, ments that are environmentally at risk. expressed their desire to replicate the which carries out basic research and Vulnerability quickly leads to poverty, experience in their homes once they are transforms it into applied research, focus- and for that reason, the project’s activities released. Urban agriculture practices sing both on native species (quinua, seek to influence the causes of poverty offered them the option to reflect on their amaranth, cubios, hibias, chugas, etc.) and not its effects. As a medium-term lives, and on what they can do when they with high nutritional value which are strategy, urban agriculture training is are out of prison. Similar experiences being reintroduced to people’s diet, as planned and carried out in vulnerable took place in the La Picota and La Modelo well as traditionally consumed exotic communities. Included in this vulner- penitentiaries. species (lettuce, spinach, carrots, goose- able population are, among many other berry, etc.). Research includes the use groups, women heads of household, Work with older adults (people over 60) of different containers and alternative prisoners in various penitentiaries in the has also taken place at most of the substrates, which is very necessary in city, people with HIV, the displaced1 and locations, and has led to better health the urban context. Currently, 60 edible the reincorporated2, and students. thanks to the participants’ improved species are being studied. outlook and feeling of being useful and Despite the low levels of participation recognised for their knowledge of agricul- Nuclei of education and knowledge registered in many sector-specific ture, “….working in the garden made me feel exchange. The techniques of raising programmes and projects, the urban alive and worth something….” said one of crops in containers and in the ground that agriculture project is one which enjoys the urban farmers. come out of the research are transferred relatively high levels of permanence and to the project’s target group through the replication of the activities learned about Another group the urban agriculture educational nuclei that exist throughout during the trainings. The methodology of project in Bogotá focuses on is people the city. It is important to highlight that intervention is simple. Initially, the project who are HIV-positive. Under traditional in addition to training, a rich exchange identifies the local resources possessed by protocols, they only receive care, and are of know-how takes place with the the population, and then encourages the treated as passive objects rather than as participants, who have a vast amount of adoption of innovative strategies which subjects of their own growth and change. knowledge about traditional agriculture, seek to solve or complement existing However, through Participatory Action often stemming from their rural origins. nutritional needs. The project’s activities and city farming practices, they are able To date, there are 124 educational nuclei promote the alternative production of to develop their potentials as protagonists operating throughout Bogotá, and more quality food by linking traditional and in their own lives, where co-responsibility than 31,000 people have been trained, scientific knowledge, which is a key aspect and the joint completion of tasks are very including over 1,000 urban farmers in the of the project’s approach. This allows the important achievements. city and many people with great potential community to gain recognition in the city, and interest in getting involved in the and for its knowledge to be valued. “A friend from the group of HIV-infected activity. invited me to participate in the urban Among the different experiences with agriculture course, and I liked it. My sister The nuclei also work, both theoretically specific population groups, one that helps me take care of the plants; she has and practically, on various issues related stands out is the work done by NGOs that a physical limitation and this work is a to agronomic management, the applica- trained people with slight mental retarda- distraction for her. When the family earns tion of clean technologies (organic waste tion, deaf-mutes and people with Tourette income, we all decide what will be done management, the collection of rainwater, syndrome aged 26 to 61. With this group, with it; there is no discrimination here. the use of alternative energies like solar), training efforts included the planting I am from Tunja (a small city); I always citizen participation and the construction of different kinds of produce to create a lived in the city and never had anything of networks. The latter are built through large salad. The intention was also for to do with agriculture. I was a hairdresser exchanges of know-how among neigh- the participants to forge relationships but currently the salon is closed. I don’t bours and people from other neighbour- through the activities without forgetting belong to any other groups in the area, hoods and distant parts of our city, as what has been learned, which proved to because there are complications and I well as through visits to other interesting be a difficult and challenging task. prefer to live my life peacefully.” urban farmers, who offer them new ideas on how to improve production or local At Buen Pastor – a prison facility of the Manuel, urban farmer – exchange. To date, more than 50 neigh- National Institute of Penitentiaries of person living with HIV/Aids. bourhood and local exchanges and tours Colombia (INPEC) – work was done with have taken places, which have been very different groups of women, including The reincorporated population, people helpful and useful to the beneficiaries. maximum security inmates and others who have participated as combatants soon to be released. In working with them, in the internal armed conflict, has had WHO ARE THE BENEFICIARIES? it was possible to lower their anxiety and a special place in the project. The work A vulnerable existence is one charac- the levels of aggression and conflict that done with young people from 12 to 19 terised by one or more of the following exist among those living together in a years old, who have experienced the

'OFS 17 horrors of war first hand, has been one of difficult conditions), where rural is not One of the outcomes of the programme the most difficult undertakings so far in seen as backwards, but rather as a way is that the population has begun to apply the project. Their memories of their places to improve their living conditions. Urban the knowledge shared through the educa- of origin – mostly rural – are brought agriculture thus promotes greater urban- tion nuclei. The fruits of their actions have to the surface through practicing urban rural linkages. begun to influence their way of seeing the agriculture. The person leading them has city, of building it and living in it, despite to modify the design of the trainings to fit “Urban agriculture is very satisfying for the difficult economic conditions they their specific needs. The participants now me. They have taught us a lot. We were endure. live in the big city and are being trained not doing anything, I was very bored ENDNOTES together with people from the community and this farming makes us happy. When 1 A displaced person is any person who has been rather than separately, which provides I didn’t have anything to do, I would forced to move within the national territory, them with more support as they reinte- get nostalgic…. because I was used to abandoning his or her residence and/or habitual grate themselves into civilian life. working. Now, with my co-workers, we economic activities, because their lives, their physical safety, security or personal liberties have been plan what we are going to do on our little harmed mainly due to internal conflict and violence. The large displaced population resulting plot. I think that with this, I can move The project also works with people who have been from the internal conflict and the migra- forward and teach more people what I economically displaced from their region. 2 Reincorporated people are those men and women tions caused by the poverty gripping have learned…. it seems like a great idea who have demobilised in the framework of agree- many areas of the country possesses to me to farm in the city, because the ments with armed groups operating outside of the law a wealth of agricultural knowledge crops are in the house or very close. I wish (paramilitaries and guerrillas) with whom the national government has engaged in a peace process and who and know-how which is often put into everyone would grow crops because a lot are willing to rejoin civilian life. practice when they get to the city. This of food would be produced…. I, at least, provides them with a link to their place of have made a lot of products like compost origin. For this reason, many of the people and earthworms, which I can sell and with who have been farming in the city for that income buy things that we need in the years feel affirmed when project special- house. I am happy to be farming with a ists talk to them about an issue they know group; one works better as part of a team.” a lot about. This affirmation leads them to reconsider their ideas about the area Ruben, urban farmer – in the city where they live (often in very displaced since 2002 Jardín Botánico de Bogotá During a training, an alternative use of egg shells is demonstrated u From page 15

Investment in natural capital such as to offer services to vulnerable groups, of a self-confident, skilled and motivated soil fertility is also minimal – so the low external support is vital. This was group of producers is needed in order to inherent soil fertility presents a major evidenced, for example, in analyses on the realise the potential of the community challenge for gardeners. Soil fertility fertility of soils, in which signs of initial gardens. The NGO that helped initiate analyses revealed that within the garden intervention (traces of phosphorous and the gardens continues to be an impor- plots, soil fertility was strongly influenced liming) could still be detected years later. tant resource with regard to support and by the resourcefulness of the individual Furthermore, crop diversity was much training. Considering the current institu- users; some gardeners were severely higher in irrigated gardens, demonstrating tional setting, support from local NGOs is depleting soil minerals, whereas others the importance of and need for infrastruc- imperative. Unfortunately, as evidenced were maintaining or in a few cases even ture and formalisation. Formalisation in here, the reliance of weaker groups on improving soil fertility. The analyses also particular is important for recognition of NGOs is not in itself a viable path to revealed that certain parameters, such tenure security and to ensure that both ensuring the sustainability of community as pH and phosphorus were strongly gardeners as well as public institutions gardens. influenced by the initial liming and fertili- are interested in investing resources in the ENDNOTE sation performed by the Department of gardens. 1. See for example article by Marshall Smith (2005), Agriculture upon garden establishment. which describes community gardening in Umlazi The general decline in soil fertility which Gardening generally loses its prime impor- Township south of Durban. was evident demonstrated the commu- tance when other livelihood opportunities nity’s lack of knowledge on soil fertility arise; hence the creation of a produc- References Auerbach, R. 1999. Design for participation in maintenance and its inability to carry out tive, self-sufficient, economically viable ecologically sound management of South Africa’s larger investments/operations. vegetable garden is difficult to achieve Mlazi River catchment, PhD Thesis. Wageningen – in addition to the fact that competition Agricultural University, The Netherlands. Marshall Smith, P., Yusuf M.J., Bob U., & de How can the community gardens be with supermarkets is fierce. The success Neergaard A. 2005. Urban farming in the south sustained? The most sustainable com- criteria of community gardens should Durban Basin. Urban Agriculture Magazine, Issue munity gardens were those with more therefore also include facets of commu- 15. Leusden: RUAF Mosoetsa, S. 2004. The legacies of apartheid and resourceful members in a position to nity building and community services implications of economic liberalisation: A post- ensure the functioning of the gardens. – elements which are not readily on offer apartheid township, Working Paper No. 49. Crisis Therefore, if the community gardens are in a struggling community. The creation States Programme Development Research Centre.

18 2 *;A;TCH? Technologies for the Production of Edible Plants in Bogota, Colombia

The population of the Bogota Capital District is increasing rapidly. A major Rob Small reason for this is internal migration. The need for housing for these displaced people has contributed to the accelerated use of periurban and urban areas for construction of houses, affecting the availability of land suitable for urban agriculture. Meanwhile, there is an increase in the demand for arable land and for food that contributes to a balanced diet.

Cultivation in beds Botanical Garden of Bogota

iven their serious social and (Amaranthus caudatus), cold-weather environmental impacts, the District The Bogota Capital District is located at chilli pepper (Capsicum pubescens) cubios 4° 35’ north longitude and 74° 4’ west Administration has developed (or mashua, Tropaeolum tuberosum) G latitude at an altitude of 2640 metres above different alternatives for overcoming sea level. Its annual temperature varies guasca (Galinsoga parvifolia), passion poverty and exclusion, which affect between 4 and 14 °C (46 °F – 68 °F), with fruit (Passiflora cumbalensis), oca (Oxalis approximately 55.3% of the population of averages of 12-13 °C. It is home to a popula- tuberosa), llantén (Plantago australis), tion of close to 7 million people (6,824,510), (Carica cundinamar- the Capital District (Dane, 2003). who live on a surface area of nearly mountain papaya 400 square kilometres. censis), melon pear (Solanum muricatum) CHANGE-ORIENTED RESEARCH and quinua (Chenopodium quinua). As a contribution to this search for alternatives, the José Celestino Mutis Botanical The new urban residents quickly adapt to The search for new technologies is Garden of Bogota – a municipal centre for urban cultural practices, but at the same focused on adaptability and potential scientific research and development – is time they are in danger of slowly losing acceptance by the community (based on conducting various urban agriculture traditional knowledge on the production, indicators like low implementation cost, research projects. The aim is to generate consumption and use of autochthonous easy replication in the urban spaces and alternative technologies that can improve resources such as native plant species. adaptability for use in limited spaces that urban production systems. The Botanical Garden’s research therefore are not ideal for agriculture). promotes the use of cold-weather Andean and exotic plant species as an alterna- In order to develop technologies suitable tive crop for household food production for the many different conditions of the and to help improve the nutrition and urban environment in Bogota (which diversify the food patterns of the commu- includes very limited availability of nity. The Botanical Garden promotes agriculturally suitable land, reduced the cultivation and consumption of physical space and differences in terms promising native species that have been of bio-climactic areas, ranging from wet shown to have high nutritional value, and areas to dry areas with irregular rainfall potential food, medicinal and industrial and high levels of solar radiation), an uses, and which also require knowl- experimental scheme was designed. Claudia Patricia González Rojas edge about how to grow and use them. Experiments at the Botanical Garden and  [email protected] Some of these species are the amaranth with urban farmers were set up, which

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In terms of the mixes of substrates used to BOTTLES grow crops in the containers, an effort was made to define the characteristics of the “ideal” substrate, including the availability of nutrients for the plants, good water retention capacity, and good aeration. The substrate also needed to be easy to produce or be available at a low cost. Black plastic bags with the necessary amount of substratum and an irrigation system. For various small fruit and Compost offers a high organic content, vegetables. can retain water and is relatively easy Tubes can hang free, or can be placed to produce, since in many communities vertically against walls, terraces, or it is produced in order to reduce solid cement yards, where they receive organic household wastes (for example, maximum sunlight. Vertical tubes make optimal use of food scraps). In an effort to improve the horizontal growing surfaces as more supply of air and reduce the weight of the crops can be grown per unit of area. substrate that the container would have They also reduce the time needed for to support, burnt rice husks were added weeding, and the plastic cover prevents possible damage or diseases. to some mixes. Solid organic household A bottle, preferably painted on the wastes are readily available and, with a outside in a dark colour for growing - Area required per tube: 0.09 m2 different vegetables and medicinal herbs. good procedure, can be processed into - Number of plants per tube: chard (16), Cut off the top of the plastic bottle, and compost in just five months. celery (12), coriander (16), spinach (16), use the resulting part that is 20 cm deep strawberry (12), lettuce (16), mint (16), and 10 cm in diameter. Holes should be parsley (16), spearmint (16), thyme (16), In this way, the researchers of the made in the base in order to facilitate lemon balm (16) Botanical Garden could study the influ- drainage during watering. - Compost-husk ratio of 2:1 ence of the type of container, the type of This type of container is one of the most accessible and low-cost receptacles. substrate and the different bio-climactic The individual containers prevent conditions of the Capital District on possible contamination at the roots. agronomical behaviour in terms of

28 2 *;A;TCH? - Area required per bottle: 0.014 m2 - One plant per bottle of for instance Production mixes affected the adaptability, growth chard, garlic, peas, marigold, red onion, Tubular and bottle containers turned out and development of the different plants. coriander, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce, to be the most favourable for the growth The substrates made up of two or more herbs (like mint, parsley, thyme etc.), and development of most of the species, materials mixed together demonstrated radish, beet, carrot. - Compost-soil-husk ratio of 2:1:1 in all of the ecological strata analysed. The superior properties to those that only type of container clearly influences plant contained one element. For example, a PLASTIC WASTEBASKETS growth (measured by weight in grams) mixture of rice husks, dirt and compost and productivity (quantity of biomass had superior characteristics in terms of produced per unit of volume and area of moisture retention, capillarity and substrate). The tubular containers have a nutritional content than any of these vertical orientation, which makes optimal substrate components individually, thus use of the limited horizontal space (in allowing for superior development of the one tube occupying 0.09 m2 of horizontal plants studied. space, 16 chard or spinach plants can be grown easily [1]). For example, a bed CHANGING THE QUALITY OF LIFE container covering 0.76 m2, of horizontal OF THE POOREST space allows for the cultivation of 20 The research showed that extremely poor plants; thus, on one square metre it is and excluded groups can grow vegetables possible to plant approximately 190 plants effectively in an urban environment like In order to plant bulb plants or tubercles, the depth of the container should be distributed among 12 tubular containers, that of Bogota, by optimising the use of a minimum of 20-30 cm, in this case a or just 25 plants if using bed containers spaces in built-up areas using containers. plastic wastebasket. Drainage holes (see figure 1). Based on the research results, recom- should be made in the bottom. mendations can be made on the use of Species substrates containing compost and husks, - Area required per wastebasket: 0.11 m2 The species that are recommended for which can reduce the (environmentally - Number of plants per wastebasket: planting in tubes have morphological unsustainable) use of dirt from natural amaranth (1), broccoli (3), cubios (4), characteristics (fairly shallow roots and ecosystems in cultivating produce. lima beans(1), ibias (4), potato (1), thin stems) that make them able to easily native potato (2), quinua (1), cabbage grow and develop in tubular containers. The research results have been shared (3), uchuva or Inca berry (1). - Compost-soil-husk ratio of 2:1: Among these are chard (Beta vulgaris with more than 2000 urban farmers in var. vulgaris), celery (Apium graveolens), Bogota who, with the help of technical BEDS cilantro (Coriandrum sativum), spinach assistance provided by the Bogota (Spinacia oleracea), strawberry (Fragaria Botanical Garden, have replicated the vesca), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), mint alternative technologies and are further (Mentha piperita), parsley (Petroselinum adapting their vegetable production crispum), thyme (tymus vulgaris), grape- systems in built-up areas like patios or flat fruit (Melissa officinalis) and spearmint roofs of homes, including the design of (Mentha spicata). their household productive units. By using containers, tubes, bottles, cushions and In addition, for garlic (Allium sativum), beds, they have been able to take better pea (Pisum sativum), pot marigold advantage of the scarce amount of space Beds are one of the most commonly (Calendula officinalis), onion (Allium available, and to plant a wider variety of used containers for growing urban cepa), cedron (Lippia triphylla), flowering species for their own consumption and crops. One needs to have a horizontal kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala), for sale, which allows them, through their space that allows the plants to absorb maximum sunlight. The beds can be built chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), own efforts, to improve their family’s with used or new boards. nettle (Urtica urens), radish (Raphanus diet, diversify food patterns, and generate sativus), red beet (Beta vulgaris var. condi- complementary income. - The dimensions of the beds vary in width tiva), rue (Ruta graveolens) and carrot and length, depending on the available NOTES (Daucus carota), better productivity space and depth needed. There should 1) In calculating the number of plants of leafy be a minimum depth of 10-12 cm for was reported in bottle containers, since vegetables like spinach or chard, an average was although this container produced plants taken because the number may vary depending on the chard (Acelga), cilantro, lettuce, parsley, plant’s characteristics. and other leafy vegetables; and 20 cm with less weight than those in the beds or for beets, radishes or carrots in order cushions, for example, the space occupied to allow for the proper development of References by the bottle is 0.014 m2 and the reduced CID Nacional Household Survey. DANE, July the roots. Recommended dimensions amount of substrate required meant that 2003. In: Por un compromiso social contra la for the beds are: 2m long and 1.2m wide pobreza en Bogotá. December 2003. Ediciones (depending on the space). more bottles and thus more plants could Antropos Ltda. - Suitable plants: chard, garlic, pea, be located in one square metre. marigold, red onion, coriander, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce, herbs (mint, Substrata parsley, thyme etc.), radish, beet, carrot. - Compost-soil-husk ratio of 2:1:1 In terms of the evaluation of the different substrata, it was found that the different

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg'(6eg^a'%&% www.ruaf.org Noha Ramadan

The city of Cairo has been the capital of Egypt for more than a 1,000 years and its roots extend back more than 50 centuries. The city’s population in 2006 was 7.8 million on a total area of about 3,085 km2. Cairo is made up of one old city and five new cities encompassing about 29 municipalities. Donkey-pulled cart Urban and Periurban Agriculture Producers’ Organisations in Cairo

significant portion of those involved been a priority of Egyptian development local informal markets or to intermediaries in urban and periurban agriculture policy, much of the critically needed arable (rate tail consumer cooperative chains, A (UPA) are the urban and periurban land in Cairo is being lost to urban devel- co-ops and supermarkets). Products are poor. Women constitute an important opment. Half of this urban development mainly sold fresh, but some are processed segment (FAO, 1995) of the urban farmers, consists of illegal (non-approved) building for self-consumption; cooked and sold on since agriculture and related processing and the remainder is made up of planned the streets; or processed and packaged for and selling activities can often be easily new developments in the desert. Although sale to one of the outlets mentioned above. combined with their other tasks. For reports of a housing crisis have emerged in instance, it is not difficult for women to the international news media, it is estimated The study identified 24 urban and combine selling livestock products such that Cairo actually may have a surplus of periurban agricultural producers’ organi- as eggs and milk with their urban jobs some one million housing units (FAO, 2004). sations in Cairo, only ten of which are that already require travelling to the town co-ops for small-scale producers. These centre or to the houses of the rich in Cairo. A case study on urban and periurban co-ops are formal organisations dedicated agriculture in Cairo was conducted by the to helping small holders improve their Agricultural Economic Research Institute productivity and income and the commu-

Authors (AERI) and supported by FAO (FAO, nity’s livelihood. 2006). The study revealed that land tenure for UPA activities is insecure in Cairo, This lack of low-income producers’ co-ops whether the land is privately owned, in Cairo deprives the producers of income rented or public (in parks and along roads, and reduces their access to resources, canals and streams). Urban and periurban inputs, services and markets. This lack agricultural activities in Cairo include the of organisation also prevents the small Figure production of food (grains, root crops, and unorganised, weak and vulnerable The urban agriculture areas under study (El Matarya and Helwan in orange). vegetables, fruits) and livestock products groups in urban areas from realising (poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep, cattle, the full potential of their contribution GOVERNMENT POLICY pigs, fish, honey. etc.) as well as non- to food security, income and employ- The Egyptian government’s urban policy, food products (ornamental plants, tree ment generation. The majority of UPA which has been in effect since the 1980s products, cut flowers, etc.). co-ops in Cairo operate in the margins (MALR, 1999, 2004), seeks to prevent of society, as they often do not have a informal urban development on scarce The primary objective of UPA in Cairo is legal or legitimate status. Many low- agricultural land, guide urbanisation self-consumption, while the producers income people’s livelihoods depend on towards new towns on desert land, and trade any surplus for additional income. UPA-related activities in the food supply improve living conditions in poor and However, the volume and economic chain, such as production or exploitation, underserved urban areas. Even though value of the market-oriented UPA should small-scale processing, and marketing and conservation of agricultural land has long not be underestimated. Market-oriented preparation (such as hawking, street food products are usually transported by vending, and community-based catering). Dr. Ahlam ElNaggar human- and donkey- or horse-pulled carts The precarious status of most urban and Dr. Mostafa Bedier (see photo) to be sold at the farm gate, in periurban producers often forces them to  [email protected] surrounding neighbourhoods, local shops, use degraded or dangerous sites and resort

Noha Ramadan changed, they would have had a greater Collection, Analysis and Use of Monitoring and chance of achieving their original objec- Evaluation Data, Fourth printing. Rome. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United tive. Nations (FAO). 2004. New strategies for mobilizing capital in agricultural cooperatives, J.D. Von LESSONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Pischke & John G. Rouse, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Co-op boards suffer from opposing Food and Agriculture Organization of the United policies and fragmented responsibilities to Nations (FAO). 2006. Urban and Peri_Urban different government agencies. This lack Agriculture: Towards Beter Understanding Of Low- Income Producers’ Organizations. FAO/IDRC/ of alignment can only be solved by new AERI Gcp/Int/955/Can Cairo-Case Study. Rome. legislation in support of UPA producer Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation co-ops at local, district and governorate (MALR). 1999. Agriculture Policy Reform Program, (APRR), Reform Design and Implementation Unit levels. This legislation will support and (RDT); Rural Organizations in Egypt. facilitate the daily work needed to develop Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation the co-ops. (MALR). 2004. New Practice of Participatory Local Goats and sheep at a governmental market Development in Egypt’s Urban Areas. Policy Paper.

20 2 *;A;TCH? 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 48

Concrete Actions: Cape Town’s Urban Agriculture Assistance Programme

Urban agriculture in Cape Town principally involves vegetable cultivation, although the sight of roaming cattle in the streets is also familiar to many inhabitants of the city. During the past five years, the city of Cape Town has been formulating a policy on urban agriculture, which will mainly assist in the improvement of the lives of its citizens in terms of food security and economic development. Christopher Hewett Members of the Florico Farming Group working in their garden near Atlantis township 45 km north of Cape Town (within the City administrative boundaries)

The phenomenon of urban urban agriculture. This situation led to 2002. From here on, a consultative agriculture has been taking place in the realisation that a specific policy on process of policy formulation was started, T Cape Town since its establishment, urban agriculture was necessary as this which included the following steps: but faced with an unemployment rate of would ‘… provide a common vision for background study and concept around 23.4% (equalling 2,275,230 urban agriculture, give strategic guidance clarification, determination of current persons), an economic growth rate and create a mechanism to manage urban status of urban agriculture in the city (a insufficiently able to absorb the agriculture so that its maximum potential very superficial assessment), analysis of expanding labour force and 32% of the can be realised while negative impacts are players and stakeholders, compilation of city’s population living below the being eliminated or reduced.’ (City of Cape a first draft of the policy document, Household Subsistence Level (HSL) in Town, 2006b: 1). A formal policy will lay invitation for both internal and external 1999, the city has been looking to further the legal basis for collaboration between comments on the draft, revision and enhance the potentials of urban all municipal departments on the issue of formulation of final draft policy agriculture as an intervention strategy to urban agriculture and will ensure each document (with valuable inputs also achieve poverty alleviation and job department’s undisputed commitment; gained during a second urban creation (City of Cape Town, 2006c). and it will eliminate the need to rely on agricultural summit in 2003) and the goodwill or preferences of submission of the final draft to the City The municipality of Cape Town has been individuals. Council for acceptance by the end of directly involved in 33 urban agriculture 2006. The consultative policy formulation projects in the city, while at the same POLICY FORMULATION PROCESS process involved a wide array of actors: time national and provincial In May 2002 municipal authorities called all internal municipal departments, the governmental bodies have also been a first urban agricultural summit to start Agricultural Department at provincial implementing food production activities. a dialogue on the necessity and levels, several universities, agricultural NGOs in the Cape Town area also make a development of urban agriculture in the planning colleges and urban farmers and large contribution to the development of city with a special focus on the urban practitioners. On the one hand it the city’s urban agricultural sector, such poor. The Economic and Human presented an opportunity to educate as Abalimi Bezekhaya (see UAM 6). Development Directorate took the lead in selected players (officials and councillors) However, so far these activities and this process and is still the ‘organisational on the benefits of urban agriculture, initiatives have lacked municipal home’ of the urban agricultural activities while on the other hand, extensive formal coordination and a common vision on within the municipality. This summit consultation was done with urban mandated the city to compile an agricultural practitioners to determine ______appropriate urban agricultural policy and their specific needs and aspirations. Stanley Visser, Development Facilitation assistance programme for the urban of the City of Cape Town (1) farming practitioners. The first draft of Due to a prolonged process to restructure ✉ [email protected] the policy document was compiled in and transform the City administration

48 UA-Magazine 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 49

and local government election the poverty alleviation and economic NGOs. This division of labour is due to process got stalled. As a result both development. The draft policy document the lack of manpower at the Economic councillors and top management were has been formulated in accordance with and Human Development Directorate. A new and advocates for the urban the city’s requirements for policy formal policy will provide more resources agriculture policy within the municipality, documents, i.e. it uses simple language and support the directorate to make it thought it wiser to take the time to re- that the affected parties can understand, more visible in its responsibilities, convince the politicians, rather than to and it is clear and concise on what allowing it to advertise its assistance force it through. In the end, the policy interventions the city will make and what more widely and be more proactive formulation process produced two assistance the urban practitioners can instead of reactive. separate documents, namely: a baseline expect from the city. document (reflecting the theoretical A specific policy on framework, international and national The draft policy document defines urban urban agriculture was experiences, the current status of urban agriculture in its broadest sense, to make necessary agriculture in the city, etc.) and a policy it as inclusive as possible while document (indicating the vision, discerning the categories of plant objectives and interventions by the city production, livestock production and The Cape Town Assistance Programme and its partners). aquaculture. It acknowledges the benefits for Urban Gardening works with a set of at the individual or household level specific criteria to determine the type and The Constitution of South Africa does not (household food security, income extent of the assistance. Firstly, the kind list agriculture as a function of local generation, etc.) but also at city level of urban agricultural operation is government and, therefore, a lot of (improved cleansing of the city, classified. The city of Cape Town motivation and lobbying was necessary contribution to environmental distinguishes between four different during the consultative process to restoration and greening, etc.). After types of operations, which have been convince city council decision makers listing the challenges and opportunities defined as: that the development of urban of urban agriculture locally and 1. home produce – home dwellers using agriculture should be viewed as part and identifying relevant stakeholders, the their own gardens to grow vegetables parcel of poverty alleviation and policy document continues with an and/or keep animals on a small scale in economic development, which are the elaboration of concrete actions to be order to supplement the family diet; concurrent responsibility of all spheres of taken to achieve the policy’s objectives; 2. community groups – a group of people government (Republic of South Africa, and it elaborates on the institutional who produce food collectively for 1997). In the end, city council members framework and an implementation themselves or for a community were convinced by the opportunities for strategy. institution mostly on public land; economic development that urban 3. micro-farmers – individuals or groups agriculture can offer, as well as by the fact One of the concrete actions described in of people involved in urban agriculture that the municipality does have a sector the policy document is the city’s to generate an income on small pieces support policy for agriculture. Both assistance programme. The remainder of of unutilised (private or public) land; aspects reinforce the idea of supporting this article will concentrate on this and urban agriculture through a municipal programme as its contents, criteria and 4. small emerging farmers – individuals policy. concise actions have been formulated in a or groups of people who are or aspire detailed manner, which might provide to be full-time farmers. other cities faced by similar challenges with ideas and inspiration. The last type is considered to take place in a formal business setting, while the THE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME other three types are regarded as Although the draft policy has not been informal economic activities. The policy formally approved by the city council, focuses on Cape Town’s urban poor, most elements of the proposed assistance which make up all four categories programme are already being mentioned above. However, as the policy

Christopher Hewett implemented. This is also the case for is not directly aimed at commercial Producing green vegetables near Cape Town’s urban gardening assistance farmers, the small emerging farmers are Atlantis township programme. People or community mostly stimulated to contact the National groups that ask for assistance for urban Department of Land Affairs instead, agricultural activities approach the City where funding can be obtained from the THE POLICY DOCUMENT through a variety of windows or Land Reform Programme for Agricultural Cape Town’s vision is to build a departments. These departments then Development (LRAD). partnership with all its people to make direct them to the Economic and Human Cape Town a world-class city in which Development Directorate, which then The objectives of the urban agriculture the quality of life of every citizen steadily gives strategic assistance, such as in activity need to be in line with the city’s improves (City of Cape Town, 2004d). improving the organisation of the group. strategies of poverty alleviation, Urban agriculture fits very well in this In many instances, day-to-day (more economic development and/or vision as it is seen as a strategy towards technical) assistance is provided by community capacity building. Further

October 2006 49 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 50

PROGRESS TO DATE assessment will include the number of were united into 1 municipality in 2000). Due to the long consultation and policy beneficiaries; other role-players involved; Currently, an intervention has been formulation process, the city council is location; environmental impact; accepted by City Council to address the already implementing a number of the availability of water; feasibility; and the uncontrolled keeping of livestock in the proposed strategic interventions of the activity’s compliance with integrated urban area. As livestock represents an draft policy, next to the assistance development planning and management. economic opportunity for many people, programme described above. This it should not be lost. Therefore, a three- includes the following: an annual budget Five main types of assistance are prong strategy has been developed to allocation for urban agriculture, discerned: access to land, infrastructure, remove the animals from the residential recognition of urban agriculture as a land tools/equipment/implements, areas to places and spaces where they can use in the Integrated Zoning Scheme of production inputs and extension services. be kept under controlled conditions. This the city, provision of space for urban While community groups can count on involves the establishment of (a) agriculture in new human settlements, all types of assistance, home producers community kraals (fenced areas) close to absorption of urban agriculture as an are supported only with small tools, basic residential areas where small numbers of element of development programmes production inputs and some extension animals can be kept under zero grazing (e.g. greening of the city, Local Agenda 21, services, but not with acquiring access to conditions, (b) commonage land (a poverty alleviation, HIV/Aids prevention land or infrastructure as the Municipal traditional form of land rights, where the programme, etc.) and provision of Finance Management Act (MFMA) states land belongs to the city and is meant for strategic infrastructure for agriculture that municipal capital may not be used to agricultural purposes) where larger such as the newly constructed fresh improve private assets (such as private numbers of animals can be kept under produce market. land). A matrix in the policy document commercial farming conditions, and (c) stipulates what type of operation can private farms or small holdings through apply for what kind of assistance. A needs the grant funding system of the National Acceptance of this analysis performed for each applicant Land Reform Programme. In the case of policy will elevate urban will be decisive for the actual assistance community kraals activities are located agriculture given. on state-owned land and the city provides all fixed infrastructure. Likewise In the meantime the Provincial the development and maintenance of Department of Agriculture has opened a infrastructure on commonage land is also district office in the city of Cape Town done by the city, but participant farmers and provides extension services and are required to pay an incremental rent financial support to urban farmers. In the which will reach a commercial rate spirit of cooperation the city, the within three years in order to give Department of Agriculture and a few emerging micro-farmers a maximum NGOs have established two mechanised chance to become successful small agricultural centres in the city as joint commercial farmers. ventures. Die Burger (local newspaper)

Cattle in front of a house in Khayelitsha, The assistance programme is founded on Recently the Department of Land Affairs one of the poor neighbourhoods cooperative governance, strategic has approved a R8.7 million (equal to partnerships and collective action, i.e. the around US$ 1.2 million) grant for the city Cape Town’s assistance programme to city has the buy-in and commitment to acquire a commercial farm, which will urban agriculture also includes a so- from all the role-players so that when be used as commonage mainly by the called start-up kit for survivalist assistance is rendered there is no urban livestock keepers. The City is now gardeners. Focusing on the poorest of the duplication of resources or distraction in the process of identifying an poor, a start-up kit is meant to support from the project objectives. Up until now appropriate farm to buy with the grant. existing community groups that wish to urban agricultural assistance was done in start a gardening project. Per 10 people, a reactive way due to a lack of resources, In addition, the city has also started the start-up kit will include basic items, but the formal introduction of the urban international networking activities with such as a pick axe, spade, rake, watering agricultural policy will make proactive regard to urban agriculture and can, seeds and compost. In addition, the involvement possible. participated in a regional urban start-up kit will be supported by skills agricultural conference last year in training and extension services. Harare, Zimbabwe. As a result of this the city has forged a working relationship The city’s assistance programme has a with the Municipal Development special focus on livestock keeping in the Partnership for Southern and Eastern urban area. In Cape Town, many different Africa (MDP-ESA). Furthermore, Cape bye laws on urban livestock exist as the Town has been selected as a pilot city municipality in its current form only under the “Cities Farming for the Future”

came into being in 2000 (39 small Stanley Visser programme recently set up by MDP-ESA municipalities were combined into 7 Production of tomatoes in a tunnel municipalities in 1996, which in turn Continued on page 64

50 UA-Magazine The Siyazama Community Allotment Garden Association, Cape Town, South Africa

Urban agriculture has been practiced

in Cape Town for a long time and Rob Small involves many different types of activities. There is currently an increasingly organised community- based organic farming and gardening movement in the city. This movement is led by associations such as the Vukuzenzela Urban Farmers Association (VUFA). Abalimi Bezekhaya (Planters of the Home), which supports VUFA, is the leading urban agriculture organisation in Cape Town.

SCAGA Garden how it has changed

Part of this article has been published as a balimi Bezekhaya provides support The VUFA’s objectives and activities case, by the same author and under the same services such as the supply of low- are related to lobbying and advocacy, title in Cities Farming for the Future: A cost bulk compost, seed, seedlings, marketing and training on micro- Urban agriculture for green and productive training and on-site project extension. enterprise development and social cities, 2006. Abalimi’s two non-profit People’s Garden development. Vukuzenzela Urban Centres annually supply agriculture Farmers Association (VUFA) is currently and horticulture inputs to, on average, networking with other emerging small 2,000-3,000 home-based survival and farmers groups provincially. Abalimi subsistence gardeners and approximately assists VUFA in enhancing its national 200 community agriculture and greening and regional links. It is hoped that, Rob Small projects. Abalimi projects are encouraged over time, the emerging national and to be 100 percent organic. The economic regional organic small and micro-farmers potential for community agriculture is associations will federate to increase their significant, as there is a high and ever- leverage on behalf of the poor. growing demand for organic vegetables in Cape Town. Organic markets and retailers Internal and external politics and capacity SCAGA Garden: how it was before both large and small are always under- issues always play a major role in organi- supplied. sational effectiveness among community- based social movements. The VUFA is no VUFA exception. Already in its short history, the The VUFA began in 2002 as an idea when organisation has suffered a few leadership - with Abalimi Bezekhaya’s assistance - crises, been almost destroyed by external 70-100 community-based urban agricul- government and political agendas which ture associations began meeting to discuss influence membership loyalty and common issues. Since then, a draft consti- focus, and is currently re-organising. tution has been accepted - see objec- Abalimi Bezekhaya is introducing the tives listed below. At present, the VUFA services of an excellent partner organisa- comprises about 72 community-based UA tion –Community Connections- which associations and is organised as two main focuses entirely on organisation building branches in the two main black township and development among community- Rob Small areas - VUFA Khayelitsha area and VUFA based organisations. Although Abalimi  [email protected] Nyanga-Gugulethu-Phillipi area. Bezekhaya is able to rally and mobilise the

30 2 *;A;TCH? VUFA through various interventions (like new groups and has given planners solid occasion, husbands and sons come to horizontal learning exchanges between proof to argue for community-managed help female members with heavy work in the VUFA members and with other open spaces and for self-help job creation. the gardens, thus alleviating the women’s farmer groups), providing structured SCAGA is repeatedly visited by VIPs, additional responsibility of managing OB/OD services is not its core business. including local government ministers households. But friction arises whenever Abalimi is thus building a partnership and senior officials. The Western Cape the men insist that all the food produced with Community Connections to enable Department of Agriculture (in contrast has to be sold. Such problems are now the VUFA membership to build organi- to its national counterpart) has recently being minimised as female leadership is sational capacity over time, using the begun to give some solid support to more generally accepted. It has recently inevitable crises as learning opportunities community organic agriculture projects, been decided that men, while needed for rather than experiencing them as entirely mainly in the form of improved infra- the heavy work, should run their own negative and unwanted events. structure. gardens separately!

SCAGA The most (potentially) helpful govern- But women are not perfect either. The Siyazama Community Allotment ment-support programme of all was Organisational dynamics are the single Garden Association (SCAGA) is a member launched three years ago by the City biggest obstacle to community-level of VUFA. Since 1997 its members have of Cape Town - Dept of Economic and development and are the main cause of farmed 5,000 m2 in a corridor previously Human Development. Stanley Visser of most lapsed projects. Problems with land, under power lines (low-intensity feeder the City of Cape Town reported on this in water, inputs, capital and skills are all lines that were later decommissioned) issue no. 16 of the UA-Magazine (Stanley relatively easily solved in comparison. In in Macassar, Khayelithsa. SCAGA could Visser et al. 2006). This is the process by the world of poverty alleviation and work provide 3-4 permanent, full-time formal which an Urban Agriculture Policy for the and income creation among the poor, jobs, but decided instead to become City of Cape Town, plus linked support people cannot operate in isolation; they a Livelihood Level garden, with up to programmes, was launched and tested. have to co-operate and problems always 30 subsistence “jobs”, on a mixture of The policy is now in the final stages of arise. After nearly falling apart many individual and communal plots. These ratification and will provide for long-term times due to personality and leadership form the centre around which a number and rational support to UA practitioners, dynamics, the SCAGA group has chosen of other entrepreneurial and service especially among the poor. to work only in plenary decision-making initiatives have been or are being devel- format. In other words, all decisions are oped. In SCAGA’s case, a small seedling Impacts on the local environment have taken by everyone together. No single nursery, a craft group, and a tea and also been quite substantial. Soil fertility person is mandated or permitted to catering service have been developed, inputs have decreased, while pests, once a take executive powers on any important and plans are underway for a soup large problem, are hardly mentioned now. issue. This approach was recommended kitchen and child care facilities. Adjacent Improved health is also becoming evident, to them by Abalimi. Independent field land within the same corridor – some 3 as are the medicinal use of fresh organic research has confirmed that it is more hectares of sandy wasteland – has now food to strengthen the immune system viable than attempting to build corporate been fenced and is being developed to and the awareness of the therapeutic structures prematurely. As a result of accommodate another 200-300 gardeners. value of organic growing. New members this way of working, SCAGA is running often show signs of malnourishment, smoother, with fewer disagreements. There have been have low energy and little money. After However, decisions can take a long time one season, remarks about their generally and SCAGA, like any other group, has to positive impacts on the improved health are often heard. evolve in order to deal with the increas- position and role of ingly demanding economic and legal women as leaders There have also been positive impacts on necessities related to every aspect of the position and role of women as leaders, running an organisation. For instance, Each SCAGA member receives a through, for example, Ilima - traditional SCAGA has applied for non-profit regis- minimum cash and food income, after mutual-help work events. These have tration from the National Dept. of Social costs, of R50-R100 per month (USD 7-14) now become a practical tool in increasing Services- maintaining this registration - a lifeline to households with no discern- women’s empowerment and mobilisa- is, on its own, a sophisticated task and able income. In 2005, the project hosted tion, facilitating community support requires production of financial reports. its fifth group of 30 people, successfully and muscle power for SCAGA projects. Thus the pressure is always on to develop marketing high-quality organic produce. It began with SCAGA women recruiting a more sophisticated organisational struc- Group savings at year end, after costs and unemployed men to do heavy work by re- ture. But there are no ready-made models own consumption, have varied between introducing a traditional rural practice of for grassroots cooperative organisations R2,000 and R 20,000. serving traditional beer and food after the among the poor and SCAGA- like most work is done. These events cost very little, of the emerging movements Abalimi This community-oriented project of but more importantly the women earn services- has to evolve its own structure SCAGA has had far-reaching impacts, wide respect and support in the commu- step by step. As already mentioned, both within the local community and on nity through the work they do. SCAGA is however, Abalimi is bringing in a new policy development in Cape Town. It has now firmly women-led, and women-run partner (Community Connections) to sparked hundreds of applications from projects in VUFA are now the norm. On assist with this process.

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg')HZeiZbWZg'%&% www.ruaf.org 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 54

Municipal and Civil Society Food Systems Policy Development

There is a growing belief among the feasibility of pursuing innovative support the council. These organisations Chicago citizens that all residents programmes such as food policy councils were chosen because their missions overlap should have access to safe, and performing comprehensive research on with CFPAC’s mission and because they culturally acceptable and the state of food access in the Chicago have committed a portion of their time to nutritionally adequate food through region. In 2001 the first Illinois Food working with CFPAC. a sustainable food system that Security Summit, funded by the Chicago maximises community self-reliance Community Trust (the local foundation that CFPAC developed a white paper that details and social justice. A variety of makes grants available out of pooled funds the budgetary commitments and efforts are underway to raise the from local donors), brought together responsibilities for the city of Chicago’s level of public discourse on this emergency food providers, government and agencies and departments in relationship to issue in order to design a sustainable agriculture interests. The food as its first publication. The paper also sustainable food system that will be summit utilised an open space format such includes a list of initial policy able to foster the development of that participants supplied the summit’s recommendations for the city. This report community food security in content and priorities for moving forward. will be available on the CFPAC’s website, Chicago. This process generated more than 40 topic www.chicagofoodpolicy.org, by early areas for the summit participants to vote on. November 2006. The creation of a Chicago Food Policy he organisation of local forums around Council was a top priority (see the There were concerns that community food security in the past Proceedings from Working Sessions in if it was incorporated T ten years, has led to the formation of Open Space of the Illinois Food Security within the governmental the Chicago Food Policy Advisory Council Summit held in 2001, available at structure accountability (CFPAC) in 2003. CFPAC is a network of www.michaelherman.com). to the larger community organisations and individuals who want to would be lost share their experiences and concerns about CFPAC has been in a process of food security in the Chicago region in order development for over five years utilising to influence policy makers to make consensus to establish a mission, The first annual Chicago Food Policy informed decisions motivated by the goals organisational and operating structure and Summit, sponsored by CFPAC, was held in of community food security. The Chicago outreach to ensure inclusive membership February 2006. Over 170 people Food Policy Advisory Council is a long-term representing a cross section of Chicago’s participated in the event. During panel effort to develop plans and residents. CFPAC was formed through discussions, participants presented their recommendations and then advise policy community outreach and involvement. The concepts for improving community food makers in all areas of food security. organisational structure of the Council was security policies in Chicago. These concepts Membership and participation on the determined to be a “hybrid” model, as it is have been refined over several meetings and Council is open to anyone. It currently neither government agency nor a stand- strategies for pursuing them are now being includes emergency food agencies (food alone non-profit. There were concerns that decided upon. banks and pantries), urban agriculture if it was incorporated within the organisations and practitioners, public governmental structure accountability to Government participation on the Council health officials, researchers, land use the larger community would be lost. has been piecemeal up to this point. Most groups, food distributors, farmers’ markets, Concerns also arose that the administrative participation has been based on the churches, city planners, environmental burdens of managing a non-profit would personal interest of individuals and organisations, chefs and community take up much of the Council’s energies. department heads. The Executive organisations. CFPAC does work cooperatively with Committee has done outreach to the Chicago’s municipal government and Commissioners of Planning, Environment, CFPAC originated in the 1990s after the encourages the city’s participation and and Public Health as well as the Mayor’s Community Food Security Coalition held its support. Director of Policy to find overlaps in interest annual conference in Chicago. Out of this and to encourage more active participation. came an effort by organisers and CFPAC is comprised of an Executive All of Chicago’s elected aldermen are now participants of the conference, to examine Committee and a general membership body receiving notices of meetings and several involved with community food security in staff representatives of the aldermen have one way or another in the Chicago Region. attended meetings of the Council. It is ______Staff members of three not-for-profit hoped that within the coming year, more Rodger Cooley organisations (Growing Power, Heifer formal connections and relationships will Heifer international International, and Sustain) were elected to be developed with government officials to ✉ [email protected] serve on the Executive Committee to help move the policy agenda forward.

54 UA-Magazine Growing Home and the Emergence of Urban Agriculture in Chicago

Growing Home, located in Chicago, Illinois, was founded in 1992 by the late Les Brown, then Director of Policy for the Chicago Coalition for the Homeless. The Growing Home programme is designed to provide entry into the job market via the experience of urban agriculture. Harry Rhodes Growing Home trainee at Green City Market

lthough Growing Home (GH) was Currently the social enterprise of GH tural district were compatible with GH’s founded originally with a focus on obtains most of its produce from the plans to expand its urban operations. A urban agriculture, it immediately rural farm. The rural farm will remain The Englewood Quality of Life Plan (QLP), ran into difficulty establishing its urban an important aspect of GH operations, a document outlining the community’s presence. Les Brown was able to secure although the organisation is currently redevelopment goals, emerged through two parcels of land from the United States also developing a one-acre urban site, and a series of community-based planning government; one urban site at Navy Pier with plans to develop another one-acre discussions and meetings during which and a rural site in LaSalle County about 75 site in spring 2008. the community identified urban agricul- miles southwest of Chicago. The plans for ture as part of the QLP. the urban agricultural site were delayed The GH’s social enterprise includes sales because of political and environmental of organic produce to consumers through GH was brought into the process of crea- issues, until another opportunity arose to a sustainable farmers’ market, the Green ting the urban agricultural district with partner with the Su Casa Catholic Worker City Market, and through the organisa- the Center for Urban Transformation House, which was started as a shelter for tion’s 80-member Community Supported (CUT) in an arrangement that now inclu- Central Americans seeking asylum in the Agriculture (CSA) programme. des the Angelic Organics Learning Center USA due to civil unrest in their counties of Additionally, GH has a few restaurant and the Shed Studio architectural firm. origin. The arrangement with Su Casa clients for whom the organisation also The development of urban agriculture in provided an opportunity to develop an supplies organic produce. Chefs in Chicago has thus been dependent on the 1 urban agricultural site of about /4 acre Chicago are very interested in urban joint work of community organisations, (1,012 m2) that works in conjunction with agriculture, and committed to using together with municipal entities. the rural site. These two farms have served produce that has been produced locally. as the main sites for the job training pro- In spite of the success and evolution of BUILDING COMMUNITIES gramme and the social enterprise created GH during the past five years, the goal to THROUGH URBAN AGRICULTURE by GH that creates new jobs in urban agri- establish a year-round urban agricultural PROJECTS culture, and employs low-income Chica- operation has not yet been realized. The process of acquiring a site suitable for goans in a transitional jobs programme. creating the initial urban farm as part of THE QUEST FOR POSITIVE the urban agriculture district is proceeding REDEVELOPMENT IN ENGLEWOOD nicely in partnership with a local elected In 2005 Growing Home was contacted by official, several municipal agencies and the Teamwork Englewood (TE), an organisa- project partners. Although the process of Orrin Williams tion in the Englewood community on the acquiring the property was not complete Employment Training Coordinator for south side of Chicago, to assist in devel- at the time this article was written, GH Growing Home oping an urban agriculture district. was given permission to begin develop-  [email protected] The plans for creating an urban agricul- ment of the site.

36 2 *;A;TCH? So far three hoophouses have been con- cial projects creating a vibrant mix of The potential for urban agriculture is structed on the approximately one-acre entrepreneurial entities that will solve the huge and the opportunity to shape the site, and once a redevelopment agree- problems of food access and food security next generations of urban agricultural ment is secured and the ownership of the in underserved communities. systems cannot be lost. Organisations property is transferred to GH, a green- such as Growing Home, the Center for house, office and classroom building will Perhaps the most important aspect of the Urban Transformation, the Angelic be constructed. Additional processing, programmes being planned by GH and its Organic Learning Center and others, not cooling and storage facilities will be partners is one that was unintended: GH only in the United States but elsewhere, constructed as well. A small market stand and all of its partners in the development must recognise this potential and evolve is being organised for the site that will of the urban agriculture district are well into entities critical to the development of begin operation during the summer of positioned to provide technical assistance new urban communities. 2007. One unique feature of the market to communities wishing to replicate Chicago is at the forefront of the urban stand is that it will include farmers of various aspects of the projects in the urban agriculture revolution. Non-profit African descent from the Pembroke agriculture district. To this end, instruction organisations and individual urban community about 75 miles southeast of manuals for the development of green- farmers have together initiated a network Chicago in Kankakee County. This is an house and hoophouse operations will be to promote urban agriculture called example of an urban-rural partnership compiled in conjunction with regional Advocates for Urban Agriculture. that GH has initiated. academic institutions and researchers. This network works closely with the City The development of urban agricultural of Chicago, and has received a pledge The Pembroke community has been home economic theory and practice will help from Mayor Daley and city officials that to farmers of African descent for several make urban agriculture a viable way to they will support the efforts. decades. This unique arrangement is grow, distribute and sell a large percentage vital as the population of the Englewood of local communities’ daily food require- As demonstrated by communities such as community is 98 percent of African ments for years to come. No one knows Englewood on the south side of Chicago, descent and culturally appropriate what the potential crop yields are, nor urban agriculture is a practice that can products are vital to the success of the the number of jobs that can be created create green space, new economic and market. GH is committed to growing and through the development of a sophisti- community development opportunities selling culturally appropriate products for cated system of urban agriculture – and redevelopment options for inner city local consumption as well as products for particularly one that has room for diver- communities. This is particularly true the farmers’ market, CSA or restaurants. sity and fairness for sole proprietors, non- in Chicago, a city that has an estimated profit organisations, socially responsible 70,000 to 80,000 vacant lots, numerous In the immediate future GH has plans to corporations and financial institutions. flat top roofs and abandoned or under- open at least one other approximately It is known that urban agriculture creates utilised commercial buildings. Many of one-acre site located close to the site jobs that pay a living wage, allowing the vacant lots are in minority commu- under development. The site being con- people to raise families. The public health nities and they provide an opportunity sidered is owned by the Chicago Public benefits of a widespread, large-scale for inclusive economic development School (CPS) system and GH wants to use urban agricultural system are widely integrated with urban agriculture. While it to increase its capacity and operate a anticipated by those of us involved in it is intriguing to think of the new oppor- garden for students. the development of the next generations tunities presented to organisations such The Englewood community, like so many of urban agriculture. This is important as Growing Home, their original mission communities of predominately African because of the loss of manufacturing and cannot be forgotten. Providing oppor- descent, suffers from lack of food access industrial jobs to other parts of the global tunities to create a new generation of and food security. Other projects related community. job-ready people and new entrepreneurs to the urban agricultural district and GH must continue through the design of new are also being planned. Plans currently Lastly, the importance of reducing and better training programmes for those under development by the Center for environmental problems related to the who have been disenfranchised. Growing Urban Transformation (CUT) include transportation of food over long distances Home and its partners are the bridge into the creation of several produce markets cannot be over-emphasised, particularly a new age of urban life and must always or small grocery stores, the creation of when the issue of global warming must be aim to assist people in reaching the at least one large farmers’ market and a confronted and solved. highest level of their human potential. public market. Another proposed project will include the SUMMARY development of a subscription community Although Growing Home started as a kitchen for local entrepreneurs interested in humble job training and social enterprise, starting or expanding businesses such as it suddenly finds itself together with its catering services. The kitchen will also in- partners in the position of becoming the clude a bakery that will operate as a whole- catalyst for a revolution in agriculture sale and retail bakery business. These enter- through the creation of various pro- prises will utilise green building strategies. grammes and projects related to the The urban agriculture district will include various aspects of urban agriculture (mul- both large-scale and small-scale commer- tiple functions) and related enterprises. René van Veenhuizen Guided tour at the Growing Home Urban Farm

'OFS 37 Urban Agriculture as a Social Justice Change Agent and Economic Engine

Growing Power is a national non- profit organisation and land trust that supports people from diverse

backgrounds and the environments Growing Power in which they live. Growing Power provides hands-on training, on-the- ground demonstration, outreach and technical assistance through the development of Community Food Systems that help people grow, process, market and distribute food in a sustainable manner.

Youth Corps at the Chicago Avenue Community Garden

rowing Power was established in PROFITABLE AND SUSTAINABLE “Growing Power inspires communities 1998 as Farm-City Link, a farmer- Vermicomposting is now at the core of to build sustainable food systems that are G operated greenhouse and small Growing Power’s vision and activities to equitable and ecologically sound, creating a farmers’ cooperative located in Milwaukee, make urban agriculture a viable option in just world, one food-secure community at a Wisconsin, USA. It was formed to assist cities. Compost is the key to viable farming. time”. small farmers in their efforts to compete Nutrient-rich waste and organic material for business contracts with wholesale are sourced from local restaurants and Growing Power greenhouses are made of buyers. Soon the property’s owner and food wholesalers and are broken down by salvaged frames from local nurseries and farmer, Will Allen, began to field requests worms to produce a sustainable fertiliser farms that were unable to compete with from the community to install gardens, that outperforms synthetic fertilisers. large-scale industry. These greenhouses often with youth involvement at the core Growing Power embraces reuse, recycling have several levels of plant growth: of the programmes. Supported by Heifer and reclamation in its economic and hanging baskets (for pea shoots, sunflower International, Growing Power established ecological model for intensive production. sprouts, rugula lettuce and Bull's Blood the first youth project consisting of youth beets), pots partially submerged in water in training in and production of aquaponics Allen has combined his knowledge of aquaponic systems, and beds edging along and vermicomposting. farming and his understanding of the city the sides. In one of the greenhouses a as a series of interconnected food and swimming pool serves as a water reservoir ecological systems to develop an urban and home for tilapia fish. They clean the food production system. Part of Growing water, which is drawn upward to the top of Power’s philosophy is that there is always the structure to flow down through the more than one right way to do things, growing levels. and that a variety of solutions offers community members options. The multi- The hoop greenhouses used by Growing cultural nature of the organisation and its Power are unheated and draped with policy that everyone is welcome and shade cloth in the summer for cooling. valued lead to innovations and new Growing Power has developed so-called approaches as additional perspectives “Living Biological Worm Systems” to grow Erika R. Allen, Growing Power USA and skills are shared. food in the winter months using the “hoop With contributions from Laurell Sims and Daniel Espinosa  [email protected]

!?=?Gpopulations in the gardens and urban farms. This includes attend weekly meetings and plan, grow, United States are starting to produce their national and international outreach to and market their own crops and value- own food. In addition, facilitators across farmers and communities. added products. the nation and around the world are being Food production and distribution: Food - Farm-City Market Basket Program trained to set up similar community food production takes place in the organisa- (FCMB): This is a weekly, year-round, centres in their own communities (most tion’s urban demonstration greenhouses food security programme that supplies recently in Skopje, Macedonia). and on the rural farm site. The distribution safe, healthy, affordable vegetables and of produce and value-added products takes fruit to communities at a low cost. The URBAN AND RURAL place through the Rainbow Farmers’ programme effectively increases city The Growing Power Community Food Cooperative and the year-round food residents’ access to affordable food, while Centre is the last remaining farm and security programme: Farm-City Market providing a viable market for small greenhouse operation in the City of Basket Program (including Community farmers and urban gardeners in which to Milwaukee. It is currently owned by Supported Agriculture); sell the food they grow. Growing Power Director, Will Allen, but

50 2 *;A;TCH? - Rainbow Farmers’ Cooperative: Growing - Living Skills: A training series on food specific to Puerto Rican cuisine, such as Power helped create the Rainbow production, processing, marketing and “Recao”, a staple herb. It is a challenge to Farmers’ Cooperative, a network of small distribution, utilising year-round horti- find new farmers who are willing to family farmers who grow and market culture, agriculture, composting, vermic- produce these vegetables and sell them at a food using sustainable techniques. ulture, and aquaculture techniques. small and developing market. - Growing Together: Community Food Systems “From the Ground Up”: This is a CHICAGO The Jackson Park Farm Site and Education national, grassroots training programme In 2002, Growing Power opened a Chicago Center was established in June 2007. Most of neighbourhood-based food and office to assist urban agriculture initiatives of the site is dedicated to production for gardening projects. in the Chicago area. It currently operates Growing Power and community farming. three urban agriculture farming projects, Supported by Growing Power’s Chicago A Community Food Centre provides delivers to eight Farm-to-City Market Youth Corps, community members learn wonderful spaces for hands-on activi- Basket drop sites, manages an active stall at gardening basics and apply the Living ties, for large demonstration projects, the Green City Farmers’ Market and Biological Worm Systems. The Chicago and for growing a myriad of plants, delivers local produce to premier restau- Youth Corps is a year-round teen develop- vegetables, and herbs. A space no larger rants. In addition, Growing Power is ment programme. Teens work five days than a supermarket can hold some involved in food policy issues via the per week for 4.5 hours per day in the 20,000 plants, thousands of fish, and a Chicago Food Policy Advisory Council and summer months to learn both farming livestock inventory of chickens, goats, provides guidance to thirty high school skills and “soft” job skills, such as appro- ducks, rabbits, and bees. and four college interns and one appren- priate communication skills for the tice. Their projects include the following: workplace, conflict resolution, and Demonstration and training modules teamwork. This year during the spring and include: The Grant Park Urban Agriculture Potager fall, these teens helped develop a food - Large- Scale Food Residue Processing. (Urban Farm) partnership with the literacy campaign to inform other teens Using aerobic and anaerobic digestion Chicago Park District is proving that the about local agriculture and healthy food methods, food waste is diverted from social benefits of urban agriculture reach options. They produced a button with the landfills and made into organic compost, beyond local food miles and food security slogan “Turnip the Volume on Vegetables”, which is then used in local community and encompass youth economic develop- and painted a mural at the office in garden and urban agriculture projects. ment and education. This edible garden of Chicago. - Vermicomposting and Composting: 1850 square meters in the midst of Grant These “living” systems are composed of Park has over 150 varieties of vegetables, GROWING FOOD AND JUSTICE carbon residue, customised microorgan- herbs and flowers, and it is used as a FOR ALL isms, minerals, and red wriggler worms. hands-on educational site for 10-30 youth This Initiative, hosted by Growing Power, The resulting “material” is remarkably interns, sponsored by the City of Chicago’s is an new comprehensive network that fertile, giving plants access to the nutri- After School Matters programmes views dismantling racism as a core ents needed for both plant growth and principal bringing together social change for human nutrition. El Conuco Farmers’ Market in Chicago’s agents from diverse sectors that are - Aquaponics: A closed-loop plant and fish largest Puerto Rican neighbourhood is in working to bring about new, healthy and growing system that can be utilised in its first season. Growing Power is the sustainable food systems and support and small spaces, with minimal cost and primary vendor at the market and another build multicultural leadership in impover- maintenance. Growing Power does not youth project, God’s Gang, also sells ished communities throughout the world. use chemicals or artificial additives in this produce at this market. Customers are system. beginning to ask for produce that is more Coupled with our vision for social and food justice, Growing Power has a vision to Youth Corps at the Chicago Avenue Community Garden share and help others grow food where we all live, thereby decreasing our reliance on petroleum-fuelled industrial farming while maintaining technically complex and flourishing biological production systems Growing Power that are accessible to all people regardless of economic circumstances or environments. This is the future of agriculture: using natural processes to create highly productive, urban food sources, and introducing healthier alternatives for people and the environments in which the systems are implemented.

References USDA. 2004. Household Food Security in the United States.

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Innovative US developers are integrating farmland into their residential areas (subdivisions), Nevin Cohen providing space for food production and linking residents to their farmer-neighbours, with positive consequences for both. Suburban farms can be an important part of a sustainable regional food system.

Farming is an integral part of Prairie Crossing

rowing concerns about the negative Civic agriculture includes flexibly THE FARMING SUBDIVISION environmental and social impacts organised farms and food producers, The farming subdivision is an innovative of the agro-industrial food system including urban farms. On the retail side, response to the desire to foster civic G have led to the rise of an opposi- civic agriculture comprises various forms agriculture. A small but growing number tional movement promoting alternative of direct marketing, such as farmers’ of residential developers are producing food systems, shortened food chains, or markets, community supported agricul- housing subdivisions designed from the what is broadly defined as civic agriculture ture (CSA), or cooperative production and start to include working farms (Munoz, (Feagan, 2007; Lyson, 2000). Civic agricul- distribution, all of which closely connect 2007). These farmland subdivisions are ture implies a commitment on the part of food producers and consumers. geographically dispersed, and are built in producers and consumers to developing both suburban and more rural locations. and strengthening a sustainable system of CIVIC AGRICULTURE AND CIVIC The type of farming practiced varies, too, agriculture and food production and SPACE from simple haying to diversified organic distribution that relies on local resources This civic engagement is critical and is vegetable farming. In comparison to tradi- and serves local markets. The institutions related to the locality in which civic tional subdivisions, they have numerous that make up a civic agriculture system are agriculture occurs. Specific spaces that potential environmental benefits, a part of the local economy, produce and bring producers and consumers together, including land conservation, land restora- sell food that matches the ecological and like a weekly farmers’ market, can help tion (if organic growing methods are cultural needs of the community, are restore a sense of community to a city or used), and production of food destined for small-scale, not capital intensive, and rely town (Feenstra, 2002; Norberg-Hodge et local markets. They also provide social on the knowledge of the individuals who al., 2002; Allen, 2004). Creating social benefits as well. Residents in develop- live in a particular place (DeLind, 2002). spaces for civic interaction is an important ments with common spaces report that part of fostering civic agriculture and the the shared open space in these communi- creation of successful food system alterna- ties enables them to meet and connect tives (Feenstra, 2002). And, according to with other people (Plas and Lewis, 1996). DeLind (2002), civic agriculture has the potential for “grounding people in By bringing homeowners and farmers common purpose” and for “nurturing a together in a cohesive community, these Nevin Cohen, sense of belonging to a place and an types of developments also have the Eugene Lang College, The New School for organic sense of citizenship.” potential to reduce the physical and Liberal Arts. New York. USA. emotional distance that has grown  [email protected] between consumers and food producers.

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56 2 *;A;TCH? Alliances Between Farmers and Other Actors in Dakar Awa Ba Awa Urban farmers produce crops within and around cities (Mougeot, 2000). They do not form a separate group from the urban population, nor do they live self-sufficiently. They maintain diverse relations with other actors in the city. Some of these relations go beyond the sale of agricultural or non-agricultural produce and become strategies and alliances among socio-economic and political actors.

he city of Dakar with its surrounding subsistence), 1 rice producer, 38 various rural area belongs to the depart- breeders and 10 fishers. UPROVAN Farmers in Pikine T ment of Rufisque and is the smallest region of Senegal. It covers only ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK 2

550 km , or 0.3 % of the national territory, The general organisation of the provision Ba Awa but has a population of 2.4 million inhab- of supplies to the cities can be analysed itants, or 24% of the national population in terms of sectors, within which actors (DPS, 2002). The population growth rate provide the necessary functions in the in the city is 4% per year, far higher than chain. These elementary functions (see the national rate of 2.9%. Population figure), are organised around three density reaches about 10,500 inhabit- moments of price negotiations: ants/km2 in the district of Pikine and the - in and around farms between producers commune of Dakar (ISRA, 1997). The and collectors; growing population necessitates greater - at wholesale markets when goods innovation in livelihoods and an increase brought by collectors are purchased by of food supplies. distributors; Small vegetable plots in Pikine - at retail markets when consumers buy The city is supplied by production in the commodities. the outlying rural areas, but despite its relatively easy access by road and rail, Production Collect Distribution Consumption local production on agricultural areas a a a within the city’s boundaries, mainly the Producer/Collector Wholesale Retail Market Niayes area, is also quite important1). Negotiation Markets Alliances between farmers and other actors in the agricultural areas of Dakar, Economic functions of the agricultural produce marketing sector and the influence of policy-makers will be discussed below. In a normal situation, i.e. the negotia- specialise and diversify their production. tion of prices in the market, the For instance, a former tenant farmer of THE STUDY economic position of an actor influ- the Great Niaye of Pikine has chosen to This article reports on the results of a ences his capacity to determine the transport goods. To carry out his new study conducted by the author in 2005 price. Production and consumption are profession, he has opted to remain in and 2006 on six categories of actors in normally separated, and actors in the contact with his former colleagues. He agriculture in Dakar. A group of 180 wholesale market (collectors and distribu- now plays an important role in the organ- farmers were interviewed in 2005, and tors) dominate the transactions. However, isation of the marketing of agricultural 98 of them were re-visited in 2006. In other organisational forms are emerging, produce and bulky inputs such as urban addition 60 consumers, 30 vendors, 13 which will be illustrated for Dakar. New livestock manure. In fact, he helps other elected officials at local level (mayors of forms of negotiation get close to the producers relay supplies to and from Pikine Nord and Ouakam) and regional concept of equitable trade, in which the the city. He transports, on demand, their level, 8 extension officers and 6 planners economic weakness of a partner does crops to the urban markets and conveys were interviewed. The group of producers not necessarily place him in a position of the agricultural inputs to the farming was composed of 34 market vegetable being dominated. fields. This is an individual enterprise gardeners, 36 fruit growers, 30 flower at the service of community producers, growers, 31 micro-gardeners (mainly DIVERSIFICATION OF JOBS AND traders and consumers in the vicinity. By PROFESSIONS facilitating producers’ access to the urban Awa BA Specialisation market, this informal entrepreneur partic- National Agronomic Institute, Paris-Grignon The proximity of the urban market offers ipates in maintaining their close linkage,  [email protected] urban producers the opportunity to which forms the basis of an alliance.

26 2 *;A;TCH? tenure is an important element in insti- decreases as one moves from intra-urban urban agriculture and reinterpret rural gating initiatives to form farmers’ organi- private lands towards customary periph- customary practices in an urban context. sations and increase political involvement eral lands; while land security, on the Periurban farmers generally have lower as a means to protect land rights in the other hand, increases from private lands levels of literacy and are related to each face of competing land uses, land scarcity towards customary peripheral lands. other by kinship. These factors, in addition (urbanisation) and evictions. Security of to the land constraints discussed above, tenure is not a prerequisite for the creation There are also socio-economic differences may be important determinants of the of farmers’ organisations, yet it is central amongst the studied farmers’ groups organisational capacity and development in providing informal and formal access depending on their spatial location. For of farmers’ organisations. to land for their members, particularly instance, intra-urban farmers are older, rural-to-urban migrants. Paradoxically, more established in the business and formal urban farmers’ organisations can in better economic form than farmers References have informal tenure arrangements. It has in the peripheries. Suburban farmers Groupe Recherche/Actions Pour le Développement. also been observed that farmers’ level of experience a constant influx of rural- 2001. Potentialités et conflits dans les zones péri- organisation and political involvement to-urban migrants. who start practicing urbaines: le cas de Bamako au Mali. Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies Series. Working Paper 5. London: IIED. . Vélez-Guerra, A. 2004. Multiple Means of Access Yiriwaton (Downtown) Statutory Only renting to Land for Urban Agriculture: A Case Study of Dyen Te Don Statutory/ Customary Mostly borrowing, Farmers’ Groups in Bamako, Mali. CFP Report 40. Ottawa IDRC. buying, occasionally renting Zallé, D., F. Meite, and A. Konate. 2003. The Land Issue and Urban Agriculture in Bamako. Urban Benkadi Customary Mostly owning, some Agriculture Magazine. No.11. p. 13-14. (Periurban) borrowing Table: Farmers’ organisations’ means to access land

u From page 26 activities were undertaken at three sites, NOTES while the other sites were involved in city 1) A Niaye is an inter-dune depression where the (80 percent women and 15 percent men). underground water is not deep. 4) Environnement Développement Afrique-Groupe de level activities. Two of the objectives of 2) The Dakar region has four districts: Dakar, Pikine, Recherche-Action-Formation, ONG. this process were to promote collective Guédiawaye and Rufisque. 5) Programme of Support for the Development and reflection on the historic, environmental, 3) Of the total of 21,750 members and users, there are Concerted and Sustainable Management of the Niayes 1,087 basic organisations. The others are individuals (PACN). Assessment and Prospects. economic and social aspects of the sites and establish an alliance for the protection and sustainable development of the Niayes.5) References Direction de l’Horticulture (Department of concertée et durable des filières maraîchères urbaines. Horticulture). 2002. Rapport micro-jardins 2002, 28 CONCLUSION In: Smith Olanrewaju B., Moustier P., Mougeot L. pages (Report on micro-gardens). J.A. and Fall A.. Agriculture urbaine en Afrique de Whatever the angle or viewpoint, the ENDA-GRAF Sahel. Le financement de l’agriculture l’Ouest et du Centre: enjeux, concepts et méthodes en main purpose of any linkage among familiale dans le contexte de libéralisation: quelle recherche-développement, CRDI, Ottawa, 2001, 144 contribution de la microfinance? Seminar in Dakar, pages. (p. 69) farmers, whether informal or insti- 21-24 January 2002, 21 pages. Ndione D. Thèse de géographie sur les Niayes de tutionalised, is to ensure agricultural Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles (ISRA Dakar, UCAD, Dakar, 1986. production provides sufficient supplies = Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research) République du Sénégal National Agriculture Census Strategic Plan of the Niayes area. In French. Doc. 1998-1999, p. 20 to urban populations. Thus, the restyling ISRA, October 1997, 75 pages. République du Sénégal. Ministère de l’Agriculture of the sector and the development of Fall S. T., Fall A. S.. Citées horticoles en sursis? et de l’Elevage, DAPS, RNA 1998-99. Volume 5. producer/consumer linkages is ongoing L’agriculture urbaine dans les grandes Niayes du Répertoire des zones et sites de production horticole Sénégal, CRDI, Ottawa, 2001, 138 pages. périurbaine d’après le pré-recensement horticole in urban agriculture in Dakar. Despite Mougeot L.J.A., 2000. Urban agriculture: definition, 1999-2000. 126 pp. the development of a large gap between presence, potential and risks. In: Bakker N. et al., République du Sénégal. Direction de la Prévision et de production and consumption in the past, Growing cities, growing food: urban agriculture on la Statistique. Division des Enquêtes démographiques the policy agenda, a reader on urban agriculture. et sociales, January 2001. Website: http://www.prima- the presented examples show alliances Feldafing, Germany. ture.sn/senegal/population_chiffres.html that maintain or restore social linkages, Moustier P., Moumbélé M. and Huat J. La gestion thereby strengthening local solidarity and enabling these actors to counter the adverse effects of market relations.

Micro-gardening is an innovative response by farmers to urban Awa Ba Awa constraints, but also to urban demands with respect to the quality of products. The urban context in that sense is conducive to technological innovation because of the numerous developments and interactions which take place.

A meeting of the UPROVAN Farmer Association in Dakar

he city plays a prominent role 1999, the Department of Horticulture in d’arrondissement) of Ouakam and in in technlogical development Senegal has been coordinating a project the Centre de Sauvegarde of Pikine- T (Lefebvre, 1968): “For a very long called the Micro-gardens’ Programme. Guédiawaye. The major determinants time, the Earth has been the great labora- This department has played a crucial are the availability of land and the tory, (..) it was just recently that this role in innovation, firstly by taking the willingness of the municipal authorities role was taken over by the city”. Specific decision to entrust researchers with to support the implementation of micro- circumstances in Dakar have stimulated the project, which was to be developed gardening. Micro-gardens are generally the development of micro-gardening, together with the farmers. Another managed by women’s economic interest such as the annual arrival of many new innovation was to have the researchers groups (EIGs). inhabitants (about 100,000 according and farmers experiment with a number to IUCN, 2002), the subsequent search of solid substrates such as groundnut HUMAN RESOURCES IN for new livelihood opportunities, the shell, rice husk and laterite. These ideas AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH problematic access to farming land originated from the researchers but were Before the project could be launched, (Mbaye and Moustier, 1999; Fall and Fall, tested by ten beneficiary families. the organisation of the Department of 2001), and several efforts of NGOs and Horticulture’s research management and researchers promoting urban agriculture. A micro-garden consists of a container agricultural administration (under the and a planting substrate on which Ministry of Agriculture) needed to be A micro-garden is a soil-less farming the crops grow. In the Micro-gardens’ adapted. First, agricultural technicians system, which involves the cultivation Programme the plants are most often of the Horticultural Development Centre of plants on either solid substrate or in first raised in nurseries by the farmers (CDH), particularly those working in the water (hydroponic). This technology has themselves using a solution of nutrients. agricultural supervision services like the been tested by FAO in Latin America and The stock solution is made by chemical Departmental Rural Development Service the Caribbean (see for instance articles industries and bought at the market (SDDR), needed to be familiarised with by Abensur Riós and César Marulanda Initially the programme provided the this new technology. This department in UA-Magazine no. 10, 2003). Since solution free of charge to the farmers, was responsible for the training of the but after special training the farmers beneficiaries. The programme particularly started to make their own (Programme worked with farmers who were members Report, 2004). of economic interest groups (EIG). An EIG is an association of people who join forces The innovative character of the to create a small enterprise oriented at technology is in the application of processing and marketing local products. a modern production technology – Each EIG has 12 members and the benefi- hydroponics – in small areas, such as a ciaries’ training sessions were decentra- Awa Ba courtyard, terrace, roof, the city council lised and held at district level. According  [email protected] compound or school grounds. This is to the Department of Horticulture, “a Ngouda Ba done, for example, in the backyard of five-day training workshop addressed  [email protected] the municipality building (commune to the regional technicians of the project

30 2 *;A;TCH? was organised in December 2002. At manage this marketing effort, micro-gar- Macro and micro-stock nutrients have national level, some 1440 people from deners would like to have a specific place to be kept in a cool place. In addition, the country’s ten regional capitals, the to sell their products. This would provide micronutrients need to be stored in a departments of Dakar, Kaffrine and them with the opportunity to explain dark place. Their dosage depends on Linguere, benefited from the training”. the quality of micro-garden vegetables the substrate (liquid or solid), the type The trainees were selected according to and their benefits to consumers’ health. of plant and its growth stage. The two their degree of poverty and willingness Already a few restaurant owners have examples in the box were given by the to participate in (micro) gardening (in started using micro-garden lettuce: who micro-gardening project for liquid, line with the objectives of the Micro- verify their origin. hydroponic substrates. The water is gardening Programme). often tap water used for irrigation. Micro-gardens can be located in various However, well water is also used and Most of the trainees were women (more places, 75% of micro-gardens in Dakar the possibility of using rainwater is also women than men are members of EIGs), and Pikine are located on terraces (roof being considered. and since women’s access to land is very gardens). In other parts of the country, limited, their role in urban agriculture is they are placed on the ground in court- CONCLUSION strengthened by providing them with a yards or outside the home. In Dakar, researchers and farmers micro-garden. It is also mostly women collaborated in the development of who are involved in hydroponics. A USING URBAN WASTE micro-gardens. Research contributed survey conducted by the author in 2005 Many micro-gardens are made out of to the understanding of plant nutri- found that, 36 of the 180 Dakar-based recycled materials, both the containers ents and the use of solid substrates to farmers (market gardeners, orchard- as well as the substrate. Containers replace the soil. In addition, participative ists, flower growers, micro-gardeners, can be made of wooden boards from training was provided to the farmers, animal breeders, fishermen and rice boxes found at the port of Dakar, plastic in farmers’ schools. This innovation is a farmers) were women. Twenty-five of bowls, buckets, tyres cut longitudinally technical response to the constraints and these women were engaged in micro- and polystyrene boxes formerly used to advantages found in the city. In Dakar, gardening. package fish. the port and food processing industries can be considered as advantages for

The programme is ongoing and new RUAF the supply of substrates and wood used farmers are being trained and supported in the fabrication of micro-gardening in Dakar as well as in the regions. tables. The soil-less fresh vegetable Individuals or agents from private insti- production system has been adopted tutions wishing to undergo training by some inhabitants (50 percent of the pay only the cost of materials. The surveyed producers mentioned that they agricultural technicians who conduct the commenced their agricultural activity in training are paid by the project. Another 2000). However, the poorest beneficiaries survey conducted in 2006 among 98 of need help in order to strengthen their the farmers in Dakar showed that partici- self-reliance. Micro gardens on rooftop in Dakar pants found the duration of the training rather short. The solid substrate or water (for the References hydroponic production of leafy vegeta- Abensur Ríos, J.. 2003. Hydroponics Technology in The success of the micro-gardening bles) filling of the containers is often Urban Lima, Perú. In: Urban Agriculture Magazine no. 10, Micro Technologies for Urban Agriculture. activity is due primarily to the micro- made up of waste. Solid substrates are 2003. RUAF. gardeners’ higher production. According made from agricultural waste: groundnut Comité Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS). 2002. Institut to the Programme, a micro-garden can shells (60%) and rice husks (40%), both of du Sahel. Programme majeur population / dével- provide 6 cropping cycles each year and which can be replaced by laterite gravel oppement (CERPOD). Ministère de l’Economie et des Finances. Direction de la Prévision et de la obtain an average yield of 30 kg of vegeta- (a material that is used less and less). Statistique (DPS). Rapport de recherche. Profil bles/m2/year. The 2006 survey also The shells and husks needs to be cleaned démographique et socio-économique du Sénégal 1960-2000. 174 p. showed that most participating families and stored for at least twenty-four hours Fall S.T., Fall A.S. 2001. Cités horticoles en sursis ? consume between 5 and 9 kg of vegeta- to facilitate fermentation. The different L'agriculture urbaine dans les grandes Niayes au Sénégal. CRDI, Ottawa. bles per month, which is more than what researchers and the project team experi- Lefebvre H., 1968. Le droit à la ville I. Editions non-participating families consume (on mented with these materials with a view anthropos, Paris, 165 p. Marulanda Tabares, C.H. 2003. Hydroponics in average between 1-4 kg). Surplus produc- to improving access to the technique: by Latin America. In: UA-Magazine no. 10, Micro tion is sold to neighbours and friends, or using the most abundant substrate in each Technologies for Urban Agriculture. RUAF. Mbaye A, Moustier P. L’agriculture urbaine others interested in organic produce, and regional context, the price for farmers dakaroise. 1999. 26 p. provides additional income. could be minimised. In Dakar, these Prain G. 2001. Farmer Field Schools, an ideal method for urban agriculture? In UA-Magazine, inputs are offered in an increasing number No. 5. RUAF. No marketing training is currently of places, to ensure their proximity to the République du Sénégal. Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de l’Hydraulique. Direction de provided, but the programme is looking beneficiaries and thus reduce transporta- l’Horticulture. FAO. PSSA. Projet Micro-Jardins, into ways of including this in the regular tion costs. These materials have to be (2004). Programme Microjardins 2002 : rapport technique et financier. Mai 2004. Pp. 7 et 8. 29 p. training. In addition, in order to better bought by the farmers.

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg')HZeiZbWZg'%&% www.ruaf.org The Development of a Women Producers’ Cooperative in Istanbul

Istanbul is an old, but rapidly modernising city. Large-scale migration from throughout Turkey into Istanbul and the integration of Turkey into the regional and global marketplace have been changing metropolitan patterns of household livelihood, food security and environmental Yilmaz Korkmaz Yilmaz conditions since the 1950s.

s immigration pushes Istanbul’s Food Security of Groups Under Risk population beyond 15 million Through Urban Agriculture”, a project in A (12 million officially), it is becoming Gürpinar, Istanbul, started in 2005. progressively more difficult for people to The project, which was executed by the find work, receive health and education urban agriculture group of UYD (see box services, and meet their household food below), targeted local poor women for needs. The expanding area of metro- education, empowerment and employ- Women clearing the lands in Gürpinar politan Istanbul now exceeds 1,500 km2 ment. The project was financed by the EU and threatens the watersheds upon which (Ankara) through the governmental insti- the city relies for its fresh water. According tution (ISKUR). to recent surveys, Istanbul may have close

to a million unemployed. Many people, The NGO Toplumsal Kalkınma Gönüllüleri Korkmaz Yilmaz amongst them most of those who recently Derneği (TKGD) aims to show urban autho- migrated to the city, work at or below rities that agricultural production has social, the official minimum wage (of USD 250/ economic and environmental dimensions, month), which is insufficient to satisfy relating to such urban issues as food security, minimum food needs for a family of four poverty, health, unemployment, micro-enter- (which is USD 350/month). With annual prise development, waste recycling, leisure rural to urban migration of over 300,000 and recreation, and the building of communi- per year, the social and environmental ties. Until 2005, TKGD was part of Ulaşılabilir pressures are mounting and already Yaşam Derneği (UYD). At UYD, the TKGD Preparing for the first crops exceed the formal sector’s ability to team was responsible for the project in absorb and manage the growth. Gürpinar and was supported by ETC-UA. employment chances increase.

City officials are exploring ways to cope The aim of the project was to develop and Capacity building with urbanisation and increasing poverty use a model oriented towards employ- The group of 25 women was trained by and seek to integrate economic, social, ment and food safety of vulnerable a team of trainers from UYD and several spatial and ecological programmes with groups in urban regions, using urban universities in a wide variety of subjects, land use planning and national and agriculture. The project decided to work form cultivation of different vegetables, regional policies. In the presentation with unemployed migrant women from composting and food processing, to of its Master Plan, the city of Istanbul low-income households who showed marketing, management and organisa- showed interest in multi-functional interest in agriculture. Twenty-five tion. The women received USD 10 per urban agriculture as a productive use of participants were selected from a large day of training. Twelve of them worked open spaces and green belts around the group of interested women. Most of them permanently in the gardens and earned city. Partnerships are being developed in reside in the municipalities of Esenyurt, about USD 250/month on the shared identifying meaningful and workable ways Kıraç and Gürpınar in Istanbul (on the profits from vegetable sales. In this way to meet the city’s goals and commitments European side of Istanbul). These women they enhanced their household food while targeting poverty alleviation and the cannot make full use of the employment supply by as much as 30%. For some of integration into sustainable urban devel- possibilities in the city, because they lack these families, the total amount of money opment planning and policy making. education, skills, and the time needed earned represented Turkey’s average for cultural adaptation. Agriculture was income per family. In addition, all 25 Pilot Project in Gürpinar their main occupation in the rural areas. women satisfied their summer vegetable Under the title “Contribution to Improve Practising agriculture in the city gives needs with the produce from the gardens, Employment Opportunities and Provide them the opportunity to use previously which off-set their family food budget by attained experience and skills, while another estimated 25%. Yılmaz Korkmaz learning about and adapting to the city. TKGD In addition, their self-esteem improves, In the project, which lasted one year  [email protected] their social network expands and their (2005-2006), two cropping cycles were

'OFS 27 realised. The focus in the first period for the organic farm, but also assisted in tant example for urban agricultural was on the production of a wide variety raising awareness among visitors. The techniques, contributions and household/ of crops and on various practices. Most community building aspect of the project community welfare, the project includes of the yield was used by the women and was especially valued. The creation of extensive planning and negotiation with their families, but some of the produce opportunities for cooperation between local and greater municipal government (especially tomatoes and parsley) was sold citizens with a low income level and officials on the further development of at the local bazaars. The second period unemployed citizens, and the develop- the multiple functions of urban (organic) focused more specifically on processing, ment of alliances with the local authori- agriculture. These scenarios show a need sales and marketing of selected crops ties were seen as tremendously important. for multi-stakeholder planning, with (again tomatoes and parsley), and the The pilot project maintained regular active participation of the various stake- formation of a cooperative. Additional contact with the municipality and other holders, in joint visioning, development of training in “small entrepreneurship” was actors and used the media as much as criteria, decisions on and implementation organised with support from Ankara possible to show that urban agriculture of activities, and assessment of outcomes University (Faculty of Agriculture). In contributes to employment and food and impacts. this training, the roles of the women in safety. This proved to be a very important the agriculture cooperative, financing, asset. In addition, the project organised The challenge is to establish a viable and the development of an efficient and several visits to the farm and a seminar in urban farm with income from the sale transparent institution were dealt with. Istanbul in August 2005 to publicise its of (organic) agricultural produce. But Basic management information such as experiences. In addition to a number of both TKGD and the municipality see the cost analysis, income and expenditures municipalities in Istanbul and elsewhere potential for this farm to further develop analysis and profit calculations were also in Turkey, the neighbouring municipality educational, recreational and capacity- provided to the trainees. of Büyükçekmece showed interest and building facilities and activities, like waste requested TKDG to develop a similar recycling and water saving (techniques). Now in its second year, the Gürpinar initiative. Alternatively, bike and walking paths, project is self-sustaining and currently for example, can be made part of urban employs six women from the original Practising agriculture in agricultural green corridors to provide group (three full-time and three on a part- the city improves their alternative transportation systems and time basis). The full-time workers earn self-esteem exercise opportunities to city residents. between USD 300-375 per month plus What is currently needed is commitment additional compensation for transporta- Büyükçekmece of the parties involved, the development tion and meals. The part-time labourers Based on the experiences obtained in of a proper business plan and support in receive about USD 15 per day. The Gürpinar, and supported by a small designing an urban farm that is adapted cooperative was never established due contribution by UNDP, TKGD started a to the urban situation (with its specific to limited income for the full group, but similar project in mid-2006, in coopera- environmental, social, economic, and the farm is operated by the small team of tion with the municipal government in aesthetic factors). three women and supported by a TKGD Büyükçekmece. In this new project, this volunteer who also works full-time in the time on a 60-hectare plot, 50 women Both experiences in Gürpinar and garden. Produce is also sold two times a were selected by TKGD for the urban Büyükçekmece demonstrate that open week at the local market in Gürpinar. agriculture poverty alleviation projects, spaces in the city can be turned into The project managed to change the lives based on information and suggestions productive areas that may have a wide of the participating women and provided from neighbourhood leaders. Again they range of public benefits, like leisure, a good example to the neighbourhood, received a number of training sessions recreation and education, and even serve but it also showed the municipality on agricultural and project management. as community gathering spaces in the of Gürpinar and other institutions in The women indicated that they would event of emergencies like earthquakes. Istanbul an alternative way of using like to be part of the initiative on a part- By creating the context in which urban available open spaces. time basis. Several winter vegetables were agriculture is allowed to thrive, the planted in late summer 2006 for training benefits multiply. Municipal support purposes, but in early 2007 the decision The municipality of Gürpinar made the was made to focus on the organic produc- land available and provided access to tion of herbs for the Istanbul market. water for the project, but it also supported During one of the trainings the project in other ways as needed (such The significance of this project goes as by providing meeting facilities). further than the one in Gürpinar, as the The project was attractive to the munici- plot is in the green belt surrounding the pality, because in addition to facilitating Buyuk Cekmece Lake – which provides Yilmaz Korkmaz Yilmaz the temporary use of open spaces in the Istanbul with 17% of its drinking water newly developed areas and providing and is being threatened by encroaching an employment opportunity, the project development. Regular agricultural included the re-use of organic waste production (using high amounts of collected from urban areas. The compost inputs) and construction is not allowed not only represented a source of nutrients in this area. Beyond setting an impor-

28 2 *;A;TCH? 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 27

Integration of Urban Agriculture in Municipal Agendas: Experiences from Lima, Peru

In Peru urbanisation is intense, especially in metropolitan Lima. Massive migration resulted in urbanisation of poverty, which in the case of Lima is concentrated in the expanding outer zones of the city. In this context of an impoverished urban-rural interface, urban agriculture is a promising alternative that can make an important contribution to the fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals for fighting poverty and ensuring food security. This article describes experiences in two districts (1) of metropolitan Lima: Villa Maria del Triunfo and Lurigancho-Chosica. IPES

Policy making and action planning

n 1999, the municipality of Villa Maria initiative) has been implementing a participation of both men and women in del Triunfo became involved with the project in the municipality of public policy making, based on mutual I issue of urban agriculture and Lurigancho-Chosica and the municipality aid, solidarity and community work. identified the need to develop a of Santa Maria de Huachipa with the In this context, the municipality created a municipal policy to promote urban objective of promoting urban agriculture strategy in order to improve food security agriculture as a strategic activity. The as a positive, productive and essential of the poorest citizens, by complementing process was supported by regional and component of sustainable cities and its and diversifying the quantity and quality international organisations that promote integration into municipal urban of food consumption and facilitating the urban agriculture, such as the Cities management. The purpose of the generation of supplementary family Feeding People Program of the programme model is to raise awareness, income. International Development Research facilitate support, build capacity and Centre (IDRC/CFP Canada), the Urban offer tools to municipal governments to In 1999, the Mayor of Villa Maria del Management Program (UMP-LAC) of implement urban agriculture Triunfo (3) and some council members UNDP and UN-HABITAT, IPES – programmes and policies. initiated a learning process about the Promotion of Sustainable Development contributions of urban agriculture to the and the Resource Centres on Urban VILLA MARIA DEL TRIUNFO fight against poverty and other problems Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF The district of Villa Maria del Triunfo is caused by urbanisation, and to reflect on Foundation). located 17 km south of Lima (Peru) and its potential and risks. They shared Since 2003, the Urban Harvest has a current population of 367,845 (52 lessons learned and participated in programme located in the International percent women). The urban area occupies regional events and forums for Potato Center in Lima (a CGIAR(2) a third of the municipal territory, while reflection/discussion with various Latin the rest consists of steep hills. As high as American cities that had already been This article is a combination of two articles that were 57.3 percent of the population lives in implementing municipal urban submitted on Lima: poverty (FONCODES 2000), while 22 agriculture programmes and projects (4). 1) “Villa Maria del Triunfo: Developing an Urban percent suffers extreme poverty. The Agriculture Municipal Policy”, by Gunther Merzthal malnutrition rate is nearly 15 percent and URBAN AGRICULTURE IN CITY and Noemi Soto (of IPES/RUAF Foundation), and at least 23 percent of children under eight DEVELOPMENT Raquel Barriga, and Paula Ruiz (of the Municipality of Villa Maria del Triunfo) suffer from chronic malnutrition. 77 The increased knowledge about the impacts 2) “Toward the Integration of Urban Agriculture in percent of the economically active of urban agriculture on urban management Municipal Agendas: an experience in the district of population of the city engages in formal and the exposure to experiences of other Lurigancho-Chosica”, by Blanca Arce and Gordon Prain (of the Urban Harvest Program - International and informal commerce, 18 percent in local governments in Latin America Potato Center) and Miguel Salvo (of Urban Harvest service activities, and only 5 percent in encouraged the authorities of Villa Maria to Program and the Universidad Politecnica de Madrid) productive activities, such as industry and incorporate urban agriculture into the ______manufacturing (VMT et al. 2005). Villa strategic component called “Healthy Contact: Maria del Triunfo has a tradition of District” of the city’s Integrated ✉ [email protected] community organisation and high level of Development Plan for 2001-2010.

October 2006 27 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 28

The municipality, faithful to its tradition Enhancing the institutional The methodology used to elaborate the of community organisation, promoted a environment. plan included an initial working session consensus-based process for the This component deals with the local, to present the development proposal and elaboration of this plan with the active national and international alliances an initial SWOT analysis. The presence of participation of organisations, leaders, which encourage the promotion of urban urban producers from all areas of the and representatives of all of civil society. agriculture-friendly policies and district verified that the decision to As a result, the Municipal Urban legislation, as well as the activities and highlight UA was the correct one. The Agriculture Promotion and financial management involved in producers, principally represented by Environmental Protection Program (PAU) priority projects. Also included are the women, participated actively during the was created in July 2000 under the activities of consensus-building and entire plan formulation process and in Human Development Department of the participation in district development further dissemination at various other municipality, in order to facilitate the plans and the platforms derived from venues. This assisted very much in incorporation of the issue into the agenda them. assuring that all the local stakeholders of the municipal administration. learned about the problems and The target constituency of the urban alternative solutions proposed. Given agriculture unit is the urban producers that the problems in the various zones This process mobilised from the most vulnerable sectors of the were similar, the process also helped a broader group of population, including women heads of strengthen group cohesion and develop a stakeholders around households, teenage mothers, working sense of identity among the producers, as urban agriculture children and the disabled. they were not (nor had they ever been) Unfortunately, this initial process was formally organised. based solely on political support and In 2004, during a process of internal lacked quantitative and qualitative data The plan focused on commercialisation restructuring, the municipal council and on the situation of urban agriculture of produce but did not touch on the mayor of Villa Maria del Triunfo producers themselves. This lack of productive and transformation activities. decided to give greater emphasis to the information limited the results and Moreover, since there was no data on the promotion of urban agriculture and impacts of the activities since they were real situation of urban agriculture in the converted the PAU into a separate unit not conceived in a strategic way, nor did district, the plan was mainly based on the (Sub-Gerencia, third level administrative they always respond to the real needs perceptions of those who took part in its unit) of the Local Economic Development and priority issues of the different groups formulation. Department (see figure 1). In that year, of urban producers. On the other hand, the municipality allocated about US$ financial and human resources were also Having made some headway on the issue 35,000 of its budget as co-financing funds scarce and thus also limited the efforts to but always aware of the limitations of the for various UA activities (provision of fulfil the needs and demands of urban process, the municipality of Villa Maria inputs, agricultural production, farmers. del Triunfo – with the support of IPES/ processing and commercialisation). This RUAF (through its Cities Farming for the amount does not include the human and INCLUDING URBAN AGRICULTURE Future Programme)– started revising its logistical resources of the UA unit, which IN SECTORAL AND THEMATIC urban agriculture policy and began are valued at about US$ 20,000. This PLANS formulating a Strategic Plan for Urban contribution represents 2 percent of the In 2004, the municipality of Villa Maria Agriculture as a tool to make that policy municipal budget. In addition, the del Triunfo brought together several operational. This process included the municipality, in alliance with local institutions to elaborate its participatory active participation of urban producers organisations, has been channelling Economic Development Plan. and other local stakeholders. resources from local cooperation Participants worked on four areas: The Strategic Plan is based on an analysis institutions for the development of urban commerce, services, production and of quantitative and qualitative agriculture projects. urban agriculture. The inclusion of urban The urban agriculture unit has three lines agriculture as an independent area was of work: very much debated. The final decision Capacity building. This includes activities was based on the following for promotion, training and orientation of considerations: urban producers, documentation of ● the political will to promote urban activities, systematisation and elaboration agriculture of baseline studies and research projects, ● the availability of vacant land and liaison and exchanges with other ● the existence of urban agriculture local, national and international parties. practices in all zones as a traditional Productive development. Includes cultural expression of the population activities tied to technical assistance, ● urban agriculture as a strategy for implementation of demonstration generating income with low investment projects, identification and granting of ● urban agriculture as an anti-poverty IPES vacant land, and commercialisation strategy The Mayor of villa Maria del Triunfo support. harvesting with a local producer

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Figure 1: this context, the municipality of the Organisational flow chart for the municipality of Villa Maria del Triunfo in 2004 Lurigancho-Chosica district, with the support of Urban Harvest, began a CITY COUNCIL process at the end of 2003 of enacting

MAYOR’S OFFICE urban agriculture legislation. The aim was to promote urban agriculture as a MINICIPAL MANAGER means of generating income and increasing food security while contributing to a productive, healthy,

URBAN PUBLIC POVERTY SOCIAL ECONOMIC HUMAN green urban environment, all of which DEVELOPMENT SERVICES ALLEVIATION DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT are essential components of sustainable DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT cities.

URBAN AGRICULTURE LEARNING ABOUT URBAN AGRICULTURE COMMERCIALI ZATION The process began with the strategy of building awareness among municipal authorities and local institutions about THE LURIGANCHO-CHOSICA information on urban agriculture and the the reality of the families that depend on DISTRICT assessment of the needs, perceptions and agriculture for their livelihood. Two current practices of the urban producers The Lurigancho-Chosica district is international workshops for mayors have that were conducted during a located in the basin of the Rimac River, been held since 2003, in which different participatory diagnosis. The process some 13 km east of the centre of Lima. It Latin American cities exchanged allowed for the definition of key issues has a total population of 125,000. experiences about the development of and intervention strategies to overcome Approximately 10 percent of the adult urban agriculture for confronting poverty identified problems and promote the population (aged over 15) work full-time and other problems caused by potentials of the current situation of or part-time in crop production, while 65 urbanisation. The mayors participating in urban agriculture in Villa Maria. The plan percent work in the service sector. 32 these workshops signed agreements looks primarily at how to strengthen and percent of the children under 6 are committing themselves to promoting consolidate the existing activities. affected by chronic malnutrition (INEI, urban agriculture in their cities and 1993). It is one of the most extensive and districts (these workshops were co- It should be pointed out that this process least urbanised districts of Lima Province. organised with IPES-Promotion of encouraged the formation of the urban Most of the agricultural land is located on Sustainable Development). farmers’ network, strengthened the the valley floor (nearly 45 percent of the The municipality of Lurigancho-Chosica capacities (technical, methodological, district area) and supports a wide variety identified the promotion of urban participatory and gender-sensitive of urban and periurban agriculture, agriculture as a strategic municipal approach, etc.) of the urban agriculture mainly as a way of life in the struggle activity. Urban Harvest assisted in: unit staff and mobilised a broader group against urban poverty. ● creating a programme to identify the of stakeholders around urban agriculture. The district supplies about 25 percent of key stakeholders and to locate them All these stakeholders actively metropolitan Lima’s vegetables and within the municipality participated in the formulation of the includes many farms with animals ● formulating an awareness-raising plan, Strategic Plan and will contribute to its including birds, guinea pigs, rabbits, pigs, organising workshops to raise management and implementation cattle and goats (Arce and Prain, 2005). In awareness, coordinating information- through the City Forum on Urban Agriculture that was created on June 2006. The City Forum already has a Figure 2: Organisational flow chart for the municipality of Lurigancho-Chosica in 2004 functioning structure and is formed by 20 organisations and institutions (such as universities, NGOs, CBOs, national CITY COUNCIL government institutions, international MAYOR’S OFFICE organisations, such as the FAO, and MINICIPAL private businesses). The Strategic Plan ADMINISTRATION will allow for a strategic and consented intervention, optimising human and

financial resources in favour of urban ADMINISTRATION PLANNING AND ECONOMIC URBAN SOCIAL REVENUE AND FINANCE BUDGETING DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT DEPARTAMENT agriculture. The final version of the plan DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT AND PUBLIC DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT SERVICES is due on September 2006 and its DEPARTMENT implementation phase (pilot projects, EDUCATIONAL LEGAL training activities, etc.) is expected to CULTURAL AND DEPARTMENT URBAN RECREATIONAL start in October 2006. AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT UNIT DEPARTMENT

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sharing, workshops within the through improved practices and urban services of sanitation, drainage and municipality diversification. waste collection continue to pay rural ● facilitating round-table discussions, The action plan of the Lurigancho- taxation rates (approved); and 3) organising significant public events Chosica urban agriculture unit is similar regularisation of the management of (inauguration of the UA sub-section, to that of the urban agriculture section in restaurant waste for the feeding of pigs inauguration of agricultural production Villa Maria del Triunfo, and it involves: (currently under revision). activities, fairs, etc.) and visits to model farms, where ecological urban ● building the capacities of urban farmers Dialogue and identification of needs agriculture is practiced. and municipal stakeholders A first step of the municipal management In this process, the authorities ● ensuring productive development, and plan was to create forums for constant increasingly became convinced of the ● fostering strategic alliances aimed at the communication between the sub-unit important role urban agriculture can play integration of urban agriculture in managers, farmers and local institutions in the sustainable development of their municipal physical and land-use in order to optimally use the managers’ cities. The lessons learned also extended planning and encouraging social capacities and potential and also to to other stakeholders in the municipality. integration with attention to gender ensure continuous training, generate Meetings were also held with the concerns. bonds of trust and encourage Irrigation Users’ Board, including the transparency. This will allow the creation provision of training in agricultural The unit managers were trained with the of a solid programme to benefit the production techniques and the support of IPES. This helped to farmers. organisation of farmer field schools, with complement their practical experience in 26 farmers involved as promoters. municipal administration with specific A participatory identification of the knowledge on urban agriculture and needs of the producers was carried out CREATION OF THE URBAN highlighted the need to elaborate a with the Irrigation Users Board of the AGRICULTURE UNIT strategy for urban agriculture Rimac River, representatives of the Before these activities were implemented, development. The effort was part of a producers themselves and municipal the municipality was not aware of the mutual learning process of unit personnel authorities. These meetings produced realities of the urban farmers, hence the and staff from Urban Harvest. mutual learning among the different farmers’ demands remained unheard. stakeholders and resulted in: However, through sensitisation, ● identification of the current problems advocacy, action research and other Awareness raising and the real needs of the farmers of the learning processes, the local process is crucial in region administration recognised the the formulation of ● a SWOT analysis of urban agriculture in importance of local agricultural urban agriculture policy the district production and decided to support it at city level ● a typology of the urban farmers through the creation – in late 2004 – of an ● creation of a strategic plan that will feed urban agriculture unit (Sub-Gerencia de into a longer term action plan Agricultura Urbana) within the municipal INTEGRATION INTO THE ● implementation of the existing urban organisational structure (see figure 2). MUNICIPAL AGENDA agriculture programme. After training, and with the support of The information generated was This unit is a service centre for the Urban Harvest programme, the processed using Geographic Information agricultural producers and the local municipal urban agriculture office began Systems (GIS) in order to display a spatial population by promoting the link to develop a participatory process for analysis of the urban ecosystem and between production and consumption. strengthening local agriculture. This natural resource management. This has By using the production chain approach, process integrates all municipal actors, led to new proposals for territorial- it offers information to the producers including farmers, consumers, public physical planning. about opportunities for training and managers and NGOs, among others. programmes that support production A development strategy and sales efforts in the municipality. The This participatory and dynamic working Based on the results of the diagnostic municipality managed to put together a process allows the municipality to adapt study and the process of social learning, budget of US$ 100,000, with co-financing its structure according to the needs of the the urban agriculture unit has created a from Urban Harvest, for various population. It has led to the creation of a local team made up of representatives of activities. The specific objectives of the number of ordinances in support of the local population (farmers with land, urban agriculture unit are to: urban agriculture. To date, three farmers without land and food pantries), ● intervene in urban planning with new ordinances have been promulgated: 1) technical staff from Urban Harvest and a constructive initiatives and legislation creation of the Urban Agriculture representative from an NGO active in the for the productive use of vacant lots Municipal Unit for the Lurigancho- area, who together with municipal ● support producers/farmers in building Chosica district and the town of Santa technicians started formulating an action a sustainable, economically viable agro- Maria de Huachipa, which has already plan for the unit for the next few years. ecosystem that is less dependent on been approved; 2) establishment of a “no The idea is to develop further urban chemicals services no urban taxation” agreement, agriculture in the municipality, by ● contribute to producing higher income so that producers who do not receive the incorporating the proposals of the

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affected groups into municipal policy. Equally important is the strengthening of From page 26 These proposals cover issues such as organisational, managerial, technical and access to land, land tenure, access to and networking capacities of urban farmers. quality of water, investments (micro- A consolidated and strong organisation is But more attention is needed for credits), strengthening commercialisation better equipped to cope with the participatory monitoring of the process of and processing channels, environmental withdrawal of political support from the policy formulation and implementation. conservation, organic waste treatment municipality. This is why the local partners involved in and the quality of agricultural products. the RUAF programme also apply The initial strategy has been presented to While nothing ensures the success of instruments, from the start of the MPAP the city council for debate. urban agriculture activities, these interactive policy formulation process, to reflections are presented in the hopes of periodically review the communication The next steps will include the contributing to the sustainability of and cooperation between the organisation of a series of participatory urban agriculture beyond any particular stakeholders, and progress made in the workshops in which the strategy will be municipal administration. realisation of the various commitments of shared with various sectors of the local the partners involved. They also analyse population for modification and Notes changes that have come about in the 1) Metropolitan Lima has 42 districts. Each district is improvement. With this process of a municipality on its own represented by a major and various participating organisations, the consensus-building, it is hoped that the a municipal council. degree of participation of the intended 2) The CGIAR is a unique global partnership of activities of the unit will correspond to governments, multilateral organisations and private beneficiaries and gender considerations. the real needs of the population. foundations that works to promote food security, To do this they apply methods such as poverty eradication and the sound management of natural resources throughout the developing world. “participatory change monitoring” and CONCLUSIONS 3) The mayor referred to is Dr. Washington Ipenza “outcome mapping” (Earl et al., 2001). Pacheco, democratically elected by the residents of Raising awareness among decision Villa Maria del Triunfo for the periods 1996-1998, makers and other stakeholders of the 1999-2002, and 2003-2006. 4) These events had been organised by IPES in potential of urban agriculture to alleviate partnership with UN HABITAT’s Urban Management hunger and poverty is a key activity in Programme promoting urban-agriculture-friendly

policies. This can be accomplished References through local seminars that present urban Arce, B. and Prain G. 2005. La agricultura urbana agriculture experiences (from other cities como un componente económico familiar y su inserción en la gestión municipal: la experiencia in the country or abroad), exchange visits, del proyecto: “Agricultores en la Ciudad”, Lima, The development and institutionalisation technical interchanges, etc. Peru. Paper presented during the IV general of an interactive process of policy assembly of the Latin American Network of formulation thus go hand in hand with Research into Urban Agricultura (la Red It is also important to raise awareness Latinoamericana de Investigaciones en the development and institutionalisation among decision makers of the situation Agricultura Urbana, Red AGUILA) in the of urban agriculture. This article has of urban agriculture and urban seminar: Building Sustainable Cities with Urban described the principles, phases and Agricultura (Construyendo ciudades sustentables producers. Dialogue with and con Agricultura Urbana y Peri-urbana), from 28 challenges of an MPAP interactive policy participation of producers in the to 30 April, 2005, México. formulation process developed for urban aforementioned activities is needed to FONCODES. 2000. Poverty Map of the National agriculture. The following articles will Social Welfare and Development Fund of Peru. expose gaps and jointly seek solutions. Peru. describe in more detail experiences INEI. 1993. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e gained by RUAF partners in various cities Although the awareness raising process is Informática. National Census, 1993. and provide more insights into how to Merzthal, G. and Barriga R. 2006. Combate a la costly and requires much time and effort pobreza e inclusión social a través agricultura further develop and promote this type of on the part of promoters, this activity is urbana en Villa María del Triunfo: la importancia process. crucial in the formulation of urban del diseño, planificación e implementación participativa y multi-actoral. Document prepared agriculture policy at city level. for the Third World Urban Forum, Vancouver References 2006. Deelstra, T. D. Boyd and M. van den Biggelaar. Municipality of Villa Maria del Triunfo, DESCO, It is therefore essential to institutionalise 2006. Multifunctional Land Use, Promoting FOVIDA, IPES, SEDES. 2005. Participatory Urban Agriculture in Europe. In: R. van urban agriculture, through its Economic Development Plan. incorporation into the normative Veenhuizen. 2006. Cities Farming for the Future: Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive frameworks of cities (such as in their Cities, RUAF Foundation/IDRC/IIRR. development plans), through the Hemmati, M. (with contributions from F. Dodds, development of specific policies and legal J. Enayati and J. McHarry), 2002. Multi-Stakeholder Processes for Governance and frameworks (municipal ordinances, laws, Sustainability: Beyond Deadlock and Conflict. regulations) for urban agriculture that Earthscan. London, UK. facilitate and regulate its practice, and/or Partners and Propper, 2004. Verslag Afronding “initiatieffase”opstelling regeling through the creation of municipal burgerparticipatie gemeente Westervoort. structures (units, departments, etc.) in Earl, S., F. Carden & T. Smutylo. 2001. Outcome order to operationalise the development Mapping: Building Learning and Reflection into IPES Development Programs. Ottawa: International of concrete activities for urban Urban agricultures in the hills of Villa Development and Research Centre (IDRC). agriculture promotion. María del Triunfo

October 2006 31 Agricultural Business Associations in Urban and Periurban Areas in Lima, Peru CIP/Urban Harvest a baseline assessment, focus group discussions and training workshops. The researchers found a high use of chemical products, like pesticides and fertilisers, and improper animal-raising practices. They also identified a high degree of individualism, mistrust and a lack of communication. as primary obstacles to the formation of social capital. Qualitative tools were employed, such as participatory information-sharing workshops, training on topics such as agro-ecology and animal raising, and field visits to individual farms. There was a definite need for more training in new production practices that could help farmers increase production and obtain fair prices. In the second phase, the project adopted the Farmer Field School methodology (Escuela de Campo para Agricultores, ECA) and adapted to the Farmer group members harvesting organic products urban ecosystem. The initial process of inviting people to participate took three The large urban market of Lima provides an opportunity for periurban and months, which was longer than originally urban farmers in the east of Lima to sell their products. However, studies by planned, due to the complexity of urban the Urban Harvest Programme of CIP in Lima reveal that the current system agriculture. for commercialisation of urban agricultural products is underdeveloped. In addition there is a lack of trust, insecurity and a lack of capacity among Farmer Field Schools urban farmers to organise and improve through social learning processes This methodology calls for gathering and coordinated business management efforts. This article describes an together large groups of agricultural effort to improve this situation. producers, both men and women, to address issues related to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for the main traditional crops of the region. Two ‘schools’ he “Farmers in the City” Project, nities whose primary activity is raising were created, one on IPM for beets with coordinated by the Urban Harvest1) animals. The agricultural production farmers from the Carapongo subsector T programme in Lima, Peru, together system currently in place integrates the and another on IPM for lettuce with with other research and development growing of crops and raising of animals. farmers from Huachipa. Similarly, the ECA organisations, is strengthening the organi- The main crops are beets, lettuce, turnips, methodology was adapted for participa- sational capabilities of urban farmers from and other produce and aromatic plants. tory workshops on raising guinea pigs the lower Rimac River basin in Lima, Peru. The raising of pigs, birds, guinea pigs, with farmers from the Ñaña subsector. (See for more background the article on sheep and other animals is a source of Through this process, the farmers devel- Lima in UA-Magazine 16.) The project savings and food for the farmers. Raising oped an interest in organising themselves includes 924 families who make up the birds and guinea pigs is a traditional in order to apply all of the knowledge irrigation association called the Rimac practice among some migrant families acquired, produce healthy and clean User Board, and another group of families from rural areas. The economic potential (organic) products, access good markets (around 10,000) located in urban commu- of these activities has been developed with fair prices, and improve their energetically. Raising pigs is mainly done quality of life. Urban Harvest supported Jessica Alegre, Dennis Escudero and in areas without cropland and that tend to these Urban Farmers Schools (Escuelas Omar Tesdell be undeveloped. de Agricultores Urbanos, EAUs). With Urban Harvest programme additional support from the munici- International Potato Centre ORGANISATION OF FARMERS pality and the farmers themselves, two  [email protected] The first phase of the project included EAUs began to function in Huachipa and

42 2 *;A;TCH? Urban Agricultural Experiences from the Perspective of Social Responsibility

The Atocongo Association is an organisation that has grown out of the corporate social responsibility efforts of Cementos Lima SA. It is committed to carrying out capacity-building and human development programmes and projects which help to create opportunities for marginal urban groups seeking to improve their quality of life. One strategy used by Reinders Hans Peter the association to achieve this goal is urban agriculture.

he association is assisted in this make it possible for them to overcome effort by the Small Grants Program the social exclusion they currently face. T of the United Nations Development As such, most women not only assume Fund (UNDP) and the Global Environ- a central role in their own households, mental Facility (GEF). Within the frame- but also act as presidents or coordinators, work of this alliance, the “Innovative and chosen by the members of their organisa- Participatory Initiatives to Conserve the tions in general assemblies. Environment” programme is being implemented, which manages an Award Fund IMPACTS OF CORPORATE SOCIAL exclusively aimed at grassroots commu- RESPONSIBILITY nity organisations located in the southern The urban agriculture projects, which cone of Metropolitan Lima. To date, three originally sprung from corporate social calls for submissions have taken place, and responsibility efforts, have had many 19 projects have been selected, about half different impacts, both on the level of the of which are related to urban agriculture, women involved as well as on the level specifically in the districts of Villa Maria of the communities they live in. Most of del Triunfo and Villa El Salvador. the organisations find that this activity is The Atocongo Association and the Small a way to improve their ability to prepare Water is a scarce resource in the community gardens Grants Program support the projects by and provide food through their commu- of Lima (1) providing advice and assistance with nity kitchens. On the other hand, a space regard to the technical and practical for dialogue and learning is opened up, Impacts on the women aspects of growing produce, medicinal and new collective commitments are Through participation in the projects, plants, or aromatic plants, as requested by forged for continuing the activity, which the women have increased their skills. the project itself and (2) assisting with the then gets replicated in the households They can now write reports, provide management tasks of the project. and turns the bio-gardens into an oppor- good leadership and use the internet as tunity to generate household incomes, in a medium for information and consul- THE ACTORS INVOLVED IN addition to stimulating their accomplish- tation, which enables them to learn THE PROJECTS ments as micro-entrepreneurs. about innovative solutions that can be Many of these projects are directly linked adapted to their own local situation. to food security and are led by women’s This multifaceted impact is also demon- They have strengthened their abilities to organizations, such as mothers’ clubs, strated by the testimony of Ms. Honorata programme and facilitate workshops, and soup kitchens, community centres, etc., Huaman (53), a housewife and local leader thus to guide the organisations’ internal made up of women who experience who is very concerned about improving processes. In addition, most projects have poverty on a daily basis and who do not the quality of life in her community: resulted in the women learning how to have jobs which allow them to support “Having obtained a project like this has been plan, assume commitments and periodi- their families with dignity. It is clear that a great accomplishment for my community. cally address their fellow members in in most cases, it is the women who assume It has led to improvements in different areas, order to inform them of progress made the leading role in the quest for better especially in terms of nutrition. We are and to establish a more dynamic relation- living conditions, which will eventually continuing with the learning process so that ship characterised by integration and we can sell the products we grow and earn an solidarity. These newly acquired skills Communications and income that will enable us to cover the basic greatly enhance their community work. Public Relations Department necessities like water and electricity bills.” Atocongo Association The women are now not only well aware Lima, Perú of the fact that there have been problems,

40 2 *;A;TCH? and that their performance is often criti- more actively in the different activities tions’ members now see knowledge as a cised, but they also recognise that all that take place. In addition, their organi- tool that makes them stronger and that of these obstacles serve to strengthen sations have also been strengthened as can be transmitted to their communities. them, as they constantly receive recogni- they take on new responsibilities through For example, know-how is exchanged tion for their efforts and their desire to the creation of commissions for making through apprenticeships and the progress and help the community. Their purchases and for selling produce, with systematisation of experiences. In this families support them and see that their special attention to the bio-gardens and way, everyone learns from each others’ new attitude means that they will not training activities, among other initiatives. experiences. The impacts achieved have stay at home all of the time, and that by Decision-making capacities have also not been limited to the social realm of the “getting out” of the household as well as been enhanced and negotiation skills have communities, but have also extended to the community, they have opened up new been developed, which in turn strengthen their environment as the organisations spaces which provide them with valuable the internal democratic functioning of are helping to reduce pollution through experiences. The progressively increasing their organisations. organic farming; local ancestral customs participation of the men (generally the and practices are revalued; native species husbands) is a clear sign of increased The enhanced functioning of the organi- in danger of extinction are cultivated; family support, as they help out with the sations is not limited to internal successes and soil is preserved by using organic tasks of planting and harvesting, and only, but is also mirrored in the results fertiliser. get involved in the different activities that they have achieved in building proposed by the projects. alliances externally. The members of the CONCLUSION organisations have been introduced to The story of the Atocongo Association Impacts on their organisations and other institutions and professionals and as shows us that corporate social responsi- communities an organisation they actively seek contact bility can be an important and successful The increased capacities of the women with other stakeholders through activities vehicle for community building through are clearly reflected in their organisations. such as awareness-raising campaigns and urban agriculture and that empowering Through applying these newly acquired drawing contests. Some alliances have, socially disadvantaged groups such skills, the women have managed to foster for example, enabled the organisations as women can start significant social, increased responsibility and commitment and their communities to participate in economic and environmental develop- on the part of other members of their local farmers’ markets, where they can ment processes in communities. organisations, who are now participating sell their products. Also, the organisa-

HARVESTING UNDER HIGH-TENSION WIRES

Luis Pérez Egaña

A good idea, a great challenge United efforts Currently, the municipality organises farmers’ The Peru Energy Network (REP), a company The park and gardens staff of the Municipality markets where the farmers can offer their owned by the ISA Group Colombia, operates of Villa Maria del Triunfo took charge of identi- products for sale, thereby earning an additional and provides maintenance for the national fying interested people in the communities, 50 soles per month (about USD 20). In econo- power transmission grid, through a concession in order to later train them in issues directly mic terms, the project gives the beneficiaries granted by the Peruvian government. REP, as related to urban agriculture. With 95 percent greater autonomy with respect to their house- part of its community relations programme, of the participants being women, they truly hold spending; and in terms of nutrition, these maintains constant communication with stand out, even more so as they assumed gardens supply vegetables to the community the community members who are directly ownership of the project from the beginning. kitchens of the area, providing nutrients and influenced by its activities. Three years ago, The engineers of IPES took care of selecting enriching the diets of hundreds of indirect as a result of this dialogue, the idea emerged the plots, which had to be prepared for this beneficiaries. to convert the sandy fields of Villa Maria del activity, since they were levelled landfills or Triunfo (located in the southern periphery of uncultivated land. Using the labour donated The Julian Cadavid, Machu Picchu and Indo- Lima) into gardens for urban agriculture. For by the population and tractors provided by America gardens are the result of joint efforts this, REP brought together three institutions: the municipality, the terrain was levelled or between the public and private sectors, civil the Municipality of Villa Maria del Triunfo, terraces were built. society and the community, and these efforts the NGO IPES and the local residents, who In one of the gardens, baptised Machu Picchu have made it possible to farm land underneath together with the company achieved significant due to its form, rocks transported to the site to high-tension power lines. synergies. Today, Villa Maria del Triunfo has serve as the foundation for the terraces had to three market gardens (huertas), which generate be broken with picks and clubs by the residents Looking toward the future income for the direct beneficiaries. themselves. Currently, an area for training is under construction for the southern cone on a 4,000 m2 Turning this ambitious project into reality At the beginning of the project, the munici- plot, thanks to joint financing by REP and was not an easy job. Villa Maria del Triunfo’s pality facilitated the water supply and through- RUAF Foundation. Luis Perez Egaña, a specialist geography is irregular, with sandy hills, rocks out project implementation, IPES provided in social responsibility for REP, looks toward and a humid climate with little rainfall. On professional assistance. REP was in charge the future with a great deal of enthusiasm and terrain like this, implementing the project was of supervising and monitoring the project, in hope, saying that “The future vision of this project a big challenge, as in essence it meant farming addition to providing the necessary support to is that by the time the concession contract ends, all the desert. overcome any difficulties that arose. land under the high-tension wires will be green, with people working and earning an income on it.”

'OFS 41 From Eradication to Innovation: Towards healthy, profitable pig raising in Lima

Pig raising is an important livelihood activity in the District of Lurigancho Chosica, which is a low-income periurban

neighbourhood located in the Rimac valley HarvestUrban in the eastern part of the city of Lima. As many as 1600 families are thought to depend on this activity for some or all of their income. Without organisation, technical support or regulation, they mostly operate in small clusters of informal livestock units perched on the arid hillsides of this desert city. This type of production raises concerns about public health risks and environmental pollution, and yet relatively simple changes in management can make pig raising a profitable, sustainable activity that can contribute significantly to the well-being of urban and periurban families. Group discussion and Capacity building with pig breeders of the Association Haras El Huayco

efore 2005 the municipal authori- Chosica. At the same time Urban Harvest the pig raisers, however, the municipality ties in Lurigancho-Chosica focused was working on a case study of the (UASD) did not call in the local police, B only on the most negative aspects “Asociación de Criadores Ganaderos Porcinos but instead called a meeting between the of informal pig raising activities. It was de Saracoto Alto” in Cajamarquilla, the MINSA representatives and the Saracoto not even considered an informal produc- largest pig raising settlement in the district pig raisers. tion system, rather it was perceived as a (129 producers with an average of 3000 clandestine activity. Since the creation of animals). This study also identified some Eventually, eradication was not seen as the municipal Sub-department for Urban public health concerns and highlighted a the first choice, because its sole effect Agriculture (UASD), as described in lack of knowledge about certain aspects would have been to force the producers UA-Magazine no. 16 (Arce et al. 2006), the of livestock management as one of the to move to other unoccupied areas, thus local government has changed its views. main causes. As part of efforts to broker a spreading environmental and health risks Now, instead of eradication as the major better understanding between the munici- to other parts of the district. The alterna- strategy, the government has begun to pality and the pig raisers, Urban Harvest tive approach was to eliminate the origin support a transformation process towards convened the first round-table discussion of those risks. The result of the meeting more organised pig raising. In this process between the parties, in August 2004, to was a “transformation roadmap” in which the municipality has been supported by discuss improvements in management on MINSA postponed the order for eradica- some local institutions and enterprises the one hand, but also formal recognition tion for six months and producers under- which have identified market oppor- of pig raising as a small enterprise by the took to improve the management condi- tunities for producers and themselves municipality, on the other. tions, following a transformation agenda. deriving from the pig raising transformation process. However, a study about sanitation in Urban Harvest supported this agenda with relation to pig raising undertaken by the the organisation of a training course for In 2004 officials of the Ministry of Health Health Directorate found negative effects over 100 producers during June and July of (MINSA) identified the presence of on public health and the environment in 2006. The course presented the technical, a number of serious diseases such as Lurigancho – Chosica. Based on this infor- biological and nutritional aspects of a cisticercosis and leptospirosis in several mation, MINSA requested the munici- healthy pig farm, drawing on the resources pig raising settlements in Lurigancho- pality to eradicate the Saracoto pig raising available in the area and focusing on settlement in January 2006, because the transformation criteria agreed with of the continuing unsanitary produc- MINSA. Farmers who successfully Jessica Alegre, Gordon Prain, Miguel Salvo tion conditions. Thanks to the ongoing finished the course were invited to join  [email protected] dialogue between the municipality and the Healthy Pig Raising Organisation, a

32 2 *;A;TCH? council initiative created by the UASD to allowing them to extract higher margins producers who have transformed their bring together those farmers interested in for themselves and maintain low margins systems, the regulation must be strict bringing about positive change in agricul- for the small producers. With the trans- with those pig raisers who, even after ture in the district. This course was the formation to a more formally organised completing the training course, retain beginning of a new working style for the pig raising system with an emphasis on the unhealthy practices, because they are UASD, which involves promoting several quality and safety, it is expected that risking public health and the future of all linkages between public and private small-scale raisers will be able to sell their pig raisers. institutions to help producers face and pigs directly to the market, leading to overcome a negative situation. higher incomes. Secondly the UASD should help raisers get in touch with small credit institutions PIG DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (PDP) To date about 200 pig raisers have to finance the transformation of their The Pig Development Program (PDP) is a participated in training courses. Of management systems. Other UH/CIP UASD initiative which formalises the pig these, 25 production units have already experiences show that responsible partici- raising transformation agenda in munic- transformed themselves into clean, pants in training courses are also respon- ipal policy. It was approved by municipal organised and healthy farms and a sible when receiving credit. To better authorities in January 2007 and is thus a further 70 production units are in the facilitate the use of micro-credit, future direct result of the round-table discussion process of transformation. This means courses will offer schemes for small-scale, meetings promoted by Urban Harvest. that almost 50% of trainees have applied gradual change in production systems, their learning to radically change their which can be financed with micro-loans, PDP works towards the creation of livestock management. It also shows rather than present the option of a sustainable pig raising parks by promoting that after only five months the PDP has one-time, full farm restructuring. the formalisation of pig raising based on reached about 13% of informal producers, MINSA criteria in three fundamental who are now aware of how to raise pigs Finally, a major achievement of this inter- areas: order, cleaning and vaccinations. If under healthy conditions. Nevertheless, vention has been the interest and support producers meet the criteria in these three there is still resistance to change among shown by the MINSA representatives with areas, they can effectively apply the new some producers, even with the risk of regard to the idea that innovation is an livestock management skills acquired in eradication. Since the market still accepts alternative to eradication when it comes to the courses. Application of these manage- their pigs as they have been produced for pig raising. They recognise that innovation ment practices can reduce health risks, decades, they see no reason to change protects public health and the environ- better protect the environment and those practices, especially since transfor- ment whilst offering bigger benefits for improve the quality of life of the small mation requires some additional invest- local producers. urban pig raiser (Figure 1). ment in new infrastructure. References PDP has been following these steps in the CEPIS (2007). “Riesgos a la salud por la crianza de transformation process: Pig producers who are unwilling to trans- credos alimentados en sitios de disposición final form their systems present two challenges. de residuos sólidos en América Latina y el Caribe”. CEPIS. Lima. To date the actors involved in the process First, there is a need to enhance the Data from SGAU of Mapping of pig raising park. are: the Ministry of Health (district depart- level of inter-institutional collaboration, Arce, Blanca, Gordon Prain and Miguel Salvo, 2006. ment (DISA IV – Este), the Agricultural especially the formation of a multi-actor Towards the Integration of Urban Agriculture in Health National Service (SENASA), the quality monitoring system, involving Municipal Agendas: an experience in the district of Lurigancho-Chosica, Lima, Peru. In Urban Agriculture Urban Harvest Program (UH/CIP), the public health and municipal authori- Magazine, No 16, RUAF, Leusden, Netherlands. Municipality of Lurigancho–Chosica, ties in coordination with the Healthy Pig Arce, Blanca, Jessica Alegre, Dennis Escudero, Two private teaching institutions, and the Raising Organisation. The monitoring Gordon Prain, and Jorge Sáenz. 2007. Crianza de National Policy of Peru (PNP). system needs to be given formal recogni- Cerdos en Zonas Urbanas: Diagnóstico y Propuesta Municipal de Sistema de Manejo en el Distrito de tion through a Municipal Regulation on Lurigancho Chosica, Lima (Peru). Compilado por IPES ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES Healthy Pig Raising. To protect those en Porcicultura Urbana y Periurbana en ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe. Inter-institutional work promoted by UASD and supported by Urban Harvest and partners has led to the identification of 40 informal pig raising settlements Good 2. Mapping management throughout the district, involving about 3. Pig raisers 1. Pig raising of pig awareness practices 1,600 families and an estimated annual sector baseline raising and qualifying stock of 5,000 female pigs and a total characterisation parks production of about 60,000 head per year Quality Less Environment (sourced from map of pig raising park2). 5. Creation of a Healthy Pig 4. Inter-institutional products disease better Raising Organisation whose whose Work: MINSA – spread protected This represents an important sector of the members lead the transformation Urban Harvest/ CIP – local economy, which the district authori- to organised production systems SENASA Health ties cannot afford to ignore. Actually Better Environmental prices risks risk reduced the main beneficiaries of the system at 6. Publication of a 7. Implementation of a reduced municipal regulation for municipal regulation for healthy present are the traders who represent the healthy urban pig raising urban pig raising by farmers “legitimate” part of the pig production Local development system through their links to the market,

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Organically-produced food is increasingly in demand among more affluent urban populations

of developing countries, and these HarvestUrban city dwellers are willing to pay a premium for food quality and safety. Agricultural producers living in and around these cities are well placed to take advantage of this lucrative market.

Evaluating the yellow tramp during the agroecological analysis

s well as offering higher prices, the orative programme of the CGIAR Lima where the urbanisation pressure on organic market also usually Initiative Urban Harvest (1) and local agricultural land was highest. The objec- provides more stable prices partners, which is being undertaken in tives were to: A throughout the year. However, Lima, Peru, to help producers take advan- 1ZTMZOQ MOOQ__ [R a^NMZ \^[PaOQ^_ `[ most urban producers are unfamiliar with tage of this opportunity and overcome high-value markets for organic products the specific techniques for organic their constraints. The programme is using 5ZO^QM_Q `TQ MOOQ__ [R O[Z_aYQ^_ `[ R^Q_T production or else doubt the economic the locally developed methodology of and healthy foods and improve family opportunities this market offers. Urban Field Schools to strengthen diets Moreover, the organic market has strict farmers’ internal organisation and help 1XUYUZM`Q TM^YRaX QRRQO`_ [R MS^UOaX`a^Q quality demands, such as organic certifi- develop novel linkages to diverse types of on the environment. cation, and often requires negotiation organic markets. Urban Harvest was supported by the capacity from producers because they “Junta de Usuarios Rímac (JUR)”, which is often sell directly to consumers or special- DEVELOPING A NEW “SCHOOLS the local irrigation system management ised distributors. Most local producers are FOR URBAN FARMERS” institution, and by the local government, not used to these requirements. They METHODOLOGY the District Municipalities of Lurigancho especially lack business management A baseline study undertaken in 2004 Chosica and Santa María de Huachipa. skills and the capacity to organise identified strengths and limitations for themselves for better marketing. agro-enterprise development among local The Schools for Urban Farmers method- agricultural producers and capacity ology has three steps. Although these Thus, innovative approaches are needed building needs. An important conclusion were elaborated over a period of two to enable producers to take advantage of that emerged was the need for capacity years, the three stages can be completed this new demand. “Agricultores en la building in enterprise development, but it in as little as 15 months, depending on Ciudad” (Farmers in the City) is a collab- was also concluded that there was a lack local circumstances. of learning methodologies compatible with the urban life style. Based on its use First, a participatory field diagnosis is in rural contexts by the International conducted over a period of about six Potato Center, the Urban Harvest research months. Using different diagnostic Nieves Gonzales, Urban Harvest team identified the Farmer Field School methods (participatory workshops, group Miguel Salvo, Urban Harvest and (FFS) methodology as a high-potential interviews, surveys) this step involves Universidad Politécnica de Madrid tool for use in urban environments, if it documentation of local practices, oppor- Gordon Prain, Urban Harvest and could be adequately adapted. Adaptation tunities and production constraints. This International Potato Center (CIP) of the FFS model was undertaken over a diagnostic process also includes informa-  [email protected] period of two years in two districts of tion and sensitisation about the project

46 2 *;A;TCH? goal and objectives. without paying much attention to safety sought to show the advantages of self-or- The second step involves the creation of procedures). With high input costs and ganisation so that they could exchange an urban-adapted farmer field school fluctuating market prices, the economic experiences and learning, reduce costs (FFS) about integrated crop management, returns on this kind of horticulture are and improve their marketing abilities. with particular attention given to pests frequently negative. Instead of selling the and soils. Preliminary sensitisation land to urban developers in the face of URBAN FIELD SCHOOL workshops help create awareness among low returns, as some producers are doing, ASSOCIATIONS farmers about the value of natural and an alternative identified through the The Urban Field School Associations human capital – protecting the environ- diagnosis is to take advantage of new, (UFSA) are the result of self-organisation ment and human health – and the value of close by, urban markets. There is a local among some members of the FFSu, social capital, in other words, the commitment to horticulture, but there is mainly for the purpose of strengthening relevance of group organisation. An urgent need to find ways of making organic or ecological production capacity important part of the urban adaptation of production more profitable. and organisational and entrepreneurial the FFS involves intensive preparatory skills. Members are thus self-selected work with time-constrained urban ADAPTED FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS from among the membership of the FFSu producers on the advantages of this kind The International Potato Center has and are those with a strong interest in the of agriculture. More intensive interactions extensive experience with the use of organic or ecological production take place between the research team and Farmer Field School (FFS) methodologies techniques introduced in the second step the selected producers than typically for building farmer capacity in rural areas, of the methodology. The third step occurs in rural-based FFSs primarily especially on integrated pest management encourages these self-selected and because of the way that agriculture (IPM) of potato. This method has also motivated producers to elaborate their competes for time and space with other been shown to contribute to the strength- specific needs and plans as part of the urban livelihood strategies, so that sensiti- ening of social capital among farmers UFSA enterprise activities and capacity sation to the value and potential of (Pumisacho & Sherwood 2005). building. In the Lima case, producers agriculture needs more time. The third expressed the need for more formalised step is an urban field school, involving The FFS methodology needs to be organisation, more training in enterprise capacity building on organic production adapted to urban conditions because management, training and research on and the development of a market orienta- participants are urban producers organic production and for support to tion towards new commercial opportuni- involved in urban lifestyles and produc- apply what they learnt at the FFSu. They ties (Figure 1). These steps are discussed tion systems that make different also sought help to reach the production below in more detail. demands on time, labour and physical conditions required to become formally resources, and involve different crop certified for organic production. The rotations, soils etc., compared to the participatory design of the methodology Urban Field rural sector. The focus of the urban- ensures that producers themselves imple- ICM Farmer School for Field Diagnosis adapted Farmer Field Schools (FFSu) was ment and maintain the UFSA, whilst the ➔ Field School ➔ Organic Production integrated crop management because the R&D organisations provide technical management of pests and soils were support. Other local institutions, like the identified as the main weaknesses of municipality or the Irrigation Users’ Figure 1: Three step “Schools for Urban urban producers. At the beginning of the Authority (JUR), supported market Farmers” methodology for stimulating FFSu (in 2005), the following comments research and enterprise dialogues with

organic production were commonly heard: new business opportunities. PARTICIPATORY FIELD DIAGNOSIS ½:[N[Pe OMZ \^[PaOQ XQ``aOQ cU`T[a` Technical ➔ The diagnostic study in Eastern Lima used Furadan” (a highly toxic local insecti- training ➔ ➔ ➔ ➔ preliminary workshops, group interviews, cide). “Chupadera [Fussariun spp an ➔ ➔

➔ key informants and surveys to understand important fungal disease] wins.” ➔ ➔ Market

Social

the local production systems and liveli- ½@TQe XUQ cTQZ `TQe _Me `TQe P[ZÀ` M\\Xe ➔ ➔ production

Organisation

➔ ➔

hoods. From the study it emerged that chemicals. They apply them during the

➔

➔ ➔

local producers are poorly organised. night when nobody can see them.” ➔ Farms are very small and marketing relies ½E[a OMZ SQ` M TUSTQ^ \^UOQ Na` UR e[a Research & ➔ on a complex array of intermediaries. grow without chemicals leaves are monitoring Farmers have very limited information damaged.” about market prices and the tendency is ½

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building. The UFSA Center aims both to - _QO[ZPXQbQX [^SMZU_MÙ[Z HarvestUrban train those farmers who were involved in “Organización de Productores its design and establishment and also to Orgánicos de Lima y Callao” has been train other local producers who want to established, linking producers in the learn from the first group’s experiences Eastern Cone with other production and ultimately join their organisation. areas of Lima. @TQ^Q U_ MZ UZO^QM_Q UZ `TQ RM^YQ^_À [cZ The UFSA is based on the self-organisa- consumption of healthy organic vegetation of farmers who take part in it. It takes bles and increased local sales to neigh- approximately one year to reach the level bours. of farmer participation, organisation and @TQ [ÛSUZMX S^[a\ [R [^SMZUO \^[PaOQ^_ autonomy that can ensure the sustain- is beginning to train other farmers. Group photo of the organic producer ability of the UFSA. Thus training begins ;^SMZUO \^[PaOÙ[Z TM_ ^Q_`[^QP organisation of Huachipa after the school with social subjects: self-esteem, leader- farming as a profitable means of earning ship ability acquisition, networking, a living. Data from 5 farmers growing on negotiation. From this base the group 0.25 ha show that they now sell S/.2,800 u From page 45 deals with the generation and application (approximately $930) monthly during of integrated organic agricultural and the lower demand winter period was less severe than in the rural areas, pig farming techniques and its adaptation to (vegetable consumption increases in breeders managed to prevent their pigs the urban environment, processing to add summer). from contracting African swine fever, and value to the produce and finding market- Nevertheless the participating organic the federation has been active in joint places (Urban Harvest 2007). The farmers producers identify several issues still to breeding and the exchange of feeding and involved are also responsible for diffusion be dealt with. The farmers need to: breeding innovations. The city even has a of the knowledge that they have learnt to .Q``Q^ Qd\X[U` `TQU^ \^[dUYUè `[ PUbQ^_Q livestock bank that supports the reactiva- other farmers in Lima. “Graduate farmers” city markets tion of animal breeding in the rural areas. begin to give farmer-to-farmer training 5Y\^[bQ `TQU^ [^SMZU_MÙ[Z MZP O^[\ In December 2006, the federation of pig about six months after the establishment planting planning to respond better to breeders organised several exchanges with of the UFSA and after they themselves increasing demand. (The SWOT analysis rural animal breeders and offered them have received different kinds of capacity conducted by producers themselves 117 female piglets of good stock. building training. They also increasingly points to communication, perseverance participate in demonstration and and responsibility as weaknesses.) Encouraged by these results from commercial fairs organised by municipal PQPUOM`Q `TQY_QXbQ_ RaXXÙYQ UZ `TQ farmers’ action research on endogenous authorities and Urban Harvest, which is future, to respond to developing practices in breeding and prevention another type of horizontal sensitisation of markets, with part-time producers of African swine fever, the federation, peers and other stakeholders. supporting production from small plots which currently has 112 members, O[ZÙZaQ `[ PQbQX[\ \^[PaOÙ[Z `QOTZ[X- further embarked on the fattening of ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES ogies, such as installing more efficient piglets (purchased at 2 months and sold The main achievement is the establish- irrigation and crop protection practices at between 5 and 8 months). Fattening ment of two stable and sustainable UFSAs A_Q Y[^Q cUPQXe `T[_Q `QOTZ[X[SUQ_ piglets for sale will be a major activity in for producing and marketing organic which have already been locally tested the forthcoming years and is currently vegetables, known as Cosecha Sana SAC and implemented to improve poor taking place at three pilot sites in Bukavu. (COSANACA) and the Asociación de urban irrigation water quality. Productores Agropecuarios Orgánicos de Animal breeding in the city provides Notes Huachipa (APAHO) (Urban Harvest 2007; small incomes to households engaged in 1) The Consultative Group on International Alegre et al. 2006). Agriculture Research (CGIAR) is a unique global this activity. To reduce the constraints partnership that works to promote food security, encountered by these households, urban poverty eradication and the sound management of Other specific achievements include the natural resources throughout the developing world. breeders pooled their efforts and devel- following: The International Potato Center, which is one of oped exchanges which resulted in the fifteen Centers sponsored by the CGIAR, convenes the <^[PaOQ^_ M^Q Qd\Q^`_ M` [^SMZUO \^[PaO- Urban Harvest System-wide Program. validation of feed recipes to prevent swine tion and know the technical information. fever, with the backing of action research <^[PaOQ^_ M^Q Z[c MNXQ `[ ZQS[ÙM`Q R[^ References undertaken by the Diobass Platform. themselves sales to different markets, Pumisacho, M., and S. Sherwood. (Eds). 2005. However, animal breeders need to further Escuelas de Campo de Agricultores en América without the intervention of intermedi- Latina (Farmer Field Schools in Latin America). develop strategies to jointly access credits aries. INNIAP-Fortipapa, Republic of Ecuador and be able to boost their viable micro- Urban Harvest. 2007. Agricultores en la Ciudad. /a^^QZ`Xe ! TM [R a^NMZ XMZP U_ Informe 2006. Urban Harvest. Lima enterprise initiatives. managed by the two associations, which Alegre J., D. Escudero and O. Tesdell. 2006. Agricultural Business Associations in Urban and References are officially certified as organic produc- Periurban Areas in Lima, Peru. In UA-Magazine LAWAHIRA Ntagenwa Olivier, Etat de l’élevage no.16 tion areas by an independent certifica- porcin dans la ville de Bukavu, TFC, UCB, Faculté tion organisation. d’Agronomie, 2003.

48 2 *;A;TCH? Jh^c\IgZViZY9dbZhi^X LVhiZlViZg[dgJgWVc , 6\g^XjaijgZVcY

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg'(6eg^a'%&% www.ruaf.org Organising Urban Farmers’ Groups in the City of Nairobi and Environs

Various types of informal groups can A. Njenga be found in urban and rural areas in Kenya. One would expect farmers, livestock keepers and producers’ groups to be located only in the rural areas, but they actually also exist in the cities and their environs, where they are engaged in urban and periurban agriculture.

Some groups in Nairobi - Kabete Women Farmers’ Group in Lower Kabete is interested in obtaining information on farming practices and marketing. - Crop farmers in Soweto Kahawa West grow kale, spinach, onion, arrowroots and carrots, and their main interest is Farmers and livestock keepers from the Farmers’ Network and members of in obtaining information on increasing NEFSALF Secretariat. yields. - Mathare Youth Foundation in Mathare sectoral interactions; to acquire and target with membership ranging from 5 to 1000 grows crops such as spinach and other relevant knowledge; and to monitor members (an average of 10 members per vegetables and rears cows, goats and pigs. process and evaluate outcomes. One group) and 141 individuals from Nairobi - Mathare Mbolea in the Mathare area is of the key objectives of NEFSALF is to and environs. made up of compost makers and their facilitate organisation at community level interest is in marketing compost. - Mwirimiri Mugunda Self-Help Group through group and network building. The members of the Network get together in Wangige area keeps livestock and Other objectives are to: during the periodic meetings of NEFSALF, would like to obtain more information on - enable farmers and livestock keepers to the annual International Trade Fair held marketing. exchange information through periodic by the Ministry of Agriculture and other meetings of NEFSALF and through the events such as the World Food Day and the NEFSALF Bulletin (www.mazinst.org); launch of the Nairobi Agriculture Livestock he groups listed in the box above - facilitate access by communities to Extension Programme (NALEP). are mobilised in a multi-stakeholder appropriate provincial and municipal T forum – Nairobi and Environs Food services; NEFSALF provides the farmers and Security, Agriculture and Livestock Forum - provide knowledge on current research livestock keepers with an opportu- (NEFSALF) –which has been operated by being undertaken by the Institute’s nity to interact with all stakeholders the Mazingira Institute1) since 2003. collaborators; present during Forum meetings, which - produce policy-relevant information are usually held three times in a year. NEFSALF and knowledge in collaboration with all The participants are kept abreast of the NEFSALF is a mix of actors from the stakeholders; latest happenings and information on community, government and market - facilitate interaction between the urban agriculture, including progress on sectors. It promotes cooperation around community and the market sectors; and research being undertaken on zoonoses the city and environs in matters related - track the process and activities. and brucellosis. The discussions and to food security, agriculture and livestock debates are lively, with the concerns of the keeping. The Forum envisions creating a NEFSALF FARMERS’ NETWORK farmers, the livestock keepers, the market better way of enhancing food security and The Farmers’ Network was set up in sector and researchers being aired and sustainability for the greater population January 2004 by Mazingira Institute. discussed openly in order to enable and rather than just a few in Nairobi and its It consists of individuals and groups regulate urban agriculture and livestock environs through urban crop production practicing agriculture, livestock keeping keeping in Nairobi and environs. and livestock keeping. and composting in the city and environs of Nairobi. A Steering Committee of SUPPORT PROVIDED The goals of the Forum are to facilitate eight members of mixed gender from Training courses different locations in Nairobi and The Institute organises training courses Zarina Ishani and Zaynah Khanbhai environs was elected in January 2004 by on urban agriculture and livestock Mazingira Institute farmers present during the first NEFSALF keeping in collaboration with the  [email protected] meeting. Currently there are 32 groups, Nairobi Provincial Livestock Production

Office of the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Urban Harvest and Kenya Green Towns Partnership Association. Pre-training site visits are made to assess the type of training required by the farmers. So far, about 120 farmers, livestock keepers and compost makers have been trained on a variety of pertinent urban agriculture topics. Post- training site visits have indicated that 80% of the trainees have adopted skills gained NEFSALF meeting in October 2005 from the training courses. Keeping”, was undertaken by Urban formulation of policies for urban agricul- In the words of Sylvia Oluoch, a member Harvest, Kenya Green Towns Partnership ture and livestock keeping. The policies of a women’s periurban group, “Through Association, the Municipal Council of and bye-laws currently in practice are the Forum we have learnt not to fight Nakuru and the Department of Soil outdated and disjointed. The process with our neighbours but to teach them Science, University of Nairobi. Several began in July 2004, when a stakeholders’ what we know”. Another farmer, Julius multi-stakeholder forums have already meeting on “Urban and periurban agricul- Mirara, a dairy goat keeper in the Nairobi been held in the two towns. ture policy prospects in Kenya” was environs commented, “Before the course, held at the Kenya Agriculture Research we were in the dark. By taking the course NALEP Institute, which was attended by some we have learnt what profit is and how to NEFSALF has been actively involved in NEFSALF members. At the meeting, keep records”. the National Agriculture and Livestock it was resolved that the Ministry of Extension Programme (NALEP) of the Agriculture would be the most apt institu- Research on zoonotic diseases Ministry of Agriculture, which is in its tion to carry forward the process of devel- The Faculty of Veterinary Science, second phase. Its mission is “to provide oping a policy for urban and periurban University of Nairobi, in collaboration and facilitate pluralistic and efficient agriculture. with NEFSALF, has conducted research extension services for increased produc- on the risks associated with livestock tion, food security, higher incomes and In March 2006, the Nairobi Provincial keeping in slums in Nairobi. Currently a improved environment”. The long-term Agriculture Board hosted a two-day study is being undertaken on the preva- objective is overall empowerment of “Stakeholders’ workshop on urban and lence of human brucellosis. The study on farmers, sustainability of service delivery periurban agriculture”. The meeting zoonoses revealed the possible existence and a bigger role for the private sector. adopted a road map for the development, of brucellosis among the livestock The implementation process follows a regulation and enabling of a legal frame- keepers. bottom-up approach. work for urban and periurban agriculture. It concluded that the PAB would appoint Nairobi International Trade Fair Realisation of NALEP Phase II objectives a Steering Committee on urban and The Nairobi International Trade Fair is are dependent on effective partnerships periurban agriculture to spearhead the an annual event hosted by the Kenyan with other government ministries, the roadmap. A technical committee would government. NEFSALF has taken part private sector, and other collaborators. be formed to guide and implement the in the Fair for the past two years as a When NALEP began its second phase recommendations. NEFSALF members collaborator with the Nairobi Provincial (2006-2010), the Ministry of Agriculture are keen to push the matter forward and Extension Service Office of the Ministry realised that in order to fulfil its objective are working on the modalities for doing of Livestock Fisheries Development. of pursuing a pluralistic approach, it was so. Members of the NEFSALF Farmers important that NEFSALF be involved, as Network represent the Forum. Their role it had already set up a Farmers’ Network, Mazingira Institute has been campaigning is to explain the functioning and activities had a strong relationship with other for just reform and against land of NEFSALF and to register new members. stakeholders and had built up networks grabbing and corruption since 1996 in its The farmers say that they learn a lot in other cities in Kenya besides Nairobi. “Operation Firimbi” (Blow the Whistle) through the exchange of information and The Ministry formed a Provincial Campaign. The campaign has a national by seeing new developments at the Fair. Stakeholders Forum, and an interim support base, with over 165 local chapters Steering Committee was elected with in Kenya. The Institute also advocates for Networking with other organisations in Zarina Ishani of Mazingira Institute as its women’s equal right to land and property, Kenya vice-chairperson. particularly at the regional and interna- Two other cities in Kenya, Nakuru and tional levels. Kisumu, have replicated the NEFSALF TOWARDS A POLICY FOR URBAN approach. The Mazingira Institute partici- AND PERIURBAN AGRICULTURE IN NOTES NAIROBI 1) Mazingira is a Kenyan NGO that has pioneered pated in several meetings held in Nakuru research, advocacy, and organising on urban and and Kisumu. The Nakuru initiative “Local In the next phase, beginning January periurban agriculture for the past two decades. Participatory Research and Development 2007, NEFSALF intends to collaborate For further information contact: mazinst@mitsum- inet.com on Urban Agriculture and Livestock with relevant institutions involved in the

24 2 *;A;TCH? Creating Market Opportunities for Poor Women Farmers in Kenya

African leafy vegetables (ALVs) are traditionally an important element in the diet of many Africans, but the market has

remained underdeveloped due to HarvestCIP/Urban the lack of any successful efforts to commercialise the crop. The sources of a few bunches of vegetables in a Nairobi market were traced back mostly to wild harvesting by small-scale women farmers in western Kenya – 400 km from Nairobi. It appeared that brokers and traders packed the vegetables in sacks that were transported to the city in night buses. This drastically reduced the quality of the vegetables. Interventions initiated in 2002 by FCI and its partners have dramatically reversed this trend. Discussions with a periurban farmer

he intervention programme seeks Urban Harvest is a system-wide initia- a dollar per day. Intermediaries were not to help farmers achieve a reliable tive launched by the Consultative Group interested in trading African indigenous T source of income and improve on International Agricultural Research vegetables, because there were no (identi- nutrition. The programme aims at to direct and coordinate the collective fied) consumers willing to buy them. increasing the commercialisation of ALVs knowledge and technologies of the Future through improved production, enhanced Harvest Centers with the aim of strength- SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS collective marketing systems, increased ening urban and periurban agriculture Enhancing market access for ALVs has value chain efficiency, increased demand, (UPA). produced enormous market growth, as increased consumption, improved image ALVs have evolved from an underutilised of leafy vegetables and new consumption The programme is co-funded by crop to a commercial crop, with monthly linkages. It operates in several villages the Rockefeller Foundation, USAID market turnover increasing from 31 in Kiambu, Kenya, and works towards Horticulture Development Programme tonnes in 2003 to 600 tonnes in mid 2006. satisfying the ever-increasing market and IDRC for three years, and it is This amounts to 10 tonnes of seed valued demand for ALV in Nairobi. being implemented by Farm Concern at USD 430,000 annually (Nekesa and International (FCI) in collaboration with Meso, 1994). FCI is a market development agency that IPGRI-SSA, AVRDC-World Vegetable develops marketing models and strategic Centre, CIP, Urban Harvest, the ALVs are largely referred to as women’s alliances to enhance economic growth Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya crops, because approximately 60% of among poor communities. It imple- Agricultural Research Institute, and value the producers in the commercial villages ments market-oriented programmes chain players. are women. A study conducted by FCI across Eastern Africa and offers technical in collaboration with Urban Harvest backstopping to several development Before the programme began in 2002, most also revealed that ALV informal trading projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. of the farmers growing vegetables were not is dominated by women, who account organised, which hampered access to any for 75% of all the value chain players. Mwangi Stanley, Mumbi Kimathi, technology, credit, information, markets or ALV-based transactions targeting the Mary Kamore extension services from the government. supermarkets and local markets are an Farm Concern International (FCI) Their farms were weakly developed and enormous source of income to large Nancy Karanja and Mary Njenga they produced mainly for subsistence. numbers of households in the rural, urban Urban Harvest - CIP They were selling to informal markets and periurban areas. ALV smallholder corresponding author: but only in small volumes. Most of the commercial farming currently generates  [email protected] poor farmers were surviving on less than USD 2 million in rural incomes annually.

available crops of over 40%), the large HarvestCIP/Urban role played by women in the ALV trade, the plants’ relatively high resistance to diseases and pests and the lower cost of production compared to many other crops. Most of the farmers in the FCI programme have shifted cultivating cut flowers to cultivating ALVs.

In addition to continuing growth, the interventions aimed at improving health, nutrition and the incomes of vulnerable groups, including those infected with and affected by HIV/Aids, through stimulation of production from home gardens and commercial farming systems. The programme focuses on progres- ALVs for transport to a supermarket sive economic development, enterprise promotion related to the mainstream • analysis of the size of the market station and a local national radio broad- activities of the target group and an demand; casting station, it is estimated that over one improved socio-economic environment • analysis of consumer and market million households have accessed informa- conducive to the needs of poor women. behaviour; tion about ALVs’ production technologies. • identification of market segments and selection of target markets; One of the challenges highlighted by the FCI and CGIAR partners and their respective • analysis of value networks and farmers was lack of enough quality seeds, roles and contributions FCI works together with Urban Harvest for marketing channels (including value so FCI designed seed distribution channels market research of urban vegetable trading chain analysis, supply chain analysis and that reached the smallholder urban and systems; with AVRDC and IPGRI for multi- marketing channel analysis); periurban farmers. FCI identified seed plication and distribution of clean base seeds • integration of the target group in value stockists and linked them to seed compa- of selected micro-nutrient-rich ALVs; with network profiling, business viability nies and other seed-multiplying farmers the Ministry of Agriculture and KARI for farmer training; with value chain players for analysis and product value analysis. to supply seeds via rural – urban linkages. market entry; and with over 100 producers’ Farmers were trained on seed-multipli- groups to enhance commercialisation of ALV Since low product awareness and the cation techniques, which turned out to seeds and products. The research organisa- image of ALV as a ‘poor man’s food’ be an excellent business opportunity for tions AVRDC and KARI have been building greatly inhibited market growth, FCI two medium-scale farmers and over 300 the capacity of farmers through training on seed multiplication and agronomic practices. began mobilising the communities in the smallholder farmers, who eventually sold The Ministry of Agriculture offers exten- various target sites to adopt the ALVs. over 10 tonnes of seeds since the project sion services to farmers. Urban Harvest has Most of the communities were new to the started in 2002. been crucial in mobilising and empowering production and marketing of ALVS. farmers through training on all husbandry Smallholder farmers’ simultaneous practices for these vegetables. Production technology dissemination production and supply to markets has The producers’ groups had very little been a major drawback to negotiating APPROACHES, METHODOLOGIES knowledge on general agronomic practices prices along the value chains and at AND INNOVATIONS related to the production of ALVS. FCI the marketplace. A production strategy Market research was conducted using the therefore disseminated information on was designed to ensure that a consis- ‘Value Networks and Marketing Systems’ production technologies through on-farm tent supply of vegetables to the market tool, which is a hybrid private sector training, on-station training, distribution could be achieved, which is paramount and pro-poor development research tool of ALV production manuals, dissemination to sustained demand in the markets. developed by FCI for identifying produc- of leaflets on specific vegetables, training The schedules and production calen- tion practices, the size of the market and of trainers, and Multifaceted Technology dars are made in tandem with market market dynamics. The research identified Dissemination Forums (a technology demands and every farmers’ group has an enormous potential market demand dissemination tool developed by FCI). It the members plant over the same period. for over ten species of African leafy engaged trained and practicing farmers Production schedules and calendars are vegetables. through exchange visits, field days and developed by production sub-committees farmers’ forums to train other farmers and in a participatory manner. The VNMS has six steps, but FCI used demonstrate the adopted technologies. only the following five in its research on Over 3,000 farmers received technology Commercial village approach ALVs: training directly, while by using Radio FM A commercialisation phase set up

44 2 *;A;TCH? according to the Commercial Villages tively. The groups are required to deposit marketing African leafy vegetables collec- Approach (CVA) helped FCI and its 10% of their earnings. This approach has tively for the last four years, driven by the collaborating partners organise 1,700 allowed over 50% of the initial groups existing demand gap of over 40%. smallholder farmers into four commercial to finance the process. They receive villages in Kiambu District, 50 Kilometres support in the form of a transport van CONCLUSION AND from Nairobi. The CVA is a concept that hire payment, local authority levies, input RECOMMENDATIONS involves commercialisation of various discounts and invoice discounts. Sustainable access to the market for small- farmers’ groups clustered in a village holders requires products for which there to ensure that the highest numbers of Capacity building is a high to intermediate demand growth. members are practicing commercial FCI has designed training packages and Large-scale farmers, companies and farming. Farmers from similar social training modules to enhance capacity, medium-scale farmers are known to shut backgrounds are organised into Market create cohesiveness among members and smallholder farmers out of the market Support Units (MSUs) and their capacity make the MSUs competitive. FCI has used more often than not. Any strategy aimed built as a commercial unit which can 15 of the 30 training modules for ALV at reinforcing the smallholders’ chances effectively and sustainably market their farmers. of remaining in business ought to further produce as a group. The MSU designs integrate products that offer competitive production schedules which ensure that Creating demand advantages, such as lower production they are able to sell ALVs consistently to Consumer preferences and demand for costs. ALVs, for example, are easily grown both formal and informal markets. This ALVs have been enhanced through a with no inorganic chemicals. model of organising farmers into groups is systematic promotional strategy targeting vital for a collective approach to markets all consumer classes. The strategy includes A collective approach plays a vital role in for the urban smallholders whose volumes a series of ALV in-store and outdoor increasing the participation of the poor. In are too low to meet orders from big chain promotional campaigns, distribution of order for smallholder farmers to compete stores and institutions. leaflets, flyers and booklets, live radio effectively in all market segements, and television talks, exhibitions and trade their capacities to access markets have Market channel systems and value fairs. Promotional approaches are bench- to be built, they have to become organ- network development marked to the private sector approach, ised into MSUs and linked to markets. Market access was achieved through a raising more awareness across various Before their products can penetrate systematic approach to Value Networks target markets of the nutritive and medic- market, the products’ image and value Development, which included informal inal benefits of ALVs. A Rapid Market have to be built through a private sector and formal value chains and Business Appraisal conducted by FCI in collabora- approach in awareness creation. Credit Development Services (BDS) like trans- tion with value chain players revealed the as a stand-alone product may not neces- portation, seed supply, and distribution current supply level is only meeting 60% sarily increase incomes, but micro-credit networks to various consumer segments. of the demand. embedded in a market access programme FCI identified many players including increases rural incomes and thereby high value markets, supermarkets, institu- SCALING UP AND SUSTAINABILITY contributes to increased rural savings and tions, grocery stores and informal market The farmers are being encouraged to save reduced poverty levels. traders, who were linked to the MSUs up to 10% of their sales to wean them whose schedules allowed them to consis- off of MacFIS funds. MSUs are being Poor farmers in urban and periurban tently meet market demand. Market entry introduced to the market where they are Africa are earnestly longing to get market for ALVs has been extremely high, with identifying market opportunities and support through such interventions, supermarkets offering prices for ALVs that their capacities are being built to maintain which can create a quantifiable income for are 20% higher than other conventional established linkages and identify other them and emancipate them from poverty. vegetables. MSUs were linked to supermarkets. A lot of technology has been dissemi- markets and given transaction documents, nated, but it can only help if it increases such as invoice and receipt books, and To scale up the intervention, FCI has their incomes. taken through the transaction process combined resources from various on the market. FCI holds contracts with sponsors to empower more farmers in References Nekesa and Meso, 1994 supermarkets and farmers, which ensures urban centres of Kenya and Eastern Africa favourable prices throughout the year. to commercialise vegetables and other products. One of these products is orange ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank IPGRI-SSA, Market Access Financial Services fleshed sweet potatoes. An impact study Rockefeller Foundation, Gatsby UK, and Farm Africa Formal buyers generally purchase produce will be conducted to determine the gains for their financial support and also AVRDC-World on a 30-60 days’ credit, which excludes achieved so far and engage in further Vegetable Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and KARI for their continued technical support. We further smallholders from supply systems since intervention. Groups are being formed appreciate our various private sector partnerships in they cannot afford to sustain the credit and registered by the Ministry of Culture ALV market development and the ongoing business period. FCI developed Market Access and Social Services in Kenya and can partnership with smallholder farmers and FCI. Special thanks go to Urban Harvest for the collaboration that Financial Services (MacFis), which acts continue until dissolved by two thirds of has allowed us to reach many urban farmers and all as a catalytic fund available only until the their members. Over 90%of the groups the farmers who have been very cooperative, hard MSU builds enough capital from sales to that have passed through the commer- working and who dared to commercialise ALVs. stop using the system and is selling collec- cialisation process have been growing and

Urban agriculture is commonly a solo endeavour practiced by individuals farmers are now better able to unite in and households in search of fresh food. The benefits of urban agriculture order to address common problems and activities are well-documented, so the search for ways to realise its needs. Alice Tebyasa of the Kawempe valuable societal contributions is a vital issue particularly within the Division of Kampala is a community developing world, where urban farming is frequently the main livelihood leader and organiser of one of many activity and has the highest potential for impacting daily lives. successful collectives.

In 1997, Alice was elected councillor. In ne of the ways that city farming may groups based on the legal or illegal status this role she searched for a way to involve contribute exponentially to a devel- of urban agriculture. Illegality can often be her female neighbours in some kind of Ooping urban centre is through the equated with a lack of confidence in urban agricultural activity. She invited extension collective action of farmers. Repeatedly, agricultural activities due to the greater workers, poultry, fishery and agricultural groups will form when community risks involved. experts to participate in a workshop to members are faced with an overwhelming educate women in the community. social crisis or need that is felt by a This article presents several commu- The women then prioritised their personal number of a neighbourhood’s residents. nity-based agricultural endeavours in needs and abilities and came up with the Shared struggles give birth to teamwork Kampala, Uganda, and Nairobi, Kenya, as idea of establishing a catfish pond. This and cooperation. In two capital cities encountered in mid-2006 during research idea was chosen because the pond would of East Africa, Kampala, Uganda, and on local innovation in urban agriculture provide a nutritious dietary supplement Nairobi, Kenya, evidence of the achieve- by the author. Involving marginalised for the neighbourhood families as well as ments of community-based urban agricul- groups such as women, physically and profits from the sale of surplus catfish. tural ventures abound. This article focuses mentally disabled as well as at-risk youth, The Chairman of the Local Council 1 on creative farmers and their achieve- these projects have revitalised impov- donated the land, and over a six-month ments, which came about through hard erished areas and improved the overall period the women constructed the pond. work and collaboration. Furthermore, it health of people in many small neigh- will elucidate some of the distinct differ- bourhoods. About 900 catfish, each with a market ences experienced by farmers and farmers’ value of 5,000 Shillings (USD 3), are now KAMPALA, UGANDA harvested every seven months. The capital Now that it has been legalised (as of 2005), for this endeavour originated within the Rebecca L. Rutt urban agriculture in Kampala, Uganda, community and maintenance costs are International School for Humanities and has become a valued addition to the shared, including upkeep, feed and eggs. Social Sciences, urban livelihood mosaic, and it has been If a member is unable to pay her portion Universiteit of Amsterdam, The Netherlands enhanced by governmental recognition she will earn less when the profits are  [email protected] and supportive urban policies. Kampala’s divided.

'OFS 11 Alice considers the community and social greater sense of ownership in which each In Uganda, physically and mentally handi- improvements to be the most important person is a “stakeholder” and has a deeper capped people have a “very, very low aspects of the project. Forty women and commitment to the success of the project. chance” of finding employment in the two youths (boys who are paid a small The group even avoids holding meetings formal sector. These disabilities severely wage for their help) maintain this venture. during elections in order to allow individ- limit their opportunities to achieve stable She has noticed a change in the commu- uals their political preferences and to and secure adulthoods. Florence nity atmosphere. Women are better able circumvent discussion on the hot topic. Tweyambe, a teacher at the school, to negotiate with their husbands and there The group wants to come together when explained that urban agriculture is an is a heightened sense of cohesiveness. the only thing on their minds is mutual integral part of the school curriculum She notes that people are not leaving for progress and development. Alice’s future because it will enable the students to “greener pastures”, but rather have made plans include expanding her market as support and feed themselves in the future. an investment and seek long-term growth well as increasing the pond’s capacity in They may eventually be able to sell the and development. order to increase the amount of fish each surplus, and they therefore practice selling family can receive per month. This is techniques with the teachers. They will testament to the project’s greatest objec- also have a greater chance of staying tive: improved nutrition. Currently, each healthy and less likelihood of relying on household receives one fish per month. In begging or worse for survival. Some of the Rebecca Rutt addition, each household receives 50,000 difficulties the school experiences include Shillings (USD 30) every seven months land restraints and insufficient labour. from sales. Some of the garden maintenance is too difficult for the children; therefore the Other community-based urban agricul- teachers are obligated to take part. When tural cooperatives in Kampala can be even they are unable to perform certain found within area schools. Thanks to a necessary activities, such as tilling the soil, project promoting the cultivation of they hire outside help and this can become Gardening activities by students of the school for disabled in Kampala orange-flesh sweet potatoes from 2004 to expensive. Nevertheless, the benefits 2006, in which schools were utilised by do outweigh the costs. Women have become more empowered, FARM-AFRICA as training centres to are able to contribute to household costs reach local farmers, relationships were NAIROBI, KENYA and school fees, and in general are more forged and ideas generated for the contin- Urban agriculture is a popular activity active and organised. One may wonder uation of cooperation. In the Lubaga in many if not all urban centres of the what the husbands of these women think Division, the Kampala School for the country, but is not always allowed. In the about their activities. Alice advocates the Physically Handicapped is home to 100 capital city of Nairobi, community-based project in discussions with the men, and youths who suffer from both mental and agricultural ventures not only provide she notes that some of them are “feminists physical disabilities. The school maintains food but also contribute to youth employ- and love the idea”. “Men now see their a productive garden that contributes to ment, area safety, and generally enhance wives as resources.” Some of the families feeding the student body. The pupils range the city’s productive capabilities. were struck most by their increased in age from 6 to 24 years and are divided ability to pay their children’s school fees. into eight groups. All of the groups partici- For eight years, the Mathare Youth Income generated from the fish pond has pate in some way in the growing of crops Foundation Centre has run a community- eased this financial burden, resulting in and the maintenance of the gardens. The based agricultural project in the slums of extended education for their children. youngest learn about agriculture through Mathare. The project is comprised of 15 The families also value the training and observation. Older students maintain class young men between the ages of 20 and cooperation aspects. One further shared plots, and during the wet season they grow 30, who used to be petty thieves but are benefit, which is not directly linked to cabbages, carrots, kale, maize, amaranths, now prosperous farmers and have thereby the fish pond but rather to the group’s and the popular orange-flesh sweet pota- regained the respect of their neighbours. overall success, is a donated water tank. toes. The harvested crops go directly into The Foundation provides a stable income Previously, the community did not have the school nutrition programme, as for the young men through crop sales water access of this kind, and now the students reside there permanently. to the local villagers. This money allows water can be distributed for irrigation them to attend evening adult education and pond maintenance. Agricultural extension agent Pross Owino courses at the Mathare Hope Achiever commented, “Just the fact that handi- Adult Education. With school fees taken Other local groups and communities have capped children are involved in urban care of, they have turned their lives tried similar projects in the wake of the agriculture, with the weeding and plan- around completely. “We used to mug people successful fish pond, yet they have not ting, is an innovation! Being able to grow in the village. We came together to change achieved the same results. The secret to their own food, means that some day they that life, and also to support each other,” says Alice and her community’s accomplish- will be able to earn an income and feed Chairman James Karaoke, age 26. ment is “openness”. They refuse outside themselves, all because of a skill they funds and government grants whenever learned in school. ”The community benefit The farm, which includes around ten goats possible in order to maintain a non- of this programme must be viewed in for meat and six dairy cows, and which politicised atmosphere. This also allows a terms of the future of these children. produces kale, spinach, and many other

12 2 *;A;TCH? tation of the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock and Fisheries Development. Rebecca Rutt Indeed, these bodies have extension agents on staff and as one employee explained, “We have to justify our activities with the farmers, so we focus on the safety of the consumer.” Regardless of the reason, their activities help Nairobi’s urban farmers daily by improving their technologies and practices.

Urban agriculture provides an excellent Tebyasa fishpond in Uganda means of social inclusion for many marginalised sectors of society. In the stories above we see the empowerment of poor local and exotic vegetables, is located on provided by government authorities. women, improved futures for handi- what was once a regional dump. The land Private organisations also commonly capped youth, and at-risk young men who is now fertile and productive, revitalising provide support to urban farmers who use have turned from a life of crime to a life of this part of Mathare and providing a sustainable practices. The Heifer Inter- farming. Collectives not only offer a way fresh source of food to the community. national Project, for example, is active in out of poverty but also allow farmers to In addition, it has eliminated the idleness Kampala offering not simply dairy cows to build up social capital in the urban (and joblessness) of some local youths, members but also training for hygienic environment. Stronger examples of thus helping them steer away from a life of livestock keeping in the city. community-based urban agriculture will crime. Some of the problems experienced The support, training and rewards be found in locations where its contribu- by the Foundation include struggles with successful projects receive can only occur tions to the city as a whole are recognised, the local gangs. Some of their counseling once leading authorities recognise the where it is permitted by the government programmes had to be shut down due to benefits of, or legitimise, urban farming and supported by active NGOs and other gang resistance to positive change. Gangs within their urban centres. Legality is the regional bodies. The examples described also occasionally steal their goats and crucial element for the enhancement of above are testament to the life-changing crops. Other issues arise from the illegal community-based agricultural endeav- possibilities of community-based urban status of urban farming and livestock ours, allowing for specialised, progressive agricultural projects for women, youth keeping in Nairobi. When the City Council urban agriculture policies and strategic and those who suffer from mental and threatened to confiscate the farm’s cows, support mechanisms. With regard to physical disabilities. Furthermore, urban the group successfully appealed to the policies, de Zeeuw et al. (2006) commen- farming collectives can also provide a officials, telling them, “We don’t want to ted that “In this way, municipal policy major contribution to families afflicted by mug people!” The Nairobi City Council then makers and support institutions can sub- HIV/Aids. With a healthier community told them to keep their animals where stantially contribute to the development of comes peace and prosperity. These they are not visible and the group has tried safe and sustainable urban agriculture.” examples may provide inspiration for to follow this rule. Although some of Nairobi’s urban other individuals to unite, regain their farmers’ collectives have stood up to local sense of community and improve their Finally, the farmers fear they might lose authorities throughout the years with lives through empowerment and self- their land. Father Frederick from the various degrees of success, it is still determining cooperative action. neighbouring Catholic girl’s school, possible that everything could be taken St. Theresa’s, gave them the initial idea away from them one day. Legitimisation, Acknowledgements: I would like to thank and support, including the first acre of promptly followed by legalisation and Dr. William Critchley of the Centre for land, to get this project up and running. well-formed policies, will encourage these International Cooperation at the Free They have been expanding slightly, and commonly poor farmers while signifi- University, the Netherlands, Onyema some neighbours have grown jealous of cantly augmenting their returns. Onwuka, Associate Expert at the United their success, even though it has been Nations Centre for Regional Development achieved on previously wasted landfill Introduction to many farmers’ groups Nairobi, Ronald Lutalo and the staff at space. They also lack some inputs such as within Kampala and Nairobi was made Environmental Alert in Kampala and water pumps. possible thanks to kind, helpful extension PROLINNOVA Uganda, and exten- staff provided by the local governments sion agents Pross Owino of Kampala and CONCLUSIONS in both cities. In Kampala, the activities of Josephine Wandaho of Nairobi for their The uncertainty faced by urban farmers in these specialists were clearly legal while support. Nairobi are in sharp contrast to the confi- in Nairobi the existence of government- dent standing of Kampala’s community employed agriculture and livestock profes- References: groups. The catfish pond and other sionals was paradoxical. Although urban De Zeeuw, H., Dubbeling, M., Wilbers, J. & R. van community-based agricultural projects agriculture is illegal, Nairobi (unique Veenhuizen 2006. Courses of Action for Municipal Policies on Urban Agriculture. In: Urban Agriculture visited by the researcher in Kampala in Kenya as a municipality, capital and Magazine 16. Leusden: RUAF. receive clear rewards such as land grants province in one) has provincial represen-

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg'&_VcjVgn'%%. www.ruaf.org Low-tech Innovations in Vertical 65 Farming: Nairobi, Kenya Randall Coleman

This article describes the further development Can YA Love (CYL) is an American NGO that works globally on of small-scale, “low-tech” vertical farms at the sustainable agriculture, with a focus on environmental reclamation, aerobic composting and vertical farming meth- individual and neighbourhood level in informal ods to spur economic development. CYL works primarily with settlements. These vertical farms are adapted to orphanages, schools, women’s groups and youth groups, because these reside in the community and contribute to its suit small urban spaces. They increase the density long-term improvement. In Kenya, CYL has worked on an at which food can be produced and keep the growing urban agriculture project in Nairobi. medium independent of potentially contaminated The vertical garden ground. They require little maintenance and are The vertical growing systems used by Can YA Love were more easily accessible to the elderly and the inspired by practices in the slum of Kibera, in Nairobi, Kenya. Women were taking burlap sacks, filling them with soil, disabled by virtue of their vertical nature. puncturing holes across the entire three-dimensional surface of the sacks, and growing leafy greens from those holes. Bearing in mind the lack of sanitation services in this environment, the “sack garden” was a crucial innovation because it was independent of the contaminated ground. Several organisations have reported working with these sacks (see UAM 21). Many also credit this innovation with saving lives during the period of post-election violence Kenya experienced in 2007-2008, when the community suffered massive food shortages.

However, the “regular” sack garden is limited in terms of what can be grown, due to soil depth and the amount of growing surface: only half a square metre. CYL’s intention was to use a similar concept, but to increase the size and solidify the structure in order to realise the additional benefits detailed below and to grow enough food to support an organisation or family.

Innovation CYL’s extensive R&D coalesced into two main types of vertical garden, the “Growing Pillar” (GP) and the “Growing Wall” (GW). Both utilise simple welded-wire fencing for the structure, fabric for the inner lining, and high-quality compost or some combination involving soil as the growing medium. Like the sack garden, the entire surface can be used to grow food. In its most common form, the GP is a cylinder that takes up about half a square metre of ground space. It stands just under two metres tall and provides a minimum of nearly five square metres of growing surface, which makes the growing surface ten times greater than the occupied ground area. The growing surface can be further maximised by using trellises up which vining plants can climb from the surface of the GP. The GW uses many of the same principles and stands as an elongated rectangular prism. In its most common form, it measures 50 cm in depth and 1 metre in height while the length may vary.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 66

Crop production in dense urban spaces as part of the CYL project CYL works with orphanages, schools, women’s groups and youth in Nairobi. Photo: Can Ya Love groups. Photo: Can Ya Love

The vertical growing systems with a solidified structure by CYL. A growing pillar for household production. Photo: Can Ya Love Photo: Can Ya Love

In addition to saving space, these vertical gardens have the plied about two or three times and can be easily extracted to following advantages: start the vermicomposting method in other GPs, creating • They can be built on nearly any surface (e.g., pavement more growing medium . This method creates a self-perpetu- or contaminated ground) or in areas with low-level ating system. flooding; • The design can be adapted to suit people with a range of Experience in Nairobi physical limitations (e.g., the elderly and physically In conjunction with Can YA Love Kenya (CYL-K), CYL hosted a disabled); three-day seminar at which the leaders of many community- • They require much less maintenance than a conven- based organisations were invited to learn essential sustain- tional garden or farm, involving no tillage and virtually able agriculture methodologies such as the construction no weeding; and utilisation of the vertical farms; ecological practices and • A water-capture system at the base of the garden collects understanding; aerobic composting; safe food handling; and for reuse any water not absorbed by plants or soil; soil microbiology. This was achieved using a combination of • The centre of the structure is insulated to reduce lectures and the hands-on experience of building a vertical evaporation, thereby increasing water efficiency as roots farm for a primary school. During the seminar, together with penetrate deeper into the structure; the Kawangware Urumwe Youth Group (KUYG), the Parents • The materials are inexpensive and readily available in of Children with Special Needs Association (PCSNA), and the most parts of the world; Kabiro Primary School (KPS), CYL started a vertical urban farm at KPS. The small urban farm provides food for consump- And, of course, these systems increase food availability, tion by pupils at KPS, and also serves as an educational tool which contributes to food security in urban food deserts. In for them to learn about composting and agriculture. The addition to food production, the GPs may also be used to implementation concluded with a GW and seven GPs, two of recycle food waste into a usable growing medium. To facili- which used the vermicomposting method discussed above. tate this usage, a vermicomposting component is added to Kale, spinach and chard were the three primary foods grown, the design. Worms are placed in the bottom of the GP and fed as decided by the community members. three days’ worth of food. Once the worms have eaten the food scraps, a layer of growing medium is placed in the Challenges garden along with another three-day helping of food. This The project team faced several challenges. The first was the process is repeated until the garden is full of a rich, fertile availability and quality of compost. The GP vertical garden growing medium. By this time, the worms will have multi- requires a significant amount of soil but structurally does

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org not support the weight of heavy clay, which in addition is CYL and CYL-K will develop a central farm with medium-scale difficult for roots to penetrate and does not absorb or distrib- aerobic composting as well as an education centre that will ute water sufficiently. Compost-rich soil is far more prefera- offer two new courses: best practices in community garden- ble. This emphasised the need for compost creation at the ing, and simple data collection practices. Any CBO wishing to farm site. In view of this, of the seven GPs that were built at have CYL fund a garden for their organisation will be required 67 KPS, two were dedicated to compost production using CYL’s to file a proposal that includes a written plan for allocating vermicomposting method. However, the red wiggler worms profits, and to file progress reports at certain intervals with used are expensive and difficult to source in Kenya, and CYL. Of course, any CBO wishing to build a garden on its own temperature monitoring during composting was difficult may do so without any such proposal and can ask CYL-K for for the community members. Other challenges faced in food technical support. CYL continues to be engaged in research production were water access, and organising the sale of any and development at CYL headquarters near Washington, DC surplus. in the United States. It is working in areas that support its mission, such as filtration systems for salt and contaminated Impacts and future plans water. Members of CYL-K report that the gardens are still producing food for consumption and sale. The more exciting impact, Randall Coleman however, has been the spread of the vertical gardens Can YA Love throughout Kenya following the seminar, which has Email: [email protected] happened without direct implementation by CYL.

One member of CYL-K built a GP at his home in Nairobi for the purpose of feeding his family. Within three months, the food that the garden produced had covered the cost of building the GP.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 6GZedgi[gdbCZlDgaZVch/ '-

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg''?jcZ'%%. www.ruaf.org Urban Agriculture as Green 16 Infrastructure: The Case of

Nevin Cohen New York City Katinka Wijsman

Efforts to reduce storm water through innovative green infrastructure projects may provide unique opportunities for cities to finance urban agriculture. Since 2011, New York City has been able to provide funding to four urban agriculture projects, including a one-acre commercial rooftop farm, Different forms of green infrastructure through its Green Infrastructure Grant Program. Source: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

New York’s experience suggests that if productive of storm water; or tanks to store sewage until it can be landscapes are integrated into storm water management pumped back through the water pollution control plants planning, cities may be able to both reduce storm water flow after it stops raining. These options are both costly and polit- and resulting water pollution and at the same time support ically unpopular in communities faced with the prospect of the creation of farms and edible gardens, at a lower cost than hosting this infrastructure. A potentially more cost-effective traditional storm water adaptation measures would require. option that avoids facility siting conflicts and can offer host The organisational challenge in New York and elsewhere is communities benefits beyond reduced flooding and pollu- to affirmatively support urban agriculture projects in green tion is to increase the permeability of the cityscape through infrastructure programs by prioritising the multidimen- diverse forms of “green infrastructure”: parks, landscaped sional benefits of edible landscapes, including their function median strips on roadways, permeable pavement, and agri- as a climate change adaptation strategy as well as for their cultural sites. Green infrastructure not only absorbs and capacities for storm water absorption. slows storm water to reduce the quantity that enters the sewer system; it can increase biodiversity, reduce the urban Combined sewer overflow heat island effect and, in the case of urban farms and gardens, Most cities have combined sewage systems in which sewage provide all of the benefits associated with urban agriculture. and storm water are conveyed to water pollution control plants in a single pipe during wet weather. Because these New York City’s Green Infrastructure Program treatment facilities are engineered to handle only dry- New York City is under a consent order to reduce CSO pollu- weather flows, during rain events the excess of the combined tion. In developing a management strategy, the city evalu- flow is often diverted, untreated, into nearby waterways to ated the costs and benefits of grey and green infrastructure avoid inundating the facilities. In the case of more extreme and found that investing in a green scenario that includes weather events — which may occur more frequently due to some grey infrastructure was significantly more cost-effec- climate change — heavy rains cannot be absorbed and may tive than a conventional approach (DEP, 2010). New York flood roads and properties. In cities with inadequate or City’s Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) poorly maintained sewerage infrastructure the flooding committed to investing USD 192 million in green infrastruc- may be even more frequent and more severe. Both types of ture by 2015 (DEP, 2012), including “blue roofs” that hold rain- events lead to high social and environmental costs, including water and release it to the sewage system slowly, extra-large significant pollution of urban waterways with potential street tree planters, landscaped storm water “green streets”, public health consequences (Walsh et al., 2009). Cities are parking lots paved with porous concrete, and vacant paved under increasing pressure to adapt to climate change in lots and asphalt rooftops turned into gardens. Over 20 years, general and to reduce combined sewer overflow (CSO) pollu- the green scenario would cost USD 5.3 billion, including the tion in particular. In the USA the federal Clean Water Act USD 2.4 billion for this green infrastructure. In contrast, an mandates action to stem this source of water pollution estimated USD 6.8 billion would be required for a scenario (Adler et al., 1993). based solely on the types of grey infrastructure mentioned A conventional strategy to address CSO is to invest in “grey above (DEP, 2010). The green infrastructure scenario thus infrastructure”: expanded water pollution control facilities; saves the city and the property owners who pay water and increased-diameter sewage pipes that hold larger volumes sewer fees USD 1.5 billion in costs over a 20-year period.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org Land Use % of Combined Potential Strategies and Technologies Sewer Watershed

New development 5.0 % Stormwater performance standard for new and expanded development and redevelopment Rooftop detention; green roofs; subsurface detention and infiltration Streets and 26.6% Integrate stormwater management int0 capital program in partnership with DOT, DDC, and DPR sidewalks 17 Enlist Business Improvement District; and other community partners Create performance standard for sidewalk reconstruction Swales; street trees; Greenstreets; permeable pavement Multi-family resi- 3.4% Integrate stormwater management into capital program in partnership with NYCHA and HPD dential complexes Rooftop detention; green roofs; subsurface detention and infiltration; rain barrels or cisterns; rain gardens; swales; street trees; Greenstreets: permeable pavement Parking lots 0.5% Sewer change for stormwater DCP zoning amendments Continue demonstration projects in partnership with MTA and DOT Swales; permeable pavement; engineered wetlands Parks 11.6% Partner with DPR to integrate green infrastructure into capital program Continue demonstration projects in partnership with DPR Swales; permeable pavement; engineered wetlands Schools 1.9% Integrate stormwater management into capital program in partnership with DOE Rooftop detention; green roof; subsurface detention and infiltration Vacant lots 1.9% Grant programs Potential sewer change for stormwater Rain gardens; green garden Other public 1.1% Integrate stormwater management into capital programs properties Rooftop detention; green roof; subsurface detention and infiltration: rain barrels; permeable pavement Other existing 48.0% Green roof tax credit development Sewer charges for stormwater Continue demonstration projects and data collection Rooftop detention; green roofs; subsurface detention and infiltration; rain barrels or cisterns; rain gardens; swales; street trees; Greenstreets; permeable pavement

New York green infrastructure plan: Opportunities, strategies and technologies Source: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

safe spaces (Cohen et al., 2012). Community gardens increase Green infrastructure absorbs the value of nearby properties (Voicu and Been, 2008). and slows storm water run- Urban agriculture as green infrastructure As part of New York City’s Green Infrastructure Grant off, increases biodiversity, Program, DEP provides funds to private property owners and organisations to build green infrastructure projects. In order reduces urban temperatures for projects to receive funding, they must demonstrate and can provide food and feasibility and be designed to capture and retain a minimum of 1 inch (2.54 cm) of storm water from the impervious economic benefits tributary area. In the first round of green infrastructure grants, the city provided USD 592,730 to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, a collection of industrial buildings on the waterfront In addition to these benefits, green infrastructure simulta- that served as a shipyard during the Second World War, and neously provides natural resource sinks that reduce air the Brooklyn Grange, a rooftop farming company, for the pollution and assist in urban climate control by cooling the funding of what the Grange calls “the world’s largest roof- city during hot summer months. It also provides important top soil farm”. Covering approximately one acre (0.4 ha), the green networks in urbanised areas, enhancing the quality of farm is located on the rented roof space of Building No. 3 in life of urban dwellers and increasing their property values by the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The Grange grows a variety of an average of 2–5 % (NRDC, 2013). When the green infrastruc- produce according to organic principles, including toma- ture is a garden or farm, it supplies fresh fruit and vegetables toes (40 varieties), salad greens, carrots, herbs, peppers, and many other social and economic co-benefits to commu- beans, radishes, and chard. In addition, they keep egg-laying nities, including the health benefits of increased access to hens, and bees in a commercial apiary. Brooklyn Grange produce, the physical benefits of gardening, garden-based sells its produce to local restaurants and retail stores, to educational opportunities, job creation and the creation of their community supported agriculture (CSA) members

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org Urban Agriculture as Green Infrastructure: The Case of New York City

Brooklyn Grange farm Photo: Brooklyn Grange (http://brooklyngrangefarm.com)

and to the larger public via weekly farm stands in various Discussion neighbourhoods. The Grange has expanded its farm busi- While the number of urban agriculture projects co-funded ness to include an educational non-profit (providing by the DEP Green Infrastructure Grant Program is small, the educational tours and workshops) and urban farming and potential for supporting the construction of many more green roof consulting and installation services to others farms and gardens as part of this programme is substantial. interested in urban (rooftop) farming. As a result of its permeable rooftop farm and agricultural activities, the Brooklyn Grange manages over 1 million gallons (3,785,411 Municipalities should litres) of storm water per year, helping to reduce the amount of CSO flowing into New York City’s East River. coordinate green The DEP has also provided more than USD 770,000 to support the creation of three additional farms and gardens (and infrastructure investments two others that have been approved but not yet funded) with municipal urban with some edible landscaping (see table 1). The amount of food production of these sites varies significantly (from a agriculture goals to most vegetable garden to a plot for herb cultivation that is part of a non-edible landscape design for a recreational space), effectively support both but they share a focus on multidimensionality in terms of the benefits stemming from the project. Although the DEP views urban agriculture or edible landscaping as a positive In the communities in New York City with significant CSO feature of a project proposal because of the co-benefits of problems, there are an estimated 2,000 acres (809 ha) of food production, the focus of the Green Infrastructure vacant land with mostly impervious surfaces and approxi- Grant Program on storm water management dictates that mately 3,000 acres (1,214 ha) of flat rooftop space on build- a project’s ability to retain at least one inch of water during ings that have the potential to accommodate farms and rainfall is the primary criterion for funding. (The DEP gardens. As in many other cities, funds for water and sewer actively monitors the retention capacity of green infra- infrastructure in New York come from bonds issued by a structure interventions citywide, though individual proj- public authority and paid for by water and sewer rate payers ects are not necessarily monitored.) rather than from the general municipal capital budget,

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org which makes it somewhat more politically feasible to finance Key lessons these projects and makes them less subject to municipal • Green infrastructure interventions to prevent storm budget cuts that result from fiscal downturns. water run-off (or storm-water flooding due to extreme weather events) can be less costly than grey infrastruc- Nevertheless, there are obstacles to expanding urban agri- ture interventions. 19 culture’s role as green infrastructure. Administrative agen- • Green infrastructure has the additional benefit of assist- cies in charge of water pollution control, like New York City’s ing in urban climate control and increasing the quality DEP, focus primarily on the absorptive capacity of green infra- of life of urban dwellers. structure. This is in part because the consent orders driving • Urban agriculture as a green infrastructure has addi- green infrastructure are about managing storm water, and tional benefits of providing fresh fruits and vegetables agency mandates do not include supporting urban agricul- and other social and economic co-benefits to communities. ture. Benefits such as the nutritional value of fresh vegeta- • Urban agriculture can be a multi-dimensional produc- bles, the educational opportunities of urban gardening, or tive strategy of climate change adaptation. the creation of communally managed open space are valued, • Green infrastructure grants are valuable sources of but are subsidiary to water retention capacity. While the DEP funds for urban agriculture projects and an opportunity has been an innovator in supporting urban agriculture for cities to support projects that simultaneously address through its Green Infrastructure Program, its prioritisation of multiple public needs. storm water management has meant that the onus is on the • Municipalities should coordinate green infrastructure city’s urban agriculture community to propose new farming investments with municipal urban agriculture goals to projects for funding under this programme. most effectively support both. A second challenge to expanding the use of urban agriculture as a green infrastructure is that farms require active Nevin Cohen management to produce storm water retention benefits Assistant Professor, The New School, New York. year-round, including a cover crop outside of the growing Email: [email protected] season, as bare soil retains less storm water than plant- Katinka Wijsman covered soil and is also subject to erosion. Though this Email: [email protected] management is often provided by for-profit farming businesses like Brooklyn Grange or non-profit community organisations, thus lowering public management costs, public agencies need assurances that these entities are financially viable or, in the case of a non-profit, well-established within the community, and therefore likely to maintain site management over the long run. In contrast, other green infrastructure projects, such as landscaped median strips or porous paving stones, often require less intensive maintenance to reliably stem storm water run-off.

Finally, while New York City’s Green Infrastructure Grant Program is a valuable source of funds for individual farm and garden projects, it is not yet part of an overall municipal urban agriculture strategy. Planning that addresses the urban agriculture system as a whole would identify oppor- References tunities to make available sites for farms and gardens, capi- Adler, Robert, Jessica Landman, and Diane Cameron. 1993. The tal for their construction (including but not limited to green Clean Water Act, Twenty Years Later. Washington: Island Press. Cohen, Nevin, Kristin Reynolds, and Rupal Sanghvi. 2012. Five infrastructure funds), and opportunities for non-profit and Borough Farm: Seeding the Future of Urban Agriculture in New York for-profit farming ventures to secure operating revenue. City. NY: Design Trust for Public Space. DEP (2010). NYC Green Infrastructure Plan. A Sustainable Strategy Table 1: Edible landscaping projects funded by NYC’s Green for Clean Waterways, available at http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/ Infrastructure Grant Program. (All sites are privately owned, green_infrastructure/NYCGreenInfrastructurePlan_LowRes.pdf DEP (2012). NYC Green Infrastructure. 2012 Annual Report, available yet most are accessible upon request.) at http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/green_infrastructure/gi_an- Year Site Funding GI nual_report_2013.pdf grant program NRDC (2013). The Green Edge: How Commercial Property 2011 Brooklyn Navy Yard rooftop farm USD 592,730 Investment in Green Infrastructure Creates Value. Available at http:// www.nrdc.org/water/ﬁles/commercial-value-green-infrastructure- 2011 Lenox Hill rooftop gardens USD 40,000 report.pdf 2011 Carroll Street Community Garden USD 244,920 Voicu, Ioan, and Vicki Been. 2008. “The Effect of Community Gardens 2012 Natural Resources Defense Council USD 485,132 on Neighboring Property Values”. Real Estate Economics 36 (2): 241–283. 2013 South Bronx Overall Development Under review Walsh, C., Fletcher, T. and Ladson, A. 2009. “Retention Capacity: A Corporation – The Venture Center Metric to Link Stream Ecology and Storm Water Management”. 2013 South Bronx Overall Development Under review Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 14: 399-406. Corporation – The Jasmine Court

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 27 • March 2014 www.ruaf.org Innovations in Urban Agriculture and their Impacts: a Study Tour to the USA Regine Berges

Growing Home Chicago. Photo: I. Hartmann

Members of the INNSULA research project visited urban agriculture projects and interviewed persons (Innovation and Sustainability Analysis of Urban involved with urban agriculture in the USA. The USA was chosen because North America has a very active and progres- Agriculture: www.innsula.org) analysed several sive urban agriculture community and is thus considered to innovations in urban gardens and urban farms in be at the forefront of innovation in this field. Community gardens and urban farms in particular have been present the USA in order to provide inspiration for activists there longer than in Germany. The assumption is that the and governments in Germany. Six of the projects innovations found in the USA are transferable to and supportive of new projects in Germany. are presented here, along with the areas they impact, ranging from environmental, social, and Urban agriculture innovations economic areas to gardening issues. In urban agriculture, gardeners have to adapt to the spatial, economic, environmental and social conditions of the city. For example, land availability, soil contamination and water In 2012, researchers of the INNSULA research project, funded availability influence the activities in urban agriculture by the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), projects. Often, standard solutions from rural agriculture are

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 36

Water collection system Green Thumb NYC in Phoenix Community Garden Photo: I. Hartmann

not applicable in a city or to the size of the project. Therefore in this field is The Plant in Chicago (www.plantchicago.com). urban agriculture projects are prone to the “do-it-yourself” This social enterprise has established a food-producing and approach, resulting in the development of new products, processing company-consortium in an abandoned meat- concepts or practices by experimenting and testing packing facility. The people behind this initiative have (Hartmann et al. 2013). For better comprehension we grouped invented a recycling concept for the building with a planned the innovations analysed during the study visits according reuse of 80% of all materials found in the building. In addition, to the areas of main impact: resource efficiency, education, they developed a concept for combining waste and energy food security and health, enabling business, and enabling flows to close loops and produce electricity and heat. Finally, gardening. These categories are still very open, and some of they adapted an aquaponic production system by which the innovations can fit into several of them; this demon- they reduce water consumption. strates the multifunctionality of these innovations. Likewise, Green Thumb (www.greenthumbnyc.org), a The study visit publicly funded program supporting community gardens in In a pre-study, we first searched the literature for innova- NYC, strives to reduce water consumption by promoting an tions and interesting projects. Based on this, 19 gardens, adaptable rainwater collection system. This also turns the farms, organisations and enterprises in New York City, constraint of access to water for open spaces in urban areas Amherst (Massachusetts), Philadelphia and Chicago were into an opportunity by using the omnipresent roof area. In visited, and representatives were interviewed on the topic of contrast, waste reduction and compost production are goals urban agriculture and innovations. One of the results of the of the compost toilet at Greensgrow Farms (www.greens- study is the compilation of particularly outstanding projects grow.org) in Philadelphia. Innovators there accelerate the selected as best practice examples (Hartmann et al. 2013). composting with the help of solar energy, thus improving Their innovations are presented here. Something was the existing concept of compost toilets. The resulting considered to be an innovation if we could put it into one of compost is used for ornamental plants only. Another exem- the categories of innovation sub-processes marking the plary path to resource efficiency is taken at Growing Home innovativeness: something brand-new (invention – highly in Chicago (www.growinghomeinc.org). This social enterprise innovative), adjusted innovation (adaption – medium or operates two urban farms and a third farm in the countryside. moderately innovative) or utilized innovation (adoption – The operation is certified organic, bringing this label to innovative). urban agriculture and thus guaranteeing that mineral fertilisers and chemical pesticides will not be used. The innovations and their impacts In the six projects presented here we found sixteen innova- Education is an important social issue addressed by innovations, of which ten are highly innovative and can thus can be tions in urban agriculture. Here urban agriculture takes classified as inventions, three as adaptions and three as advantage of its proximity to the people and of the educa- adoptions. This shows the high innovativeness of the tional potential associated with gardening. Into this category selected cases. The largest group of innovations applied in falls the participatory university concept found in the the urban agriculture projects addresses the environmental permaculture garden (www.umasspermaculture.word- topic of resource efficiency. Availability of space is less of an press.com) of the University of Massachusetts (UMass) in issue for traditional agriculture, but within cities even build- Amherst. The creation and operation of the edible campus ings become a production opportunity. Especially innovative garden is based on a university course which is prepared by

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org teachers and students in a participatory manner. Another ing, enabling small online donations and transparency best practice example, focusing more on the education of regarding the collected sum. the public, is the pop-up garden established each year by the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS) (www.pennsylva- Enabling gardening is also an issue addressed by various niahorticulturalsociety.org) in Philadelphia. The publicly innovations found in urban agriculture, two of which are 37 accessible edible garden occupies a prominent inner-city presented here. The first is the development of a multi-func- open space for one gardening season. It offers information tional garden shed by Mees Weis architects for Green Thumb materials, and workshops are held there. The produce is used in New York City. The “gardenhaus”, for which the construc- by local chefs in their restaurants. Opening up new opportu- tion manual is publicly accessible, is a greenhouse and tool nities for young disadvantaged people is the aim of the voca- shed in one, and costs less than USD 1000. Green Thumb also tional training program of Growing Home in Chicago. The created a concept to better provide for well-functioning training takes three months, and includes theory and practice community gardens, by requiring a functional gardening of agricultural production, processing and marketing, and group and an elected representative for support and advice also touches on associated topics like healthy nutrition. in each of their gardens.

Food security and health are important challenges in cities Lessons learned and are addressed by urban agriculture. Gardeners do not The urban agriculture projects presented here all apply intend to help only themselves; they also share their produce. several innovations. The fact that most of these are inven- One very innovative example of this sharing, formalised in a tions signifies that urban agriculture is highly innovative. complex system, is the City Harvest Program of PHS in On the one hand, the high percentage of inventions is due to Philadelphia. Participating gardens and farms receive mate- the case selection, but on the other hand it shows the neces- rials, seeds and seedlings and other support and, in return, sity of adapting to the urban setting – necessity being the donate a certain part of their harvest, which is passed on to mother of invention. Mostly the need derives from a short- needy people. The concept is also special in that the seeds age of resources, or from their high costs. Space, water, and seedlings are produced by prisoners as part of a reha- energy and nutrients are precious goods in our society, espe- bilitation program. Similar donation schemes have been cially from a sustainability perspective. Thus the urban agri- adopted by community gardens and NGOs in other cities. For culture projects use methods to provide these resources example, a part of the Phoenix community garden in New themselves, or to tap unused sources. Through the innova- York City is grown for a nearby soup kitchen. tions presented here, new networks are formed and new stakeholders are involved in urban agriculture, such Urban agriculture includes not only non-profit, but also for- as universities, canteens or underprivileged youth. profit initiatives. In the latter, urban farms and social enter- Furthermore, there are now social enterprises combining prises create innovative concepts or tools which enable their urban agriculture with various social aims. This illustrates business to access financial support or reduce expenses. One that introducing urban agriculture into a new setting, like a innovation in this category is the Canteen Supported Garden university, or by using it as a means to achieve goals other at UMass in Amherst. The student-run Franklin Permaculture than vegetable production, is a basis for innovations, too. Garden provides the university’s cafeteria with some of their Moreover, it is remarkable that the innovators are not neces- produce and, in return, gets financial support. To save money, sarily gardeners, but can also be supporting organisations, Greensgrow Farms developed a low-budget cool room by as in the case of Green Thumb NYC. integrating an air conditioner into a shed where the harvested produce can be kept fresh for some time before it The innovations found on the study visit have been published is sold. Furthermore, Greensgrow Farms also enables other in a best practices brochure available online in German and local entrepreneurs to go into business, by building a English (Hartmann et al. 2013). We hope the examples will be community kitchen certified for food processing that can be a stimulus for existing and developing urban agriculture rented by companies. The kitchen is also used by the farm projects as well as for governments wishing to support itself, for processing and for cooking workshops. Another urban agriculture. This would broaden the possibilities for way to receive funds has been adopted by Growing Home in urban agriculture in Germany. Chicago. They raise money for certain assets via crowdfund- Regine Berges INNSULA Email: [email protected]

References Hartmann, I., Berges, R. and A. Piorr (2013) Innovation Processes in Urban Agriculture. Best Practice Examples. Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Müncheberg. Available at: http://project2.zalf.de/innsula/publikationen_en.php

Franklin Permaculture Garden Amherst. Photo: R. Berges

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org Community Supported Agriculture: French approaches

The first forms of agriculture in Europe seem to have been community-based, as is still the case in many rural societies of the South. But, in the vicinity of modern cities, farmers have found it difficult to resist the processes of individualisation and increasing urbanisation. This article will highlight two recent phenomena taking place in France, which respond to and sometimes even counterbalance these processes. The phenomena both illustrate initiatives that try to restore local urban-rural relationships. C. Stacchetti Children are taking part in clearing a site; branches are grinded and used as mulch by farmers

he growing openness of the food between consumers and producers as the unfamiliarity with cropping patterns. market has created a situation in consumers agree in advance to buy a In Ile-de-France, more than 200 AMAPs T which only big players are now left certain amount of agricultural products, exist, but so far without local farmers. in the chain, varying from cooperative e.g. in the form of a basket of vegetables. This impels the consumers to turn to farms to wholesale markets and industrial The producer is thus guaranteed a more producers located farther away to fill food processing and distribution compa- stable income as well as increased abilities their baskets, and in so doing to adapt the nies. Simultaneously, urban as well as rural to cope with risks, such as a harvest AMAP concept. This challenge could be consumers have distanced themselves failure. In this system, producers and overcome by trying to convince farmers from food production processes, hereby consumers jointly share the risks of who are also retail sellers to become also losing their ability to influence them. farming. In some situations, community involved in an AMAP. These farmers These two processes have instigated the support can also result in a higher security are already used to interacting with discussion on “food miles”: the increasing of land tenure for the farmer. The con- their customers, for example at farmers’ physical distance between producers and sumer benefits of CSA (or AMAPs) are the markets, and would only need to package consumers has contributed to increased rapid supply of high-quality fresh and their products differently (e.g. in baskets). transport and more advanced food seasonable food products as well as Other farmers with an interest in AMAP processing and conservation systems, increased insight into the production might prefer to set up a small collective ultimately resulting in increased green- system used (whether organic or other), of more specialised farmers and serve house emissions. both resulting from the close proximity customers through this collective. of the farmer. RENEWED LINKAGES Another challenge for the AMAP system is As a response and counterbalance to these In the discussion around AMAPs, it has that farmers see themselves and their developments, consumers and small pro- been argued that they contribute to the production systems being questioned by ducers have started to join hands again in development of a more united and integral the consumers, who are sometimes moti- a variety of ways, one of which is through economy and that they promote in situ fair vated by nostalgic and non-realistic ideas. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA). trade. Consumers are called upon to The farmers need adequate communica- In France this takes place in the form of demonstrate their solidarity and at the tion skills to defend their technical Associations pour le Maintien d’une same time, they are once again given a choices, the complexity of which is Agriculture Paysanne (AMAPs) (literally: voice in the choice of production methods. unknown to city dwellers. An additional Associations for the Maintenance of Producers are relinked to their communi- challenge is the need to set a fair price for Peasant Farming). The goal of these associ- ties, which also makes them individually the produce that truly accounts for the ations is to recreate a joint community responsible again for the quality of their production costs involved. Unlike assessing of producers and consumers. This goes products. Ultimately, this results in an automated production processes, for beyond a mere commercial relationship enhanced quality of life for both groups. which numerous accounting references are available, determining the farmers’ André Fleury The main challenge for AMAPs in France remuneration –to be set a priori– is a deli- Urban Agriculture Team, is recruiting producers. Many farmers cate process as it is a direct result of the ENSP Versailles, France1 are reluctant to participate as they fear existing social relation with the commu-  [email protected] city dwellers’ rapid lack of interest and nity. This actually places the farmers in a

'OFS 19 wage-earning type of relationship, which is unfamiliar to most of them. In effect, a CSA system will be weakened if it is only C. Stacchetti defined from a city dwellers’ perspective. Its true strength is demonstrated when communities are recreated in which consumers have established a real partnership with the farmers, recognising their professional competence, their economic freedom as well as their choice of production system that includes modern aspects for greater efficiency.

An example of an AMAP: ‘Lapereaux des Thermopyles’ This AMAP was created in Paris at the end of 2006 by a team led by Jérôme Dehondt and is supported by a regional network. Mr Gilbert, market gardener, shows city dwellers his fields The AMAP’s farmer is Jacques Frings, whose farm is located about 50 km east of Paris. On a weekly basis, the farmer delivers food in baskets to the Châteaux Ouvrier, an old Refitting agriculture in the urban activities and the creation of a buffer zone building devoted to social activities. The 90 environment Another recent development that counteracts the negative impacts AMAP members are mainly higher-educated in periurban agriculture has been the of external influences such as floods, people, who are strongly motivated to pro- disappearance of agricultural functions highways and illegal human settlements. mote sustainable development and tighter from the city due to urban pressure. This social linkages. Its name – which can be development has not only been witnessed In order to ensure sustainable land devel- translated as the ‘Rabbits of Thermopyles’– in France but in many urban regions in opment projects, such as AUP, a clear-cut is highly symbolic: in the same way that Europe. However, more and more city legal framework is necessary. Hitherto, some hundred Greek soldiers gloriously dwellers are aware of the benefits of nature conservation has been the main resisted the huge Persian army in 480 BC, having agricultural space nearby, as this argument in France, which however, in which allowed further development of allows them to enjoy rural amenities its truest form, was found inappropriate Greek civilisation, the small rabbits of this and observe and understand the food for open spaces located too close to the AMAP will put up a fight to allow a sustain- processing process. They increasingly cities. This resulted in open urban fringes able future! recognise that farmland represents an that did not fall under any management The farmer is a fruit-arboriculturist who essential infrastructure for the quality of programme and from which farmers were adopted an organic farming system in 1975. their urban environment. Consequently, moving away. Fortunately, environmen- He was the first farmer to sell his products at they have embarked on initiatives to tally conscious citizens came up with a the wholesale market of Rungis, the biggest restore periurban farming by integrating local public farming policy. in Europe. However, he gradually shifted to it into the management of their land. In selling his products on the farm. He has in- France, this has resulted in an initiative The main challenge for creased his product range (vegetables, eggs) called the Agri-Urban Project, or AUP. AMAPs in France is in and introduced new marketing channels, recruiting producers such as ‘pick your own’, and is also selling AUP originated from a civil-conscious products from other organic farms in the initiative aimed at maintaining open Ile-de-France region (beef) or other areas of areas (around 1,000 to 2,000 ha), farming Planning action France (nuts from Grenoble, wines from (often between 10 and 30 farmers) and The local public farming policy was southern France). In effect, he sells two dif- natural spaces in urban environments. To initiated through the formulation of the ferent kinds of products: (1) local products achieve this, demographic growth must Agricultural Charter, which is based on that are grown in Ile-de-France, which have be under control (the city must not grow a participatory approach. The charter low environmental costs and high nutrition, by more than a few tens of thousands). is signed by the different stakeholders and (2) so-called terroir products from dif- The initiative bears great resemblance to involved and highlights each stakehold- ferent parts of France and Europe, which are E. Howard’s Garden City in which agricul- er’s role; for example the city council is in strongly linked to local and regional ture was to be part of a green belt encom- charge of city planning, while the farmers identities and have a cultural value. passing “rurbanisation” and ensuring are expected to ensure that their activities The farmer started selling his products food autonomy. Agriculture is maintained are performed in a sustainable manner through an AMAP only a couple of years ago, close to the city because of its landscape and do not harm the space used. The but this has been successful as he now serves but also its historical values. Additional charter is concretised in a programme three of them. benefits for the city are the availability of action, which shows that agriculture of fresh produce as well as the possi- is really supported by the communities bilities for educational, leisure and social involved. This programme defines the

20 2 *;A;TCH? different actions to be taken and facili- Another challenge faced by AUP is the Strengthened linkages, strengthened tates their implementation. continuous search for public support and communities In this stage of the planning process, therefore public financial means. In this The examples portrayed in this article the focus has been on the farmers and effort, it is important that the multi- highlight how communities are strength- on enabling and stimulating them to functionality of periurban agriculture for a ened by improving citizen awareness and perform their activities without the local community be highlighted: not only responsibility at the local level. possible constraints of being close to a does it lead to increased local food produc- The community members join forces city (e.g. transport and distribution diffi- tion, but also to the enhanced organisation and in so doing positively affect their culties due to traffic, land insecurity). In of space, creation of opportunities for living environment and its sustainability. a following phase, the entire community leisure, etc. In order to develop in a AMAPs restore relationships between and (farmers included) should set up a new sustainable way, each local community among producers and consumers despite policy, which enhances farmers’ abilities needs its own agriculture, i.e. agriculture their different roles in the community, to benefit economically, e.g. by improving managed by a new governance system and enhance mutual understanding. AUP their links to local markets. This could that recognises farmland as a common adds a new concept of common belonging contribute to finding more people willing good used by farmers for their economic to the local land: two groups share one to take on farming as a profession. activity and by city dwellers to enhance unique territory. Through the AUP their urban lifestyle. It is therefore also concept, agriculture is producing more Current challenges part of the community’s task to defend its than just foodstuffs, as it provides a Currently the Agri-Urban Project faces agricultural interests and ensure the devel- development infrastructure for agri- quite a number of challenges, an impor- opment of the space for sustainable culture itself and for other urban and tant one being the instability of local land agriculture. The next box describes the periurban functions. policies. This instability poses a serious example of the Green Triangle of threat to local agriculture, as farmers need Hurepoix. ENDNOTE 1. Ecole Nationale Supérieure du Paysage, a clear long-term vision. So far, the AUP 10 rue Maréchal Joffre, F.78000 Versailles has remained subject to local electoral Tel. 33 1 39 24 62 73. Equipe agriculture urbaine preferences; its sustainability would be (André Fleury, Roland Vidal), member of LAREP. greatly enhanced if a general framework, which includes regulatory and financial arrangements, would be created by polit- The Green Triangle of the Market five farmer representatives were elected ical entities at higher levels (from district Gardening Cities of Hurepoix along with ten other representatives. Their and regional councils to national and (www.trianglevert.com) election granted them the right of veto. The European governments, see box). Five communities south of Orly, France, have Charter has now reached completion and organised themselves to defend their agricul- is to be signed in the spring of 2007. The tural space for the benefit of their living communities pay the salary of a specialised A dimension of the European Common environment. The project owes its name to: worker, Christel Stacchetti, who has been Agricultural Policy (CAP) - its location: within a highway triangle trained in urbanism and urban agriculture to be changed encompassing 4,000 ha, 40 percent of which at ENSP. The CAP policy is reputed to have set up is either agricultural or forest land Actions underway include: hindrances to competition, which several - its history: the market gardening activity - A strict demarcation of the territory member countries of the WTO are endeav- dates back to 1,800 and the area used to be (Agricultural activity zone) ouring to dismantle. The Commissioner in seen as the open countryside of Paris - Events (strawberry festival, etc.) charge of agriculture alleged on - its continuing agriculture. - Establishment or enhancement of short 29 December 2006 that: Farmers were taken on board right when the agricultural chains (1) many European farmers shall have project was initiated in 2001. At that time, - Educational activities. to look for a second source of income; (2) almost all the market imbalance This sign shows Triangle Vert city-dwellers they are entering farmland measures will be abolished; (3) public funds shall be reserved for agro-environmental measures. To oppose this development, PURPLE (PeriUrban Regions Platform in Europe) was created in 2004 as a lobbying association of European major cities to promote a common periurban agriculture policy, bringing especially point 3 up for discussion in order to support the inclusion of the living environment and landscape issues as priorities for a new CAP. C. Stacchetti

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg')HZeiZbWZg'%&% www.ruaf.org Farm City and Hortus Aquarius: A Modular and Synergetic Design 47 Gilbert Curtessi Approach in Practice Maarten Feberwee

Farm City comprises a concept that can be applied willing to design, finance and realize agro-energy cluster for the creation of agricultural clusters with companies based on the Farm City principles. economical, ecological and social features, in order Farm City is focusing on food production, in combination to create optimal economic and ecological perfor- with education, recreation and health care. Farm City’s ambition is the creation of balanced business cases. The target is mance. Several case studies have been created in the to achieve a optimal level of social, economic and ecological last 2 years. In this article the Farm City concept will results. Farm City applies modules according to a systematic (industrial ecology) view. Industrial ecology is the study of be illustrated by 2 examples: the Rotterdam Zoo in material and energy flows through industrial systems. Key the Netherlands and Hortus Aquarius in Oman. principles are the analogy with natural ecosystems, a holistic and systematic approach and multidisciplinary collaboration. Farm City is a design tool developed by Gilbert Curtessi (Garner and Keoleian, 1995). (Happy Shrimp, Allcomm, Transmare & EnergyTransformers) and Maarten Feberwee (Ecomimics, Revaho). Curtessi’s back- A module relates to a certain agricultural process, tech- ground as an entrepreneur and researcher is related to the nology or physical space. By input-output flows of organic first tropical algae and shrimp farm (known as Happy materials, energy and water, the modules interact with Shrimp Farm) in the Netherlands making use of residual each other and with other external flows, in order to heat. In this project a 2-km infrastructural connection with a create a closed system to the greatest extent possible. This powerplant was realized to supply residual heat for the concept can serve as an example of “metropolitan agricul- growth of shrimp, Salicornia and micro algae. The cultivation ture” in Western Europe for other delta cities around the was based on a modular system design. world.

Feberwee finished his master’s in Industrial ecology at the Rotterdam; Blijdorp Zoo TU Delft by writing a thesis on the modular concept of Farm The design of Farm City Blijdorp consists of a landscape park City. Curtessi and Feberwee identified a symbiosis with each covering the existing parking area, a greenhouse and a other’s projects and started working on the design concept vertical farm combined with research facilities and student from 2012. Nowadays, the aim is to actually find stakeholders housing.

The design of Farm City Blijdorp: aerial and street view. Photo: FarmCity

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org The proposition is based on high value products such as transported through filtration beds; both salt and black flowers, food, animal feed and bulk products such as biogas water are discharged to the sewage. and fertiliser. Input of organic materials originates from the zoo and surrounding urban areas. The primary goal is to The high-rise vertical farm provides energy and animal feed. 48 keep flows of organic materials, energy and water in the The system could contribute to a drastic decrease in food system as long as possible. Biodegradable waste from the miles and reduced animal feed costs. The extensive land- zoo, households in the neighbourhood, private gardens, the scape park could function as a natural filtration and collection landscape park and the vertical farm will be enough for system for rainwater. A combination of a biopowered CHP conversion into valuable compost and energy. (Combined Heat and Power) and biofermentation plant can convert flows of manure, black water and biodegradable The management of Blijdorp Zoo has a keen interest in waste into heat and electricity highly efficiently. sustainable development and an established Greenteam is managing and investigating possible interventions. The Zoo The extensive landscape park functions as a natural filtration accommodates a large aquarium called the Oceanium. This and collection system for rainwater. As this results in a water building is located in the expansion area of the zoo, which collection unit of 3.2 ha underneath drainage, the water is includes a new entrance and parking area. This parking area not transported into the sewage system. Another advantage (3.2 ha) can potentially be transformed into a multifunctional is the cooling effect the parking deck could provide for agricultural cluster. (see: www.blijdorp.nl). parked cars during periods of heat.

In Blijdorp Zoo multiple flows are assimilated: mainly The next step will be a detailed design to connect these flows manure and various other organic materials. These flows of water, materials and energy. Development can be consist of biodegradable waste (35,000 kg – 50-60 % mois- enhanced by a team of available stakeholders, e.g., a real ture) and wood residues (10,000 kg). The restaurants release estate company, the zoo itself, universities and a parking frying oil, currently used to power a ship owned by Blijdorp management organisation (see figure). for the transport of salt water. The zoo requires approximately 1.2 million m3 of gas for heating, of which the Oman; Aquapolis and the “Hortus Aquarius” Oceanium consumes 30 %. In addition, the zoo consumes In the coming decades our world population is expected to large quantities of water from different sources, which grow rapidly. This development will lead to large amounts of amounts to a total of 219,300 m3 annually. Wastewater at the sweet water being used for the production of food and drink- zoo is partly discharged to surface water (ponds etc.), partly ing water, to supply households and industrial branches. A solution for water scarcity in line with the Farm City principles is the saline desert farm called Hortus Aquarius, which is currently being developed together with international Social, ecological and economic benefits for stakeholders. Rotterdam This project is part of the Aquapolis Centre in Oman, currently • Sustainability in agriculture; (re)circulation of developed by Lim Shrimp. Construction of the Aquapolis energy, water and organic flows (e.g., nutrients); Centre (2000 million tonnes shrimp production capacity) • Establishment of parks for agriculture and cultural was started in 2014. The Lim Shrimp organisation is respon- activities; sible for operational matters and necessary actions regard- • Growth in real estate value by creating an aesthetic ing the final business case. Analysis and discussions are space over the existing parking lot; currently taking place about how to integrate shrimp and vegetable production systems. • Local animal feed and food security and access to

food reduces transport in a traffic dense area; By cultivating, presenting and selling saline vegetables, • Landscape park supports biodiversity and provides a consumer demand for culinary ingredients will be fulfilled habitat for plants and small animal species; within the United Arab Emirates region. Implementing a • Application of biological systems e.g., pollination modular and phased growth in production capacity during services, water filtration, fermentation; the start-up keeps the company process controlled and reduces certain risks. • Commercial exploitation of a large surface obtained through multiple uses of space; The Hortus Aquarius is unique in the sense that it simulates • Introduction of a variety of vegetable and animal a semi-natural cultivation method. Curtessi initiated the species. design concept together with Lim Shrimp, and functions as coordinator/business development party. Feberwee, owner

UrbanUrbUrUrbaan AgrAgAAgricultureggrricicuiccuulltulttuturre magazinemmaagazgagaziinnene • nnunumberumbmbembeer2r 2288 • DecemberDeeceeccecembembbeerr2 20142014001144 • backbacbbaacackkt totoco contentscontoonntnteentntntssp pagepageaaggege www.ruaf.orgwwwwwwwwww.ruruuaaff.oorrrgg PRODUCTION RECREATION (CROPS & ANIMALS, EDUCATION HEALTH CARE RETAIL 49 ENERGY, SERVICES)

Farm City combines food production with recreation, education and health care. Photo: FarmCity

of Ecomimics, “a creative process and design engineer is used for irrigation and contains a natural fertiliser for company”, assumes responsibility for a large part of the saline vegetables, reducing the use of external sources. design and technical proposition of the Hortus Aquarius, • The irrigation method for the saline vegetables acts as a together with Revaho, “a wholesale water and irrigation biological filter that expands the technical and economic products company based in the Netherlands”. Feberwee and performance of the shrimp production system. Curtessi, with the input of stakeholders, are responsible for • Reducing waste flows – water and energy are used the final design, business model and investment overviews efficiently within both companies, reducing the waste necessary for implementation. The marketing and distribution flows and eliminating the need of extra water or another will be executed by an existing and experienced stakeholder polluting energy source. once the product is fully developed. Initial support for the • Continuous production – the Hortus Aquarius solves the Hortus Aquarius project in Oman will be given by IMARES, problem of seasonal availability and quality/freshness of part of Wageningen UR. saline vegetables. • Provides labour opportunities. Social, ecological and economic benefits for Oman • Natural development surrounding the Hortus Aquarius. The Hortus Aquarius will be a visually attractive garden • Potential for market development, combining aquacul- where edible saline products are produced using a durable, ture and horticulture is both innovative and practical. innovative and socially responsible method of production, without interference in the natural processes. The design Bringing theory and practice will be based on a modular semi-controlled infrastructure Currently the concept of Farm City finds itself in a stage and processing of nutrient water-effluent. The crucial factor where practical implementation of a theory is encountering of successfully creating a Hortus Aquarius is the availability design aspects. During the last decade many theories and of salt and a minimum of fresh water in a controlled environ- designs were developed in the field of sustainable agricul- ment. Additional nutrients from other agricultural processes ture, industrial ecology and clustered modular agro-energy rich in Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are available as systems; now the step needs to be made to practical exam- a useful nutrient flow. This is beneficial to ecological and ples demonstrating the advantages of modular integrated operational results. agro-energy systems in our urban environment.

The Hortus Aquarius is unique in this sense: it simulates a It is also evident that, to a large extent, location, climate and semi-natural cultivation method. Once the germination atmosphere define the modular system and its design. A phase has taken place for about one week (using fresh water), desert climate in Oman is completely different than the there are four weeks left for the product to grow towards its Rotterdam climate. The input and output flows and demands desired size using daylight and salty effluent. This salty efflu- differ completely. This fuels the authors’ confidence and ent is collected from a central point in the Aquapolis Centre, motivation to continue with their mission to develop the which is part of a circular aquaculture system. Using tidal concept of agricultural modular designs. irrigation systems, the saline vegetables will be irrigated in a semi-controlled environment. After irrigation the effluent Gilbert Curtessi, Maarten Feberwee from the saline vegetable lagoons is collected in a basin and Email: [email protected], +31 6 50615462 stored for further re-utilisation. The system secures year- www.farmcity.eu round availability of fresh saline vegetables.

Hortus Aquarius comprises certain innovative aspects that References can provide a solution for current and/or future problems: Garner, A. and G.A.Keoleian. (1995). Industrial Ecology: An • Modular and symbiotic system production by industrial Introduction. Ann Arbor, MI: National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education ecology principles – the residual water from the shrimp

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org SiemenSiemen CCoxox RotterZwam, Edible MarkMark SlegersSlegers Mushrooms from Rotterdam

In his book The Blue Economy (See box), Gunter Pauli also use coffee husk. Husk is released when roasting coffee offers 100 business cases of things you can do locally beans, and roasters normally throw it away as they regard it as waste. The advantage of using husk over straw is that the with waste. Growing oyster mushrooms on coffee husk is already pasteurised and is a by-product, whereas grounds is one of them. While we are both working straw needs to be bought and requires additional processing and thus energy before it can be used. We have made supply towards more sustainable livelihoods, Pauli’s book agreements with the majority of the micro roasters in inspired us to start RotterZwam, an edible mush- Rotterdam as well as with roasters in the surrounding region to collect enough for our production. We pick up their husk, room business in a former tropical swimming pool stored in plastic bags, for free on a monthly basis. Instead of in the city of Rotterdam. giving the bags to the municipal waste collectors, they gladly give it to us as it makes no difference in their operations and From waste reduction to food production they like being part of our initiative. Coffee is, after oil, the most-traded commodity in the world. The Netherlands produces about 120 million pounds of RotterZwam’s focus is very local because transport of food coffee waste per year; Rotterdam alone produces 6 million over long distances yields: a) high CO2 emissions and energy pounds annually. Only 0.2 % of the coffee ends up in your cup, costs, and b) a system that is very sensitive to disruptions, and the remaining 99.8 % is wasted. RotterZwam uses that because it relies heavily on just-in-time delivery. Every super- waste as a main input for their production process growing market clerk can tell you what happens when even two oyster mushrooms on coffee grounds. It is our ambition to trucks are late: empty shelves. convert as much as possible of that 6 million pounds into food. We strive to do that partly through growing mush- The transportation of used coffee waste also brings rooms in an abandoned swimming pool in the city centre, challenges. We prefer to use fresh coffee grounds for the and we also developed and sell a Growkit that helps people process, as otherwise we need to pasteurise it before we can to convert their own coffee grounds into food at home. use it, adding high energy input and costs to prepare it to be suitable for growing fungi. An advantage of small-scale local Besides coffee grounds, we also use coffee husk, another production is the short chains, so having fresh grounds is not waste product, for growing our substrate. At first we used an issue. We close a circle of raw materials to production and straw to mix with the coffee to give the substrate, and there- consumption in 3,7 km — On a cargo bike! fore the mycelium, more air. By focussing on reusing as much waste as possible, we found that instead of straw we could Furthermore, we do not see the oyster mushroom as an

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 53

Mark & Siemen from Rotterzwam. Photo: Rotterzwam ultimate goal. We see opportunities for extracting enzymes from our substrate when we are “finished” with it, which could be beneficial for the paper industry. After extracting the enzymes, the residue is suitable to use as animal fodder and as a high-quality compost for farmers in the nearby Hoeksche Waard. These are just two examples of possible uses of the by-products we foresee in the near future.

We also compost a portion of our substrate with compost worms on-site using a system of Hungry Bins (see www.rotterzwam.nl/producten/hungry-bin-wormenbak-voor- thuis/ which is in Dutch, or go to www.hungrybin.co.nz/).

Market demand Oyster mushrooms. Photo: Rotterzwam We have found that it is not difficult to sell our mushrooms. We had orders coming in through Facebook without doing produce about 7,500 to 10,000 kilos annually in order to much (or actually any) marketing. People are very interested make around 100,000 euros per year. In addition, we devel- in our initiative because they like that we: oped and sell the Growkit for household use and we will soon - produce food locally instead of transporting it all over be selling the Hungry Bin for worm composting. We also give the world; workshops and offer work-placement opportunities, and - use coffee grounds for food production instead of have translated one of Gunter Pauli’s fables into Dutch in burning it in a waste incinerator; order to inspire children to keep dreaming. – produce mushrooms that transform nutrients to output 25 times more efficiently than meat does; One of the challenges we face is upscaling our production. – grow gourmet mushrooms on the waste of the city We sell mostly grey oyster mushrooms but we also grow (coffee grounds) in the waste of the city (abandoned real yellow and pink ones, and we harvest twice to three times estate). from a block. Many of the restaurants like to order large quantities of up to 5 kilos per week. Because our total production We earn about 50 % of our income from mushroom production. is currently about 20 kilos per week, we need to step up We sell them for 10 euros per kilo to restaurants and catering production. We recently finished our crowdfunding businesses and 15 euros per kilo to consumers. We want to campaign; we received € 20,000 that we can use to grow

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org The Blue Economy as Inspiration The Blue Economy is a business and societal response to The Blue Economy is a new business approach that is environmental, resource and social challenges and goes 54 receiving increased attention in debates on sustainable beyond sustainability as it is generally presented. It tries economic development and circular economy. The Blue to find “disruptive” new ways for industry and people to Economy concept was introduced by Gunther Pauli, a work within natural systems, promoting and using cyclic, socially engaged thinker and former CEO of the Ecover systemic, biomimicry-based regenerative processes that company in Belgium. The core of the Blue Economy is to massively reduce impacts and consumption. More focus on what happens with materials when they are importantly, it claims to restore nature while dramati- thrown away. The strategy is based on the principles of cally reducing costs, maintaining profits and securing nature: the waste of one system becomes food for another happiness and well-being. The most important elements system. It may take a while and some complex of the Blue Economy approach are: (1) Cyclical economy, processes, but in the end the materials (nutrients in (2) No waste, (3) Upcycling, (4) Local & diverse, nature) cycle back to their original form. (5) Renewable energies, and (6) Creation of new companies Gunther Pauli chose to name his concept and approach and inspiring entrepreneurs. the Blue Economy out of disappointment, and as a critique of the Green Economy. The Blue Economy concept Mushroom production from coffee waste was one of the especially became known when Pauli, with his Zero successful business models presented by the Blue Emissions Research & Initiative (ZERI) network of scientists Economy approach, conceived because only 0.2 percent and entrepreneurs, published the report “The Blue from the biomass harvested for coffee is ingested and the Economy: 10 Years, 100 Innovations, 100 Million Jobs”. This rest is simply left to rot. The Chinese scientist Shuting report was written by ZERI for a project of the United Chang demonstrated in his lab in Hong Kong that coffee Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called serves as an ideal substrate for farming tropical mush- “Nature’s 100 Best” with the aim of finding sustainable, rooms, while at the same time generating jobs, income nature-inspired solutions for industry and society and in and food security. Chido Govero, an orphan from order to contribute to achieving the UN Millennium Zimbabwe, was one of the first to set up her own business Development Goals. The hundred best solutions, which mushroom farming on coffee waste. Since then the have the potential to change existing business models, model has been followed in many other places. were finally collected and published in the book “The Blue Economy”. www.theblueeconomy.org

from start-up to the growth phase. We would like to grow Several companies are implementing the business case of first to 50 kilos a week and then on to 150 kilos a week. We are growing mushrooms on coffee grounds, but few are willing interested in collaboration and getting in touch with other to share the recipe. It takes approximately two years to producers, and we are looking for refrigerated containers to master the process if you start from scratch. Because of the expand our business. huge potential for job creation, the reuse of abandoned buildings, local food production and profitable small-scale Impacts achieved urban farming, we want more people to know how this We have found that a lot of companies and NGOs want to works. That is why we started the Mushroom Learning talk to us. They would like to investigate ways of placing Network (www.mushroom-learning-network.org) together unemployed people with us so they can readjust to a work with Charles van der Haegen, Ivanka Milenkovic and Camila rhythm. Also, former convicts could seek a training position Amaya Castro, and the help of a few others. On that platform at our urban farm. People like to work with us and like to we share the business case and the details of the growing offer their knowledge and expertise on administration, process. That way entrepreneurs all over Europe (and beyond) marketing and business opportunities. can learn about the business case, share knowledge and add their expertise. Interns from Sweden, France, Belgium and the Netherlands have completed our internship, working with us for one Siemen Cox week to learn the process of preparing substrate. We taught [email protected], www.rotterzwam.nl them how to work with local government, and also other things we have learned over time about setting up the Mark Slegers process, the techniques needed to adapt large-scale equip- [email protected] ment for small-scale production, and so on.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org Urban Agriculture development 60 in Minhang, Shanghai Jianming Cai, Zhenshan Yang, Shenghe Liu, Ming Liu, Hua Guo, Shanshan Du

Urban agriculture development in China is still However, the context also provides some good opportunities: dominated by municipal and local government, 1) The multifunctional role of urban agriculture in the urban system is increasingly recognised by the city government. 2) and other stakeholders play a comparatively less There is a huge market and high demand among urban citizens important role. This situation is changing however. for fresh and healthy food and for other niche products such The MPAP (Multi-stakeholder Policy Development as tourism destinations. 3) The protection of farmland and the practice of urban agriculture provide employment for and Action Planning) and FStT (From Seed to Table) vulnerable groups such as migrants and the elderly. 4) programmes of the RUAF Foundation have contrib- Increasing financial support, particularly through government subsidies, makes multifunctional urban farming inter- uted to a fundamental shift over the last ten years, esting for some young entrepreneurs who are willing to particularly in the RUAF China network cities, which invest time and efforts in this potentially high-return business. include three pilot cities and ten dissemination cit- The intervention and implementation of MPAP ies. Minhang district in Shanghai is a good example and FStT programmes of a newly emerging approach in China of govern- At the time RUAF started its MPAP programme in Shanghai in 2005, it was recognised that a number of changes were ment-led, but participatory urban agriculture necessary in order to develop urban agriculture. To start development. with, urban agriculture requires more and diverse actors than traditional (rural) agriculture. RUAF introduced the MPAP programme in Minhang to help the district government Urban agriculture in Minhang identify major stakeholders and encourage them to become Minhang is one of Shanghai’s 18 urban districts and the city’s involved in the development of urban agriculture. In second-largest economic entity. Located in the centre of Minhang, at least three categories of stakeholders should be Shanghai Municipality, Minhang has a well-developed tradi- included: 1) government authorities, at municipal, district, tional manufacturing and hi-tech industry, such as aerospace town/township, and village levels; 2) practitioners, such as technology and biopharmaceuticals. Most of the district’s farmers, collectives and enterprises; and 3) support organisa- farmlands are located in the southeast alongside the Huangpu tions, including universities, research institutes and market River, and these plots have been reduced to a total of around organisations. District government, village commissions 5,000 ha, accounting for less than 13.5 percent of the district’s (including cooperatives and some key agro-enterprises), land area (farmland accounts for 32 percent of Shanghai Jiaotong University and the Agriculture Service Extensions Municipality as a whole). A total of 77,000 farmers in Minhang were selected as key players in the MPAP programme and generate an agricultural output value of USD 70.5 million per formed the core team. Through the RUAF, external linkages year, accounting for only 0.4 percent of the district’s GDP (the were created to other cities in China, such as Beijing and average for Shanghai districts is 1.9 percent). But the farmers’ net income per capita in Minhang is much higher than for farmers in the municipality as a whole (respectively USD 2470 and USD 1890).

Urban agriculture in Minhang is facing both the constraints and opportunities of its location. Major constraints are: 1) decreasing availability of arable land (a reduction of 7.6 percent in 4 years); 2) relatively lower productivity on farmland compared to other land uses (the input-output rate in agriculture is only 1/6 of other economic sectors, while that of small-scale farming is even worse); 3) increasing labour cost and high competitiveness of other jobs (making educated young people reluctant to become engaged in farming); 4) general small-scale of production, which makes it difficult to attract (commercial) finance for investment (such as for upgrading technologies). RUAF China en Shanghai team visiting FStT farm. (Photo: IGSNRR, China)

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Chengdu, as well as to cities in Europe, Japan and Taiwan. and a so-called “Pujiang Modern Agriculture Industrial Zone”, which incorporates both more intensive production RUAF continued to support this multi-stakeholder process of and a modern design for sightseeing for urban residents. action planning under the subsequent FStT programme, but This large-scale green farming landscape is located close to added support to practitioners in improving their income the grounds of Shanghai World Expo 2010. 61 and efficiency through technical and organisational Figure 2 Minhang spatial plan of urban agriculture development changes. These changes were identified by a local team, (2010-2020) consisting of RUAF China Regional Centre based in Beijing, Minhang Agriculture Commission, Jiaoitong University, China Agriculture University and the two towns Maqiao and Pujiang, which have been intensively involved in RUAF programmes and government agro-schemes in the last five years. In Minhang, five key areas of interventions were adopted by district government departments, agro-focused towns, villages and cooperatives. These interventions were: 1) joint strategic master planning both in sectoral and spatial dimensions by inviting high-profile institutions and experts to become involved; 2) establishment of cooperatives (to realize economies of scale and gain government support for training, finance, insurance, technologies, and marketing); 3) provision of innovative technical assistance to urban producers, such as by introducing a system in which each technician takes care of 7-10 farm households; 4) innovative financing schemes for urban agriculture based on a diversification of financing resources, such as mobilizing more social capital into urban agriculture businesses by establishing some preference policies; and 5) introduction of a tracing system to improve food safety. This latter system encompasses the whole chain, including production, transportation, trading, Planning is also well coordinated with other major policy and the consumer market. The tracing and certification frameworks and regulations, such as the Agriculture commitments are usually carried out by a third party such as Industrial Policy, in which urban agriculture is seen as a way municipal inspection departments. to enhance profit and farmers’ income and facilitate the development of specific niche agricultural products, and the Major changes and progress Small Town (peri-urban) Planning Framework, in which Through these RUAF programmes, participatory government- urban agriculture forms part of integrated urban-rural led urban agriculture in Minhang district has developed planning and development. significantly in the last five years. As part of these plans, a series of infrastructural improvements Strategic planning for agricultural development have already been carried out. The government in China continues to play a dominant role By the end of 2010 more than 1,527 ha of farmlands had been in development; and strategic planning is therefore still improved in terms of increased production (through the use important, particularly for urban agriculture in the relatively of machinery for paddy rice, which increased from 42 percent better-off district of Minhang. Unlike before, much attention in 2008 to 98 percent in 2010), ecological production and the is now given to the multi-functional role of agriculture in the introduction of irrigation systems for vegetables. peri-urban settings, its sectoral and spatial restructuring, and the participation of key actors in this process. In addition, Formation of cooperatives and agro-enterprises external planners have been invited to participate in this The importance of cooperatives was emphasised during the planning process. Traditionally government planners FStT programme in Minhang district. They are seen as an focused predominantly on production and completely effective organisational step in urban agriculture develop- ignored the actors involved. ment. The formation of cooperatives was based on villages or on agro-practices. The government enthusiastically encour- This change is demonstrated by the latest Minhang Spatial aged this development and provided support in capacity Plan for Urban Agriculture Development (2010-2020), which building related to management, organisation and techno- was jointly developed in 2009 by RUAF China at the Chinese logical innovation. As a result, the number of agro-coopera- Academy of Sciences and local government. The focus in this tives in Minhang more than doubled from 38 in 2008 to 84 comprehensive development plan is on high-quality produc- in 2010. The income of farmers in the cooperatives was also tion, environmental protection and recreation, and on stake- 3-5 percent higher than that of the un-organised farmers. holder participation. Two agricultural zones have been iden- Overall farmer household income per capita in Minhang in tified and designed (see figure 2): a recreational agricultural 2010 reached 18,500 RMB (about 2,000 Euros), which was a zone close to residential areas, with room for agro-tourism, 20 percent increase compared to 2008.

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org Government-led Development of Urban Agriculture in Minhang, Shanghai

Besides the formation of cooperatives, the government also food supply base in Shanghai during the event. The quality encouraged the development of large-scale agro-enterprises, tracing system for all Minhang agricultural production and and supported farmers especially in acquiring land and the certification system set up for entering the market in obtaining financial support. Many agro-enterprises were Minhang district are still in operation. Up to 20 percent 62 thus able to expand their businesses in Minhang. Some 9,000 higher income can be obtained by selling certified products. additional jobs in agro-related activities have been generated in the last two years. Currently there are 26 large-scale agro- In 2010, the satisfaction rate for quality vegetables was 99.8 enterprises in the district, six of which are very large. percent for all the markets in Minhang. Green Certification increased from 400 ha in 2008 to 1,300 ha in 2010 and 39 Thanks to the improved peri-urban infrastructure in Minhang cooperatives were approved to sell green products. Farmer and the relatively rapid increase in farmers’ income, the collectives are encouraged to explore markets, adapt their growth in income disparity between urban and rural areas in production to the quality criteria in new markets and to Minhang has gradually slowed down. According to an inde- establish or improve their marketing channels, preferably pendent third-party evaluation of the performance of local directly to consumers. The Minhang government assists in government in 164 counties in China (in strengthening urban- branding locally grown food (quality labels) and in stimulat- rural integration and reducing the gap between them), ing consumers to eat locally produced quality food. The Minhang ranked No.1 , and 81.4 percent of the farmers in number of communities and working units involved in the Minhang are satisfied with the government services. former has increased from zero in 2008 to 30 in 2010.

Provision of effective technical assistance Conclusions and some experiences Currently in Minhang 88 agro-service stations with 288 Minhang is a special case of urban agriculture development extension teams provide technical assistance to farmers because of its natural and social settings. Its practices and related to agro-technologies, marketing, food quality control approaches may not be fully relevant to other urban regions and recordkeeping. Under the RUAF programmes an in developing countries, but the following lessons learnt improved technical assistance scheme has been developed, may be relevant to other contexts. in which each technician provides services to 7-10 farm • A strong government is critical for a government-led households throughout a full production period. In the past, development approach. The local government must be technicians were not specifically appointed to certain farm consistent and transparent; and the integration and households, so none took responsibility for improving farmers’ institutionalisation framework must be strong enough skills and performance. During the period 2008-2010, vari- to assure fluctuation risks can be effectively avoided ous training courses on agricultural planning and manage- when changes take place in the local government. ment were organised, and up to 8,000 cooperative farmers • A systematic and comprehensive planning process is received technical training. required to make sure the interests and benefits of vari- In collaboration with Shanghai Agricultural College, Jiaotong ous stakeholders can be guaranteed, and the initiatives University and the Minhang Agricultural Institute, new and innovations of most stakeholders can be mobilised. farming experiments were developed and served as demon- RUAF’s MPAP and FStT programmes were important in strations for the farmers, on testing and dissemination of facilitating this process in Minhang. high-quality seeds for paddy rice, vegetables and horticulture. • Policy formulation on multifunctional urban agriculture needs to take into account both sectoral and spatial dimensions, as well as other policy frameworks and get Design of innovative financing schemes more support from external resources. A series of innovative financing schemes was developed • A multi-stakeholder participatory approach can also be under the RUAF FStT programme and suggested by the applied and implemented in a government-dominated soci- RUAF financing study, such as a guarantee fund and inter- ety like China, as long as a common mission can be clearly est discount for a general agriculture production loan; an identified and disseminated among various stakeholders. unemployment insurance and pension to farmers in coop- • Close monitoring and evaluation of the activities and eratives; financial institutions and relevant enterprises are final products, including food safety tracing and certifica- stimulated to set up “small village banks” to provide finan- tion as in Minhang, by independent third parties cial support services to cooperatives, and cooperatives are enhances the performance of local government and encouraged to sell their products directly to communities other actors, given the third-parties’ neutral position and and working units by giving a free ground rent. impartial judgement in testing and certifying, which in turn boosts fair competition among all the players.

Improvement of food safety Jianming Cai, Zhenshan Yang, Shenghe Liu Based on the assessment conducted under the FStT IGSNRR, Chinese Academy of Sciences programme and the high standards related to food safety set Email: [email protected] at the Shanghai World Expo 2010, Minhang established a Ming Liu good system for monitoring food safety in the production Minhang Agriculture Commission, Shanghai and supply of agricultural products for the Expo. Given its Hua Guo, Shanshan Du location near the Expo sites, Minhang was designated as the IGSNRR & China Graduate University, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 25 • September 2011 www.ruaf.org The Stop

For over 30 years, The Stop Community Food Centre has been working to end hunger and build a healthy and strong community in the Davenport West neighbourhood of the city of Toronto. The Stop strives to increase access to healthy food in a manner that maintains dignity, builds community and challenges inequality. One of The Stop’s inner-city community gardens Promoting Urban Agriculture through the Community Food Centre Model

s a grassroots, non-profit organisa- This is largely due to stagnant and crisis and loss of prime agricultural land tion, The Stop is committed to decreasing incomes (social assistance in the Greater Toronto Area due to urban A continuing to try to meet the need rates that do not reflect the cost of living, sprawl. for emergency food support while devel- a low minimum wage and a loss of well- oping innovative new food programming paying jobs) and increasing costs (high Many recent immigrants in our pro- and sharing it with others. The Stop’s rents and rising food prices). While there grammes express frustration because they programmes and services focus on the is a significantly larger unemployed can no longer find or afford the pesticide- ways food can bring people together and population among Stop users (37 percent) and preservative-free produce that they break down social isolation while impro- than among the general population of were used to eating at home. Traditionally ving overall quality of life. All of The Toronto (7 percent), 38 percent of food populated by Italian and Portuguese Stop’s efforts are based on the belief that bank users hold jobs. families, Davenport West is now home food is a basic human right. Current pro- to a mix of people from Latin America, gramming includes community kitchens The impact of poor food access is undeni- the Caribbean and some South and South and dining, urban agriculture, a food ably an increase in poor health. In our East Asian cultures. bank, drop-ins, civic engagement and community, as across Canada, there is pre- and postnatal nutrition and support. growing evidence of widespread child Low-income community members are obesity and increasing accounts of diet- also impacted more severely by environ- CONTEXT related illness. According to Toronto mental contaminants than people living The neighbourhood we serve, Davenport Public Health figures, 71 percent of deaths in more economically stable neighbour- West, is one of the poorest communities in the province of Ontario have “strong hoods. Residents of poor neighbourhoods in Toronto. According to census data and associations with diet” and one-third of (such as Davenport West) with industrial surveys conducted at The Stop, over 66 Ontarians cannot afford a healthy diet. facilities and a high proportion of poorly percent of The Stop’s programme partici- More and more research is linking food maintained, aging housing units have a pants spend well over one-third of their additives to higher incidence of cancer. higher rate of exposure to environmental income on rent compared to 29 percent of Insufficient income affects people’s toxins and a greater susceptibility to the the Toronto population as a whole. access to healthy food on two levels: the resulting negative effects because the individual (inability to afford healthy generally poor nutrition associated with food) and the community (fewer retail poverty is a risk factor for greater uptake Rhonda Teitel-Payne, outlets, reduced variety of foods and less of contaminants. A diet low in calcium The Stop Community Food Centre fresh, unprocessed food). This is occur- and iron, for example, will result in more www.thestop.org ring in a larger context of threats to local efficient absorption of lead (Cooper,  [email protected] food production from the farm income 2005).

22 2 *;A;TCH? It may be a mixed blessing that many of When people become actively involved thousands of years ago, Earlscourt Park the original industries have moved out in creating solutions to food insecurity in was never used for industrial purposes and are being replaced with infill housing. their community, they feel less stigma- and was thus very hospitable ground for While the hope is that pollution levels will tised. They also develop their skills growing food. It now contains a 9,000- drop, the immediate reality is that many further, feel less isolated, build support square-foot vegetable and native plant jobs have been lost and the new housing networks and learn how to have a greater garden that provides approximately 1,100 is priced beyond what most community influence in making change. kilograms of fresh produce to The Stop’s members can afford. Davenport West In the Community Food Centre model, food programmes. remains a neighbourhood geographically food security efforts fall into three inter- divided by railway tracks and awkward connected areas: food and income (inade- We estimate that 2,500 people experi- public transit. ence our programme annually, either as volunteers, visitors, students or partici- THE COMMUNITY FOOD CENTRE Food & Income pants in festivals. This does not include MODEL Problem: hunger the number of people who take the The Stop recognises that, in order to produce home from the food bank or eat confront hunger, we must go beyond vegetables prepared in our community handing out food to people struggling Community kitchens! Volunteers include neighbours, Food Centre on low incomes and find long-term, Appoach Food & people who use The Stop’s services and sustainable solutions. Our Community Food & Health children from local schools. In the winter, Agriculture Food Centre model brings together a Problem: volunteers continue to grow greens and Problem: number of approaches in the field of food Diet-related herbs in greenhouse space donated by a Unsustainable illness and poor security, melding respectful emergency public school. food systems mental health food delivery with community development, social justice and environmental While all forms of community gardens Adapted from Hancock, provide marginalised people with agri- sustainability. At the heart of this project Labonte and Edwards, 1999 is the promotion of community food cultural opportunities, our collective security. This refers to a strategy where quate income leads to hunger and food approach to growing is particularly all members of a community, regardless insecurity), food and health (lack of access effective for people who cannot commit of gender, race or social class, have access to adequate, healthy food leads to diet- to tending a plot of their own for an to adequate amounts of safe, nutritious related illness and poor mental health) and entire season. There are many barriers to and culturally appropriate food produced food and agriculture (the way we grow, maintaining an allotment in a commu- in an environmentally sustainable way manufacture and distribute food has an nity garden, including the need to work and provided in a manner that promotes enormous impact on food security and the multiple jobs to meet basic costs, unstable human dignity. environment). Solutions to food insecurity housing situations that force people to must be wide-reaching and take all three change location and physical or mental Traditionally hunger has been viewed as of these areas into account. This convic- health concerns. Participants value the an issue of charity. The Stop is working tion is vital since most failed food security ability to drop in to a garden session as hard to reveal the systemic causes of approaches tend to focus only on one or their time, health and outside commit- food insecurity that marginalise certain two of these issues, missing the important ments permit and learn about ecological individuals and groups and to reduce ways in which they interconnect. growing methods from staff and other that marginalisation through commu- gardeners. nity development, food programming URBAN AGRICULTURE – The programmes are structured so that and systemic advocacy. Many personal THE MODEL IN ACTION volunteers and programme participants accounts show that passively receiving The Urban Agriculture Programme has can develop the networks that link them food is not only demeaning to recipients been a way to accomplish many inte- to information, resources and social but also perpetrates structural inequality. grated and mutually reinforcing goals, support. We actively promote the sharing including healthy food production in the of diverse backgrounds and experiences, Sunflower garden in Toronto city, environmental protection, educa- where participants find commonalities tion on environmental and social issues, and affirmations of their culture. Simply engagement of diverse community growing callaloo, a Caribbean vegetable members and the development of strong also used in South Asian cooking, in a social networks in the community. public park provides an opportunity to break down stereotypes by showcasing In 1998, at the suggestion of a local city the positive contributions and knowl- park supervisor, The Stop Community edge of immigrants. For many recent Food Centre joined with local schools and immigrants with agricultural backgrounds the Toronto Public Health Department but no access to land, The Stop’s commu- to plant a vegetable garden in Earlscourt nity garden is an opportunity to learn Park, just a ten-minute walk from The about agriculture in the Toronto climate Stop’s main location. On a plateau that and experiment with introducing crops served as the shore of Lake Iroquois many that are familiar to them. The Stop

'OFS 23 Work sessions, focused educational commercial kitchen, activities and public celebrations are all compost demonstration The Stop venues for talking about sustainable food site, sheltered garden for systems with children, youth and adults extended-season growing who are marginalised by economic, social and an outdoor wood- and health issues. Through educational fired bake oven. activities integrated into urban agriculture programming we: The Green Barn will be - show how environmental concerns a place where everyone (reducing waste, contaminants and from children to seniors fossil fuel use) can be linked to personal can learn about growing health through healthy food production organic food in their own (composting, organics, beneficial neighbourhood as well organisms and reduced food miles) as hear about good food The Green Barn at the beginning of its re-development - make participants aware of the impor- policies and innovative tance of maintaining healthy ecosystems ideas from across the city and around the programmes through a mix of individual through a subject close to their hearts world. These new growing spaces will donations, government funding, grants and experiences: food make it possible to stretch our idea of from foundations and special events. To - incorporate information on every what we can grow locally and to extend raise money for both capital and operating dimension of how food is produced, the season for tender fruits and vegetables funds for the Green Barn, The Stop will, distributed and consumed in protected outdoor beds. A year-round for the first time, undertake a campaign to - provide hands-on learning that leads farmers’ market will highlight the best raise money. Our sense is that the compel- to active engagement in creating local of local produce, increasing connections ling, innovative nature of the Green Barn alternatives to the existing food system. between rural producers and urban will attract the support needed. The challenge of The Stop’s education consumers. The mix of incomes in the programme is to infuse each teaching neighbourhood will make a market finan- As a neighbourhood-based organisation, moment with the powerful interconnec- cially viable for farmers while making The Stop will need to do some careful tions that come from addressing food fresh produce more readily available for thinking about what it means to operate from all dimensions of health, production, low-income residents. An indoor Covered a satellite site in a neighbourhood that is environment and income, and to do so in Street will also make it possible to operate quite different from Davenport West. a way that both inspires action and leaves a market year-round, providing oppor- The St. Clair/Christie area, where the participants with the skills and resources tunities to educate about seasonality and Green Barn is located, looks considerably to create change in their community. preserving local produce. more affluent than our current catchment area, although there are also many people BREAKING NEW GROUND – Just as at The Stop’s main site, a commer- living in housing co-ops, shelters and THE GREEN BARN cial kitchen and outdoor bake oven will assisted housing. The challenge will be to The Stop will be taking its Urban bring people from diverse backgrounds balance our focus on those marginalised Agriculture programme to a new level in together to cook meals and learn from by poverty and social inequities while 2008 with the opening of the Green Barn, each other. Social enterprises such as maintaining the Green Barn as a resource a sustainable food systems education a café, produce sales to chefs and fees for the whole community. centre that will actively engage people for educational materials and tours will to grow, eat, celebrate, learn about and support the long-term sustainability of With its balance of social justice, healthy advocate for healthy, local food. Green Barn programmes. The Green Barn food production and innovation, the The Green Barn will be part of a larger will also be a local hub for organising Green Barn will be a powerful magnet in urban redevelopment initiative at a around food access and anti-poverty the neighbourhood and city. We hope to former Toronto Transit Commission issues, where participants can learn about see that it attracts a wide range of people streetcar repair barn led by Artscape (a and become engaged in advocacy initia- working together on solutions to hunger Toronto-based non-profit organisation tives from local to international levels. and poverty and building a more sustain- that specialises in creating affordable We are excited about the possibilities for able and just food system – an ideal housing for artists). What was once an the synergies between food, education, extension of our current community abandoned industrial site in a neigh- community, environment, social justice, food centre model. bourhood adjacent to Davenport West art and heritage that this unique project will become a vibrant community space will create. References with artists’ studios, space for environ- Cooper, K. 2005. Child Health and the Environment mental and arts groups and a public park. The Green Barn project is generating – A Primer. Toronto: Canadian Partnership for Children’s Health & Environment. Artscape aims to make the site one of much excitement internally and externally, Hancock, T., Labonte, R. and Edwards, R. 1999. the first heritage buildings in Canada to yet it will also present some interesting Indicators that Count! – Measuring Population be certified by Leadership in Energy and challenges. Obtaining funding for such a Health at the Communities Level. Ontario: University of Toronto. Environmental Design (LEED). The Stop sizeable expansion of our work requires The Stop Community Food Centre 2005. The will be a vital part of this creative hub a shift in fundraising strategies. The Stop Community Food Centre Model. Toronto: In-house with a greenhouse for organic produce, has been successful at funding its current publication.

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KhXWd7]h_Ykbjkh[bV\Vo^cZcjbWZg''?jcZ'%%. www.ruaf.org FEEDing the City: Approaches to the Upscaling of Urban Agriculture in

Almere, Toronto, Lima and Milan Henk Renting

Excursion to Onze allotment gardens under glass. Photo by: Henk Renting

In 2022 the city of Almere will host the World city of Amsterdam. The population of Almere, currently more Horticultural Expo Floriade, with the central motto than 190,000 inhabitants, is projected to double by 2030.

“Growing Green Cities”. In the years until the Almere’s proposals for the Floriade reflect these challenges. Floriade, the municipality has ambitious plans to As urbanisation continues, quality of life increasingly depends on the quality of cities. Almere was developed as a develop Almere as a prototype for a Green City, of “Garden City”, incorporating considerable green spaces in which urban agriculture and regionalised food the urban structure, and for future growth it will be important to consolidate and strengthen this model into a “Green provisioning are an important part. A key question City”. The motto for the Floriade therefore is “Growing Green for the municipality is how to build bridges between Cities”, and for the period until 2022 the municipality has existing successful, but small-scale, UPA initiatives challenged itself to become an exemplary “Green City” in four thematic areas. and challenges at larger scale levels. During the GROW the City Urban Agriculture Café on 16 April Under FEEDing the city, agriculture is to be brought (again) into the heart of the city, both to contribute to food produc- 2014, Almere had the opportunity to share tion and as a means to enhance social cohesion, education, experiences in the upscaling of urban agriculture and awareness of where food comes from. GREENing the city initiatives with such other cities as Lima (Peru), expresses that green areas are considered key for quality of life, and are crucial assets to attract investments and cultural Toronto (Canada) and Milan (Italy). activities. ENERGIZing the city implies a focus on closing cycles, increasing energy efficiency, and self-sufficiency in Almere Floriade 2022 - “Growing Green Cities” energy generation. Finally, HEALTHYing the city refers to the Almere is a special city for several reasons. First, it is situated contributions of healthy, fresh and local food and of green on newly reclaimed land in the polders in the centre of the spaces to the well-being and health of Almere’s inhabitants. Netherlands. It was founded quite recently, in the 1970s, and is thus a young city without a long history, which has made FEEDing the City: challenges at different scale it possible for Almere to be flexible and creative in its plan- levels ning approaches. Second, Almere is facing important devel- The key challenges Almere is facing for the theme FEEDing opment challenges, not the least of which is the expectation the City, as discussed during the Urban Agriculture Café, is that it will alleviate growth pressure from the neighbouring how relations between the city and the countryside can be

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org strengthened at different scale levels and, more generally, innovative forms of urban agriculture will emerge. To provide how successful UPA and regional food provisioning initia- Almere with regional larger-scaled food initiatives connec- tives can be upscaled. This requires building connections tions of the city with urban or periurban and rural producers between innovations at three different scale levels (see are needed. Some farms may also create new economic 20 Figure 1). perspectives by rebuilding direct links with the city, as did the horticultural enterprise ONZE who stopped producing for the world market and now rents out allotments in the greenhouse to citizens. The Oosterwold region pays specific attention to the meso-level. It is an area of 4.300 hectares east of the city where new green housing is developed through an innovative open planning process. Citizens can present their own plans on the condition that building proposals be combined with agricultural uses on 50% of the land. It is hoped that this experiment with “do-it-yourself” urbanism will result in innovative forms of UPA and strengthen linkages between the city and the countryside.

Different strategies for upscaling and strengthening urban food systems At the Urban Agriculture Café, the challenges faced by Almere in strengthening relations between city and countryside at different scale levels were shared with experiences Figure 1. Building urban-rural connections at different scale levels from three other cities in different parts of the world: Toronto, Lima and Milan. The exchange made clear that different At the micro-level, urban agriculture and local food initia- strategies are available for upscaling and strengthening UPA tives increased markedly in recent years, to some 50 initia- and regional food systems; these may be applied by city tives in 2010. These are mainly community gardens aimed at governments, depending on specific local settings. strengthening social cohesion, or school gardens where UPA is integrated in educational programmes. Another example Toronto: Food Policy Council bringing together is the City Farm Almere, a professional organic farm started local stakeholders in 1996 that created strong links with citizens as visitors and The city of Toronto, represented by Lauren Baker, is particu- customers and currently uses 160 hectares in and around larly interesting to Almere for its experience with the Toronto the city, largely on land owned by the municipality. Food Policy Council (TFPC), founded in 1991 as an innovative platform to engage citizens in local policy making on food At the other extreme, Almere is located in a highly produc- and agriculture. Since then, the TFPC has become an interna- tion-oriented agricultural region with farms that are tional reference followed by many other cities in Canada, the strongly integrated in world markets. At this macro-level, USA and, increasingly, also Europe. The TFPC brings together linkages between the city and the countryside are still poorly citizens and local policy makers engaged in food issues, and developed, even though some production types (e.g., tulip by doing so has become a focal point for new policy dynamics bulbs) have added value in preserving the typical, open land- surrounding food and agriculture in Toronto. Initially, the scape around the city. focus of the TFPC was mainly on food and public health, but now it covers all aspects of the food system, including agri- Finally, at the meso-level, in the coming years many oppor- culture, economic development, wellbeing, social justice, tunities to strengthen city-countryside relations and develop and environmental sustainability.

Local and international guests at the Urban Agriculture Café. Henk Meijer explains Almere’s challenges. Photo by Daniel de Jong Photo by Daniel de Jong

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org The TFPC has generated important spin-offs to local policies related to Feeding the City, e.g., the GrowTO – Urban Agriculture Action Plan for Toronto established in 2012, which Andrea Calori, scientific food coordinator of defines policies and support measures for food-growing Milan’s Food Policy, reflects on the Almere efforts by Toronto’s citizens. Another example is the Golden Urban Agriculture Café 21 Horseshoe Agriculture and Agri-Food Strategy – Food and “What I found impressive about the UA Café was that Farming Action Plan 2021 for Toronto’s green belt, which aims politicians, students and professionals discussed so easily to strengthen relations with the city, among others by at the same level, in an open way and without hierarchy. creating value chains that build on local distinctive qualities. It was also striking to see that Almere municipality makes Lima: municipal policy promoting urban such a clear choice for combining food, environment and agriculture lifestyle and connects this with the city’s development and Urban agriculture in Lima (Peru) has come up in a very different urban planning. This is rare, within Europe as well, and context with a direct need to improve food security for disad- certainly for a city with such a rapid growth rate. It is vantaged groups. The metropolitan municipality of Lima has interesting that Almere, as a city without a clear and extensive experience with promoting urban agriculture and pronounced history, is creating a new identity and person- was identified by FAO as one of the 10 leading cities in “Growing Greener Cities” in Latin America and the Caribbean. ality in which agriculture and environment play a promi- In 2012, the municipal policy programme “Mi Huerta” (My nent role. For the situation in Milan I have learned several Garden) was established to promote urban agriculture as a concrete lessons, for example the management of munic- strategy for environmental improvement, food security, ipal land by a city farm for which environmental manage- social inclusion and local economic development. As part of ment criteria make up part of the contract. And also the this, various investments and support measures were put way in which Almere city mobilises young people and into place. entrepreneurs as “Urban Greeners” is an approach that In 2013, 1,000 urban gardens were established, benefitting we can use in Milan. ” 20,000 inhabitants. These consist of family gardens, community gardens and school gardens, and mainly provide food for home consumption. Mi Huerta also promotes vegetable periurban areas. The establishment of the South Milan sales by producers on local eco-fairs and gives support Agricultural Park in 1990, the first agricultural park in Italy, through training, promoting producer associations, devel- and with 47,000 hectares the largest in Europe, gave a strong oping marketing concepts and establishing infrastructures. initial stimulus for developing territorial policies and initia- Also, links with environmental management are strength- tives on tourism and land management in Milan’s periurban ened, through the reuse of grey water for irrigation and the areas. establishment of educational gardens in public parks that form part of Lima’s green infrastructure. In recent years, this was complemented by initiatives building local food networks around the city, for example Mercato Milan: agricultural districts linking the city della Terra (“Earth markets”) organised by Slow Food and ca. with periurban areas 120 consumer cooperatives for local and organic products, Milan (Italy) is interesting to Almere because it hosts the organised by social movements and entrepreneurs. Recently, World Expo 2015 with the motto “Feeding the Planet. Energy institutional innovations are also emerging, supporting the for life”, which has clear parallels to the Floriade agenda of integration of agricultural, rural and urban food policies by Almere. Additionally, in Milan several initiatives have come establishing “agricultural districts” in the periurban zone, up that successfully connect the city with surrounding while Milan’s city council decided to start elaborating a Local Food Policy. Milan’s experience demonstrates the important role that the empowerment of local actors can play as a potential force for creating interrelations between the city and countryside.

Henk Renting

References www.stadsboerderijalmere.nl/ www.almeerseweelde.nl http://ﬂoriade.almere.nl/en/ http://almere20.almere.nl/gebiedsontwikkeling/oosterwold/

Lauren Baker (Toronto) and Andrea Calori (Milan). Photo by Daniel de Jong

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 58

Growing a Healthy Community: the Green Roof at Access Point

on Danforth, Toronto Lara Mrosovsky

Educational workshop about herbal medicine with Danette Steele the herbalist. Photo: Lara Mrosovsky

Access Alliance in Toronto is the first Community In this context, staff and participants use Green Access to Health Centre (CHC) in Ontario, Canada to have an teach and learn skills for growing food in small spaces. People who get involved in the programme not only take a share of intensive Green Roof. Since 2011, this Green Roof the harvest from the garden but also take away tools and functions as a teaching garden through a information for growing their own. An especially relevant skill is building experience with balcony gardening. programme called Green Access. Green Access Workshops and trainings are hosted on a range of other weaves together social, community and environ- urban agriculture related skills from seed saving and composting to healthy eating and food preservation. mental health. This experience is showing the way forward for the health sector: integrating urban Mixed support food into a range of programmes that improve The idea for a green space and/or garden came from looking at the needs of the local community. While there was limited community health and well-being. space on the property at ground level, the building already had a section of flat roof. A special set of circumstances made The location of this 597 m2 Green Roof is on the second floor it possible to invest close to Canadian Dollar 150,000 in green of AccessPoint on Danforth, straddling Toronto and infrastructure for a building that the organisation is actually Scarborough. The social and geographical location has renting. shaped the activities happening on the rooftop. AccessPoint on Danforth is contained within a high-rise and high-density The provincial government (specifically, the Ontario Ministry area around Victoria Park and Danforth known as Taylor of Health) was instrumental in establishing AccessPoint on Massey. Food insecurity is a persistent problem, while Danforth when it awarded funding to Access Alliance for un employment and precarious employment further setting up satellite sites. This coincided with the community increase the barriers to accessing adequate healthy food. funding organisation United Way’s Building Strong Fresh, organic produce is not readily available and access to Neighbourhoods Strategy, a social improvement plan which space for gardening is severely limited. identified the City’s priority neighbourhoods - high-density,

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org high-needs areas in the inner suburbs - where social services kinds of needs. Otherwise be prepared to make some changes were historically lacking. United Way was ready to support or additions after the first year – because inevitably, the the creation of multi-service hubs of community services in architect’s design can only take the end-user so far. priority neighbourhoods. They supported the Hub of 59 Community Services with operating dollars and brought in Fresh, organic food big donors to support the capital investments. Extra funding Fresh salads are supplied to the community kitchen, which is from Bank of Montreal covered Green Roof installation costs. utilized by Access Alliance, partner agencies, and community groups throughout the week. Roof garden ingredients are Especially for non-profit agencies who wish to invest in used in community kitchen recipes, served as part of snacks, Green Roofs or other gardening initiatives with overhead and distributed to programme participants. As the Green costs, this effort to bring together combinations of public Access programme evolves, more of the people cooking in and private support (and good timing) is important. Gaining the community kitchen are aware of fresh harvest being support and approvals from multiple sources may be a key available from the rooftop, and in some cases the meal plan- to development of green infrastructure within health and ning chart included an extra column to identify a garden community services. ingredient for each week’s recipe. The fresh flavour and beautiful appearance of the produce serves as an outreach The building is a Hub of community services – 5 organisa- tool to advertise the benefits of locally grown organic food tions, including a Community Health Centre, with a full and to bring more people into gardening. For example, the range of primary health services integrated with settlement selection of herbs grown for tea has been expanded (pepper- services, allied health providers like social workers and dieti- mint, lemon grass, tulsi basil and chamomile to name a few) cians, and a variety of community programmes serving that, once dried, supply a quaint tea cart that travels between youth, families and seniors. Although the target population meetings held in the building. for Access Alliance are the most vulnerable new immigrants and refugees, these kind of hubs are designed to serve every- Plant selection has not varied a great deal from the initial body in the local area. crops grown, though the roof gardening is constantly adapted to the learning along the way. Large plants like Staffing pumpkin and watermelon have been largely avoided from Staffing was then needed to bring the rooftop to life – by the beginning, as have root crops (except the occasional bed planting a successful garden as much as establishing a of carrots). But roof tops provide different kinds of micro- range of programmes and partnerships that bring a high climates than other gardens. The first year it was found that level of participation to the garden. Two staff (a Health cool-weather greens get stressed and bolt almost immedi- Promoter and a part-time Community Health Worker) are on ately when the weather heats up. The full sun and heat are salary to coordinate all aspects of programming and food not conducive to production of lush leafy crops except when production. For instance, a visiting school group is engaged they’re planted in the few shady areas, like those in contain- in transplanting, watering and mulching seedlings in early ers underneath the solar water heater. The heat-loving spring, thus accomplishing an educational activity for the plants that thrive in the full sun and shallow soil of the roof kids and a labour-intensive seasonal task in the garden at garden are mainly chili peppers, tomatoes, eggplant, okra the same time. All of the programmes and services at and beans. Most of the tomatoes planted are bush varieties, AccessPoint on Danforth have participated in growing the better suited than large vining plants to the windy condi- garden on the roof and many of them benefit in some way tions and soil depth of only 20 cm. Bush tomatoes also from the harvest. Energy-saving features include rainwater require less staking – an important detail because the shal- harvesting and a passive solar water heater. low soil and the wind make staking a challenge unless plants are grown around the perimeter where they can be The Roof Top Garden supported by fencing. The rooftop garden also features More than a garden, the rooftop is also a social space, with miniature varieties. About 30 raised boxes are dotted around deck areas, seating and barbecues that various groups use the roof and have a 60 cm soil depth to allow larger plants to for gatherings, meetings and events. After Year 1 some addi- grow (e.g., grape vines, globe cedar) and contain aggressive tions and improvements were made to the rooftop that plants with a tendency to spread (e.g., tansy, hops, mints). A better allows its use by programmes and community diversity of culinary and medicinal herbs are cultivated. members. We built a pergola for shade so people could sit Among 40+ perennial and annual herbs, the best suited to comfortably during the daytime hours when the building is the hot dry conditions are the thymes, lavenders and chives. open. Pathway improvements made the planting beds easier In the pollinator garden (not irrigated), drought-tolerant to access and a special raised edge was installed in the native species flourish. There’s even a prickly pear cactus children’s area so that tiny gardeners could get involved in (Opuntia humifusa) that bore fruit. planting without stepping on the beds/plants. These design elements became evident after using the garden for a year The beds with annual, fruiting plants are watered by a drip and finding out what kind of features could make the space irrigation system on a timer. The timer is critical during the more usable. For anyone planning a similar initiative I would heat of mid-summer when watering should ideally happen recommend having a programme staff / frontline staff / in the early hours, before the building is open. The soil is gardener involved in the design phase to anticipate these enriched with a combination of rich top-dressing (compos-

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org programme. The success of this partnership depends on the plants and the garden as well as the expertise of the health providers (in this case, dieticians) in the clinic.

60 Urban agriculture knowledge is propagated on the roof as well as in innovating partnerships: included in working together with TESS (Toronto Employment and Social Services), adding a gardening theme to their “Let’s Talk” programme. This has led to compilation of a toolkit for use by Public Health and TESS City-Wide. When developing partnerships with non-gardening groups we are always looking for possibilities to spread the knowledge and practice beyond the Green Roof. Garden group harvesting tomatoes. Photo: Lara Mrosovsky Building Alliances ted duck manure) and liquid fertilisers (like vermicompost The Green Access programme demonstrates a coming tea), keeping in mind that organic matter absorbs more together of Urban Agriculture and Community Health. Both water and increases the weight per cubic foot of soil. Other stand to benefit from these kinds of combinations and there organic amendments include kelp meal, greensand, bone- is much to be learned by others in both fields. One challenge meal, insect frass, mycorrhizae and vermicompost. of building initiatives like Green Access in an economic climate of austerity is that many community organisations Linking the garden to the Hub aren’t in a position to innovate and develop new, multidisci- Some plant choices are geared towards specific programmes plinary approaches such as garden and food programmes. The and collaborations. For example, a menu of 15 culinary herbs public sector faces increasing cutbacks and non-profits may plays an essential part in the Savoury Garden tour, a collabo- be forced to offer only the bare bones of programmes and ration with the Access Alliance dieticians. It uses the garden services. On the other hand, when health agencies include for education on reducing sodium, one of the risk factors for environmental initiatives it may allow them to access sources hypertension that can be controlled. Savoury Garden of funding that they wouldn’t otherwise tap into. explains high blood pressure and introduces easy-to-grow herbs as a flavourful substitute for salt. This educational The way forward is for more agencies in the health sector to programme was created (by dietetic intern Eugene Jeong) value and promote gardening and food production as a because hypertension was one of the top reasons for visits to means of achieving health outcomes, while the gardening health providers. community (Urban Ag Groups) should look to other sectors, such as Health organisations, as sources of support, new This Savoury Garden is only one example of a collaboration possibilities and venues for growing food. within the Community Health Centre that has simultaneously served to generate interest in gardening and growing Lara Mrosovsky while addressing a pressing health concern of service users. Health Promoter Specific herbs are cultivated that match informational Email: [email protected] profiles and research that supported the development of the

The rooftop is also a social space, with deck and seating areas that various groups use for gatherings, meetings and events. Photo: Lara Mrosovsky

Urban Agriculture magazine • number 28 • December 2014 • back to contents page www.ruaf.org 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 51

Food Policies in North American Cities The next two articles describe enabling policy tools designed to improve local food systems in North American cities. These strategies can often be traced to calls from civil society movements for more accessible, safe, culturally acceptable and nutritious food grown under environmentally sustainable conditions. The goal is a food system in which food production, processing, distribution and consumption are integrated to enhance local environmental, economic, social, community, and nutritional health (Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC), www.foodsecurity.org, April 2006). Promotion of urban agriculture fits in this discussion on local food systems, where concerns related to the environment, social cohesion and access to healthy food join hands. Strategies developed in various cities include promoting multi-actor involvement and collaboration in policy making and programme implementation, integration of food system issues into a broader sustainable development agenda, and the creation of food policy councils that can act either as a citizen advisory body to the city council as in Toronto or Chicago (as described here) or play a formal role within the city government, as the experience of Vancouver illustrates. Creating and Implementing Food Policies in Vancouver, Canada

Although Vancouver is a city of soaring glass towers and modern urban amenities, it is also located within one of the most productive agricultural regions in Canada. Combine the favourable climatic conditions with municipal policies that encourage sustainable development and the result is a city in which urban agriculture is thriving. Wendy Mendes Wendy Small Community Garden

ancouver currently has 18 operating land, and rising rates of poverty and cities in which food system issues are community gardens, with two more hunger. being recognised as an area in which V under development. Community local governments have an important gardens can be found on park, school, On July 8, 2003, the Vancouver City role to play. city and transit-owned land. The demand Council approved a motion supporting for garden space far exceeds its the development of a “just and Since the July 2003 Council motion, the availability. Most gardens have year-long sustainable food system” for the city of city’s commitment to food policy has waiting lists. Other popular forms of Vancouver. A just and sustainable food included an eight-month public urban agriculture in Vancouver include system is defined as one in which food consultation process; a food system rooftop gardens, backlane gardening, production, processing, distribution, assessment, approval of a Food Action edible landscaping and farmers’ markets. consumption and recycling are integrated Plan (see http://www.city.vancouver.bc. Alongside the popularity of urban to enhance the environmental, economic, ca/ctyclerk/cclerk/20031209/rr1.htm); agriculture in Vancouver, the city and its social and nutritional health of a hiring of food policy staff; facilitation of a region are also contending with urban particular place. This commitment to number of food-related initiatives sprawl, population pressures, farm food policy was made in response to including community gardens, urban consolidation, threats to agricultural more than a decade of community beekeeping, fruit trees, and edible organising efforts. Community groups landscaping; project collaborations with ______sought local government response to a range of partners; and the election of an Wendy Mendes pressing issues including urban sprawl, 18-member multi-sectoral Vancouver Postdoctoral Fellow, University of Toronto, threats to agricultural land, health and Food Policy Council. Canada nutrition problems, and food access (Formerly: City of Vancouver’s Food issues, particularly for marginalised Stemming from the Food Action Plan, Systems Planner) populations. The Council motion reflects strategies to create and implement ✉ [email protected] a growing trend in Canadian and US enabling policy tools to improve

October 2006 51 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 52

Vancouver’s food system include: Also key to the success of urban disciplinary group creates an innovative 1) promotion of multi-actor involvement agriculture and food policy are forum for discussion and action towards in policy making and implementation, partnerships and collaborations among building a food system that is ecologically and municipal departments within local sustainable, economically viable and 2) integration of food policy into a government itself. Vancouver’s socially just. It also builds upon existing broader sustainable development commitment to food policy is seen as part collaboration between citizens and agenda. of its commitment to sustainability. This government officials on numerous has the benefit of associating food policy initiatives. The primary goal of a Food PROMOTION OF MULTI-ACTOR with a set of already existing policies and Policy Council is to examine the COLLABORATION IN POLICY mandates. Like sustainability, urban operation of a local food system and MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION agriculture and food policy are cross- provide ideas and policy There are two inter-connected cutting issues often involving a wide recommendations for how it can be dimensions of the city of Vancouver’s range of departments for effective improved. recognition of the importance of implementation and monitoring. As such, partnerships and collaboration where the ability to implement food policies and Vancouver’s Food Policy Council has food policy is concerned. The first focuses programmes has been facilitated by been meeting since September 2004. In on ”internal” partnerships (within local organisational expertise developed over addition to education and awareness- government itself), while the second the years through inter-departmental raising strategies, the Vancouver Food emphasises partnerships and collaborations in pursuit of sustainable Policy Council works on specific projects collaboration between local government development goals in Vancouver. and goals in support of issues and action and community agencies and items identified in the Food Action Plan. organisations. The second dimension of the city of The VPFC initially identified four priority Vancouver’s recognition of the areas including: (a) increasing access to importance of partnerships and groceries for residents of Vancouver; (b) collaboration has more far-reaching institutional food purchasing policy for implications. This dimension involves the public facilities; (c) recovery, reuse, and mechanisms designed to facilitate recycling of food; and (d) creating a food governmental/ non-governmental charter for the city of Vancouver. partnership approaches to food policy Building on these areas, new priorities design and implementation. This and strategies continue to evolve. objective is best embodied in the Vancouver Food Policy Council, seen as a INTEGRATION OF FOOD POLICY

Wendy Mendes Wendy new model for collaborative municipal INTO A BROADER SUSTAINABLE Rooftop gardens under construction governance. DEVELOPMENT AGENDA A sustainable food systems approach to From the outset, the Food Action Plan food policy supports the social, acknowledged that some of the resources Vancouver Food Policy Council environmental and economic goals Vancouver’s Food Policy Council (VFPC) is and policy tools necessary to address considered a new model of integrated local embodied in the city’s existing food system issues fall outside of the governance involving city staff and citizen commitment to sustainability. Goals representatives. The VFPC was conceived as a jurisdiction of the municipality. As such, multi-actor body whose mandate would be “to include the promotion of health, the development of partnerships with act as an advocacy, advisory and policy nutrition, ecological responsibility, social development body on food system issues within other agencies has been instrumental to the city’s jurisdiction” (Vancouver Food Policy inclusion and community capacity the process. Key partners include Council Terms of Reference, 2004). From May to building. One of the key policy objectives July 2004, the Vancouver Food Policy Task Force Vancouver Agreement (an agreement produced and ratified a set of recommendations for urban agriculture and other food between three levels of government to for the creation of the VFPC. Recommendations policy initiatives in Vancouver is included VFPC member roles and address poverty in Vancouver’s most responsibilities, principles and protocols; vision integration into broader sustainable impoverished neighbourhood, the and mandate; structure and election process. development agendas. These agendas The result was the election of a twenty-member Downtown Eastside), Vancouver School multi-sectoral food policy council on July 14, include child and youth programmes, Board, Vancouver Park Board, Vancouver 2004 as the last act of the Food Policy Task Force environmental programmes, social before it dissolved. Coastal Health, community sustainability programmes and urban organisations, and local universities, development programmes. among others. Examples of past collaborations include strategies to The Vancouver Food Policy Council is “Vancouver enjoys a long history of leadership on progressive issues such as environmental improve emergency food access in the comprised of individuals from all aspects sustainability. Urban agriculture now forms an Downtown Eastside, a food system of the local food system. The membership important part of the city’s commitment to sustainable development.” Peter Ladner, City assessment of Vancouver led by a includes people with a variety of Councillor. community-based consortium of backgrounds, such as nutritionists, food researchers, and the approval of good wholesalers and distributors, food management practices for beekeeping in retailers and grocers, managers of non- A specific illustration of the goal of urban residential areas. profit organisations and academics integrating urban agriculture into engaged in the food system. This multi- existing sustainability policies, though

52 UA-Magazine 4719-2006 UA Magazine 21-11-2006 15:43 Pagina 53

even predating the adoption of the City commitments to urban agriculture development, social inclusion and civic Food Action Plan and formation of the already embedded in the SEFC policy engagement. Three changes in particular Food Policy Council, can be found in an statement and active lobbying by the are: area known as Southeast False Creek SEFC Stewardship Group, the food policy • improved education and awareness (SEFC). In 1991, the City Council directed staff team was able to work with the • enhanced collaboration between city that the area be developed as a residential SEFC Planners and other city staff to departments and other agencies community that incorporates principles more clearly articulate opportunities for • a shift towards a food systems approach of energy-efficient design in its area plan. urban agriculture, and express them to food issues. The idea was to explore the possibility of more comprehensively and explicitly in using SEFC as a model “sustainable the ODP itself. A number of key lessons from this project community”. experience should be taken into account by other local governments. These As part of the planning and consultation include the need to: process in Southeast False Creek, a • build on community knowledge and citizen advisory group was set up to expertise provide input on the Official • build and enhance partnerships Development Plan as it evolved. This • adopt a systems approach to food issues group, known as the Southeast False • sustain involvement of food policy staff Creek Stewardship Group, took a keen for consistent leadership, organisational interest in promoting urban agriculture stability, keeping food system goals on Wendy Mendes Wendy on the site. In at least two reports to the the radar of local governments and City Council, the Stewardship Group A selection of herbs that can be avoiding lapses in activity. identified urban agriculture as a key produced on your roof development priority. The rationale was Key next steps in Vancouver’s case are to that urban agriculture would provide Key features of the Official Development measure the direct impacts of urban multiple benefits to future residents Plan now include green roofs where agriculture and food policies and including environmental sustainability by space will be provided for the future determine the role that urban agriculture reducing the distance food travels, residents to engage in urban agriculture. may play in existing strategies leading to reducing the heat island effect, reducing A demonstration community garden and pilot programmes to address hunger, cooling and heating needs, reducing site for a farmers’ market also appear in health, addiction and homelessness. In storm water management costs, and the SEFC Official Development Plan. this context, the City Council also creating possible reductions in emissions Furthermore, targets have been set for recently (June 2006) adopted a motion to and transportation costs. The group also the amount of produce consumed by implement 2010 garden plots by the year argued that urban agriculture would residents of Southeast False Creek to be 2010 (personal communication Peter enhance social sustainability by grown on-site in community gardens and Ladner, July 2006). Furthermore, providing less expensive and more private balcony and rooftop gardens. Vancouver welcomes exchanges with nutritious food for the residents of other Northern and Southern cities, to Southeast False Creek, as well as by Since the approval of the SEFC ODP, two discuss new perspectives on sustainable providing social spaces for people to additional residential developments have food systems and integrated models of meet and interact with their neighbours. integrated urban agriculture into their municipal governance involving citizen Together these benefits would increase vision of more sustainable communities: advisory groups, producers, NGOs, youth social cohesiveness and networks, which an area known as East Fraserlands has groups and other partners. are essential for a community that relies proposed the inclusion of community on the participation of its members in and rooftop gardens, edible landscaping planning and ongoing governance. and a farmers market; and a new 180- unit downtown condominium Some of the resources development has recently completed and policy tools fall approximately 60 rooftop garden plots outside of the jurisdiction for the use of residents. of the municipality RESULTS AND WAY FORWARD The two policy strategies have resulted in A second mechanism that enabled the a number of behavioural changes among integration of urban agriculture into Vancouver citizens. The benefits derived SEFC was the participation of the food from these changes address Millennium policy staff team in the finalisation of the Development Goals #1 (eradicate Official Development Plan (ODP). By extreme poverty and hunger) and #7 spring 2004, the SEFC Official (ensure environmental sustainability). At

Development Plan was ready for the same time, benefits also encompass a Bert Lof presentation to the City Council for number of important dimensions of A educational garden in Grant Park in approval. Because of pre-existing social sustainability including community Chicago

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