JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MANAGEMENT ISSN: 2339-076X, Volume 3, Number 1 (October 2015): 477 - 489 DOI:10.15243/jdmlm.2015.031.477

Research Article

Land degradation is indicative: proxies of degradation in Ghana

K. Peprah Department of Environment and Studies, University for Development Studies, Wa Campus, Ghana. [email protected]

Abstract: How is land degradation measured? The aim of the paper is to address this research question. At the premise, the paper states that land degradation as one of the truth claims of environmental science, is not directly monitored and detectable. Observers rely on indicators to know land degradation. The issues are illuminated by theoretical reference based on the notion of critical which tries to combine realist biophysical predictions and socio-political constructions. A methodology which mixes literature review, group discussion and field work produces a set of indicators of land degradation. Indigenous farmers used the indicators to spot land degradation in the forest ecosystem of Ghana. The results reveal physical indicators of iron pan formation in farms, uphill and downhill respective lost and gain of fertility, roots and building foundations exposed by soil and river channels that do not carry running even in the raining season. There are biological indicators of invasive species and termite infestations as well as socioeconomic indicators of poverty implicitly taken as indicators of land degradation. The paper concludes that land degradation includes multifaceted set of processes measured by variable and error-filled indicators operating at various spatial, temporal, economic and cultural scales. Keyword: land degradation, indicator, concept, operationalization, Ghana

Introduction land (Gyasi et al., 2006). In this regard, land refers to aggregate of soil, water, , rocks, air, Diagnosis of land degradation is as necessary now climate and relief (Stocking and Murnaghan, as it was in the 1970s, particularly, as it was useful 2001); or terrestrial ecosystem (Safriel, 2007). during the 1977 World Conference on The special emphasis of the various explanations , to correct misapprehensions of land degradation is that land are (Dregne, 1986); and, to help improve knowledge useful to human sustainability on earth; therefore, of land users, planners and scientists (Warren and land degradation reduces human well-being and Agnew, 1988); and, to integrate scientific and by so doing, poses a threat to sustainable human indigenous knowledge bases through the use of . iterative process (Stringer and Reed, 2007). As A critical question is how do we know land explanation, land degradation means reduction or degradation or how is land degradation measured? loss of the biological or economic productivity of At a start of the solution to the problem posed by land (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) the question, land degradation is viewed as a caused by human occupancy and use (UNCCD, concept and as a measurement of concept 2012) leading to reduction in ecosystem functions (Viswanathan, 2005). The concept, in fact, is a (that is, reduction in the provision of ecosystem sub-concept of the broader natural environmental goods and services) for the present and future degradation concept, and is derived from a beneficiaries (LADA, 2011) in which the land combination of spatial, temporal, economic and cannot recover unaided (Bai et al., 2008). In this cultural materials as well as systems, processes context, degraded land becomes less useful to and consequences. The measurement of the human beings (Wasson, 1987) because ‘good’ concept uses a methodology which assesses land land has changed for the worse (Stocking and degradation indirectly through the larger natural Murnaghan, 2001); and, the worsen change has environmental degradation by selecting and happened to the intrinsic or natural quality of the

www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id 477 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana monitoring of indicators that are symptomatic of people and regions present other problems. The land degradation. Hence, land degradation is authors concede that assessment of causes and indicative. This methodology is fundamental to rate of land degradation as well as reduction in the understanding of land degradation as well as capacity of land is error-filled. The authors other truth claims in the realm of environmental admonished that: science and assessment. “There are competing social definitions of land degradation, therefore the Theoretical reference challenge of moving away from a single The theoretical basis of this paper is drawn from ‘scientific’ definition and measurement the relationship between society and land must be taken up. This means we must degradation – regional political ecology (Blaikie put the land manager ‘centre stage’ in the and Brookfield, 1987) and social justice for explanation, and learn from the land environmental explanation and development – managers’ perceptions of their problems. critical political ecology (Forsyth, 2013). Land Thus, the land becomes a ‘resource-in- degradation and society share two-way (reflexive) use’, inextricably related to people and or bi-directional relationship. In which case, land society that uses it. Therefore, reliable degradation impacts on society’s economic methods of measurement of positively in a win-win scenario degradation is crucial” (Blaikie and whereby land degradation is remedied by Brookfield, 1987:16). sustainable practices which at Stocking (1987) added that science is a fact and the same time increases incomes. The opposite is measurement is right and good to believe. equally true in a downward spiral of land However, scientists have preconceptions, degradation resulting in income reduction as in misconceptions and ideologies. Hence, the ‘desperate ’. measurement is not value-free (never neutral, The relationship plays out through time never a pure service for science or policy). In whereby rapidity of exploitation of land resources measuring land degradation, the author cautioned produces feedbacks effect through time in terms that capricious nature of environmental variables of future options. In the industrialised society, has made land degradation dynamic. there is industrial provision of substitutes to offset “Measurement has to have a purpose and trying to land degradation impacts in the future. In the non- use measurement originally designed for another industrialised society, there is out-migration, purpose is like wearing somebody else’s suit – it environmental refugee and tillage of degraded may cover the body but rarely does it fit” land. As regarding scale of operation, there is the (Stocking, 1987:51). large-scale for instance at the national level in the The critical political ecology considers the form of cost-benefit relationship. The cost relates intricate ways in which science and politics are to degradation-afflicted areas or uphill position on mutually related in the discussion of a slope and benefits refers to accumulation or environmental facts and knowledge in political downhill position. The small-scale relates to river debates. The ultimate goal is to integrate realist basin analysis whereby and dissolved biophysical predictions with social and political are the critical issues. Obvious problems construction. In so doing, there is the avoidance of include requirement of great volume of data for inadequate science and social injustice of the analysis. Often, there is scanty data on farming reconstructed science. Instead, there is pursuance and pastoral practices to address land degradation of biophysically accurate and socially relevant analysis. science in which the relationship between science Another problem is definition, measurement and society are explored. “In this sense, a ‘critical’ and availability. In these regards, the authors political ecology may be seen to be the politics of advocate for multiple definitions and ecology as a scientific legitimatization of measurements due to multiple realities of the environmental policy” (Forsyth, 2013). various societies. Other problems involves establishment of physical changes in soil and The concept of land degradation vegetation and relating it to decreases in land The concept of land degradation takes into productivity (e.g. yield or accounts the spatial, temporal, economic and production decline). In addition, there is the cultural contexts of land degradation (Warren, problem of differentiating between physical 2002). The spatial aspect deals with the changes in soil and vegetation and socioeconomic biophysical nature of the land resources involved changes in land managers. Furthermore, in the degradation process; the extent of land quantification of the flows of resources between degradation, that is, the geographic spread or the

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 478 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana area/land coverage of the degradation; as well as people. The adverse impacts of land degradation the degree of degradation as including intensity of (consequences) could also serve as proxies the degradation, that is, low, moderate, severe or (indicators) of land degradation. With respect to very severe degradation (GRID, 1991). In relation the discussion of concept of land degradation, to time, there is “the full length of timescales over consequences are categorized into physical, which land degradation occurs”; while, the future chemical, biological and social. Physical time sheds lights on reversibility of land consequences include destruction of soil surface degradation in the long-term (Baartman et al., structure, loss of top and sub-, burial of seeds 2007:23). In the economic context, land and seedlings by deposited sediments, of degradation devalues land as a , that is, reservoirs, dams, dugouts and river channels, river reduces the economic value of land as stated in bank erosion/caving-in and destruction of coastal the definition by the Millennium Ecosystem reef (Wall et al., 2003; Peters and Meybeck, Assessment (2005). In addition, land degradation 2000). Chemical consequences involve occurs in specific cultures, the lived experiences accumulation of in the soil and as of the affected people, and have to be interpreted well as noxious and toxic (Wall et al., by the people (Blaikie, 1995). In this case, the 2003; Peters and Meybeck, 2000).Examples of concept of land degradation is taken from the biological consequence are water borne actors (victims) points of view, which are relative pathogens, destruction of marine ecosystems, to the various cultural backgrounds. spread of insects and pathogens, loss of ecosystem Again, land degradation as a concept is services, loss of , reduction in related to the systems theory, processes and agricultural productivity particularly yields and consequences. “A system is a set of objects destruction of herbage for livestock feeding together with relationships between the objects (Peters and Meybeck, 2000; UNEP, 2011; and between their attributes” (Hall and Fagen, Asiamah, 2008). The social consequences include 1956:18). The degradation of land resources as a declining quality of life and migration (Asiamah, systemic concept entails the degradation of soil, 2008). water and vegetation as sub-systems of the overall land system. And, the sub-systems are made up of Operationalization of land degradation various physical, chemical and biological According to Viswanathan (2005), operational elements; for instance, soil sub-system contains definition simply means measurement of the soil ; water sub-system consists of quantity and quality of water; and, the vegetation concept, in this case, the measurement of land sub-system comprises of species, habitats degradation, in terms of nature, extent and degree/intensity. As stated earlier, and of vegetation (Vargas et al., 2009). operationalization of land degradation provides The concept also involves physical, answers to the methodological question ‘how is chemical and biological processes which may reduce or alter the inherent capacity of land. For land degradation measured’? During example, physical process – running water may operationalization of land degradation, indicators are measured. Indicators are “processes and create gullies resulting in badland; chemical phenomena which provide important information process – removing soil nutrients without for land degradation assessment” (Mari et al., adequate replacement; and, biological process – 2009:241). destruction of habitat or niche of some organisms resulting in ecosystem dysfunction. A critical question to be asked is why is land These processes are either natural or human- degradation not measured directly? The answer lies in the fact that land degradation is derived induced. from the broader environmental degradation The natural and anthropogenic processes concept. Therefore, it is measured through the operate simultaneously making it very difficult to very processes which represent natural delimit where one starts and leave off for the other to continue (SEDAC, 2012). However, it is environmental . In the words of possible to distinguish between: ultimate process Wasson (1987) land degradation is not directly detectable and monitored. Another important e.g. drought/ and proximate process e.g. question to consider is what processes and/or /water-logging; slow process e.g. phenomena are indicative or proxies of land changes in soil fertility and fast process e.g. changes in crop yield; as well as, independent degradation? In attempting an answer to this process e.g. soil fertility flux and dependent question, the advice by Symeonakis and Drake (2004:575) is that “there is a clear distinction process e.g. crop yield variability (SEDAC, between the indicators that are useful to have and 2012). Inherent in the concept of land degradation those which are practical to obtain”. According to is the consequence experienced by affected

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 479 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

Mari et al. (2009:241), “the emphasis in this case and practices, relatively large is instead on how to choose the appropriate household sizes in addition to increases in indicators and to combine their values so to obtain unemployment and poverty (Rubio and Bochet, an overall result, interpreted as the value of a 1998; Hoffman and Todd, 2000;, Peprah, 2014d). property, i.e., the measurand, for the system under As observed by Thiam (2003), indicators of analysis”. To Warren (2002), neither the case of land degradation assessment could be human biophysical indicators or socio-economic pressure (grazing, forest resource depletion and indicators is conclusive. Hence, a synthesis is agricultural activities), rainfall deficit (below- necessary but requires field test and verification to normal rainfall) as well as decreasing potential address the question – has land degradation primary biological production by measuring occurred (Hoffman and Todd, 2000). normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). A Land degradation is detected through the use study by Chorkor and Odemerho (1994:148-149) of combination of indicators, as involving, revealed early warning indicators of land measurable proxies of land degradation. A visit to degradation as including loss of soil , change any which is reportedly degraded will of soil colour, changes in green vegetation, show physical, chemical and biological indicators appearance of beetles on farms, appearance of of the degradation. Also, a critical examination of weeds on farms, increase in crop diseases and the of the affected people will result in the appearance of worms on farm. identification of some socio-economic indicators Advanced indicators involves sandy or of land degradation. Where the vegetation cover coarse top soil texture, decreased crop yield, of the land is sparse, physical indicators of deceptive black earth, dominance of palm bush, degradation are the most observable signs; created waterlogging and soil crusting or hardened top by wind and water action as well as industrial and soil. To Lindskog and Tengberg (1994), land users natural activities. Physical indicators may include often monitor and detect land degradation with continuous incision of rills and gullies, dry river indicators such as of tree species, beds, or hardening as well as emergence of new invasive grass and siltation of waterlogging and flooding (Stocking and depressions and water channels. With specific Murnaghan, 2001; Rubio and Bochet, 1998). reference to soil degradation indicators, Kertesz However, if the land contains some appreciable (2009) catalogs acidification, salinization, loss of vegetation cover, then biological indicators of organic matter, nutrient depletion, structural land degradation are the visible signs. The deterioration, loss of topsoil, and biological degradation comes out through chemical contamination; whereas, Botchie et al. diagnosis of the ecosystem. The diagnostic check (2007) record sheet and gully erosion, soil list include reduction in native species, abundance compaction, soil surface crusting and loss of soil of invasive species, alteration in habitat of fauna, stability, and Ghana’s Environmental Protection extinction of species and out-migration of Agency (2002) lists formation of iron pan, poor animals. growth of plants and low crop yields. According Other biological indicators of degradation to Vargas et al. (2009), indicators of water are detected through comparison of the degradation include progressive aridity and/or performance of crops between the present and adverse change in water quantity and quality; past. The comparable indicators include whilst, vegetation degradation refers to loss of germination, growth and development, yield and biomass, biodiversity and soil life, specifically, perishability of crops. Common biological loss of certain species, habitats and biomass, indicators cited in the literature include spread of invasive species and uncontrollable pest diminishing size of maize cobs and potato, stunted and disease outbreak. growth of crops, yield gaps in addition to the A contextual criterion for indicator selection presence and absence of some soil organisms for assessment and control of land degradation is (Stringer and Reed, 2007; Kessler and recommended by Rubio and Bochet (1998). The Stroosnijder, 2006; Dumanski, 1997). authors argue that global assessments are Furthermore, a collection of soil specimen from necessary; however, indicators adopted in such the degraded land for laboratory test produces studies may not be relevant to some areas due to chemical indicators such as organic carbon, macro differences in socio-economic characteristics and and micro nutrients levels (Rubio and Bochet, cultures. For instance, indicators relied upon for 1998). Besides, physical, chemical and biological research may not be appropriate for indicators, the dependents of degraded lands conditions which exhibit different portray certain socio-economic signs symptomatic biophysical, socio-economic and cultural features. of land degradation. The literature reveals In the specific context of Europe, Rubio and desertion of degraded land, abandonment of soil Bochet (1998) suggested the use of five

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 480 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana parameters, namely, soil (water erosion, wind Chemical Indicator Criteria erosion, physical, chemical and biological degradation with specific indicators for each ñ Changes in nutrient levels o Reduction in organic carbon/ matter parameter), climate, vegetation, topography and o socio-economics. Reduction in macro-nutrients o Reduction in micro-nutrients Socio-economic Indicator Criteria Materials and Methods ñ Alteration in victim's life style and livelihood Study area and methodology o Poverty directly attributed to land The study area is the watershed of two major degradation rivers in Ghana, Rivers Tano and Bia of the forest o Poverty indirectly linked to land dissected plateau, administratively designated as degradation Asunafo North Municipal and Asunafo South Districts. A case study approach was adopted in which the basic techniques of data collection were Results literature search, participatory appraisals The study came up with 67 indicators drawn from (community meetings, interviews, group a literature review, group discussions and discussions and farm visits), personal observation community meetings at Asunafo, Ghana (2010- (photography, transect walk and transect drive), 2011). The relevant literature was sourced from questionnaire survey and pot experiment. The FAO (2004:40-42), Rubio and Bochet (1998:118), details of study materials, methods and area have Stringer and Reed (2007:106-107), Kessler and already been discussed in (Peprah et al., Stroosnijder (2006:238-239), Dumanski and Pieri 2014:490; Peprah, 2014b:221; Peprah, 2014c:477; (2000:96-101), Stocking and Murnaghan Peprah, 2014a:714; Peprah, 2014d:484). (2001:28-80), and Asiamah (2008:225-226).

Selection of indicator criteria Biological indicator for detecting land degradation During a field work in Ghana, four indicator criteria was use to select specific indicators for the ñ Diminishing size of farm produce diagnosis and monitoring of forest land ñ Absence of some /elephant, degradation. buffalo ñ Absence of non-timber forest products Biological Indicator Criteria ñ Presence of grass ñ Ecological zone ñ Crops used to grow faster than weeds but o Forest now the opposite is true ñ Ecosystem diagnosis ñ Presence of termites o Reduction in native species ñ Reduced tree cover/adverse changes in o Abundance of new species vegetation o Alterations in habitat of fauna ñ Failure of seed germination e.g. cocoyam o Extinction/permanent migration of ñ Increased growth years (planting to fauna maturity) o Pest and disease ñ Absence of some birds ñ Performance of crops ñ Stunted growth of crops o Germination ñ Rotten farm produce o Growth and development ñ Increased occasions for weeding in- o Yield between crops >3 o Perishability of produce ñ Presence of Diplopoda - Millipede ñ Reduction in ecosystem benefits ñ Leaves of cocoa tree turning yellow o Extinction of species /food/crabs ñ Presence of Camponotus o Drying up of stream ñ Absence of earthworms Physical Indicator Criteria ñ Death of plantain crops ñ Euphorbia heterophylla - spurge weed ñ Creation of physical signs on the land ñ Plantain leaves become red/yellow o Water action ñ Presence of weeds o Farming practices o Industrial activities ñ Presence of very tiny black ants [ntetia] o Natural processes ñ Death of Pycnanthus angolensis

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 481 Land degradation is indicativeicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

ñ Presenceoffungusinthus in the farm Figure 1 shows specificcific indigenous farmers’ ñ Yield rate indicators of forest landd degrdegradation. ñ Presenceofpestanddisand disease Physical indicator for detectintecting land degradation ñ Erosion rills and gullies ñ Dry river beds ñ Hardened soil/compacmpaction ñ Loading camp off timbetimber vehicles ñ Waterlogging ñ Soil depth ñ Flooding frequencyncy andan intensities ñ Presence of stones ñ Presence of wet sand ñ Exposed roots ñ PresenceofIronpan/ppan/plinthite ñ Burnt logs and soil Figure 1. Indigenous farmefarmers’ indicators of land ñ Build-up of soil againsgainst barriers degradation. ñ Burrow pits ñ Rate of soil loss ñ Crusting ñ Bulk density Figure 2 displays indicatondicators that serve dual ñ Porosity purposes: first as indicatoindicators of poverty and secondly as indicatorstors ssuggestive of land Chemical indicators for detecetecting land degradation. degradation ñ Contamination byy heavyheav metals ñ Acid deposition ñ Electrical conductivityctivity ñ Salt crust ñ Nutrient pool ñ Presenceofnitrogenougenous fixing we eds Socio-economic indicator for detecting land degradation ñ Food for the farmer’ser’s familyf ñ Quality of farmerr clothing/appearancecloth ñ Loan/borrowingofof momoney ñ Welfare of schooll goingoing children ñ Quality of housing ñ Numberofcocoabagsa bags harvested ñ National Healthlth Insurance Scheme registration Figure 2. Farmers’ indicatoricators of poverty and land ñ Farm size degradation ñ Numberoffarmlabourlabourers ñ Availability of supplemupplementary jobs ñ Abandonment off land Field validation of indicatoricators ñ Soil and water conservonservation practices Plate 1 showspresenceofire of ironpans in a farm at ñ Risks of forest fire Dantano as well as stuntestunted growth of crops ñ Unsustainable agriculturicultural practices mainly plantain and cocoyamcoyam. ñ ñ Human density ñ Rate of unemployment

JournalofDegradedandMiniMining Lands Management 482 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

degradation – soil erosion exposed building foundations at Dantano 26th June, 2010

Plate 4 shows a river channel in a cocoa farm that no longer carries running water even in the raining season

Plate 1. Surrogate of physical indicator of land degradation - stunted growth of plantain (Musa ABB) and cocoyam (Colocassia esculenta) in the presence of ironpans at Dantano study community 26th June, 2010.

Plate 2 shows roots and stones exposed by soil erosion. Plate 4. Proxy of physical indicator of land . degradation – dry river bed during the raining season at Dantano 21st September, 2010

Plate 5 shows invasion of Mimosa pudica and the prevention of the growth of other plants at the spot.

Plate 2. Proxy of physical indicator of land degradation (soil erosion) – exposed ironpans and tree roots at Dantano 26th June, 2010.

Plate 3 shows soil erosion as exhibited by exposed building foundations at Dantano. Plate 5. Proxy of biological and chemical indicator of land degradation – invasion of Mimosa pudica at Asunafo 21st September, 2012.

Plate 6 displays invasion of Centrosema pubescens and its ability to overshadow and out- compete robust weed such as grass. Figure 3 shows remote sensing image of a section of Bonkoni Forest Reserve in 1986 while Figure 4 shows the same portion of the Bonkoni Forest Reserve in 2003. Figure 5 and Figure 6 display post classification analysis of Landsat images of 1986 and 2003 of a portion of Aboniyere Forest Reserve. Plate 3. Surrogate of physical indicator of land

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 483 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

Plate 6. Proxy of biological and chemical Plate 7. Surrogate of biological indicator of land indicator of land degradation – invasion of degradation – Panicum maximum succession to Centrosema pubescens at Asunafo 21st September the forest instead of forest fallow at Asunafo 21st 2012. September, 2012.

Plate 8. Proxy of biological indicator of land degradation – invasion of Euphorbia heterophylla (spurge weed) in a farm at Asunafo out-competing cassava and cocoyam 21st September, 2012. .

Plate 7 shows grass succession instead of forest fallow after abandoning of the farm land. Plate 8 shows occurrence of Euphorbia heterophylla Plate 9. Surrogate of biological indicator of land (spurge weed) found in food crop farms. Plate 9 degradation – anthill representing presence of shows termite hill, a biological indicator used by termites in the soil at Kokofu 21st February, 2011 local farmers to detect land degradation. and Dantano 21st September, 2012.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 484 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

Plate 10 and Plate 11 show different portions of the same farm (an example of uphill and downhill respective cost and benefit relationship resulting from soil erosion). The maize was sown on the same day. The variability in the growth and development of the maize is as result of differences in soil nutrients of the same farm.

Plate 12. Farmers indicating land degradation with underdeveloped size and poor colour of mature tomato fruits at Kokofu 21st February, 2011

Plate 10. Proxy indicator of fertile soil exhibited by well-developed maize crops on the lower slope of the farm (not degraded = downhill) at Goaso 20th June, 2010.

Plate 11. Proxy of biological indicator of land degradation – stunted maize crops on the hill summit of the farm (degraded = uphill) 20th June, 2010. Plate 13. Proxy of physical and biological Plate 12 shows diminished and poor colour of indicators of land degradation – withered or death mature tomato fruits in a farm at Kokofu near of crops (cocoa ‘I’ and plantain ‘II’) as a result of Goaso. Plate 13 indicates the death of crops ironpan underlying the topsoil ‘III’ at Kokofu 21st (cocoa ‘I’ and plantain ‘II’) on the same piece of February, 2011 farmland at Kokofu near Goaso. The two male farmers suspected that the topsoil was underlined Plate 14 shows a piece of farmland with cracks by plinthite or petroplinthite. A hole was dug close and the growth of few weeds representing to the withered cocoa tree; and, ironpan was found physical (cracks) and biological (weeds) a little below 12 cm of the topsoil. The leaves of indicators of land degradation. the cocoa and the plantain changed from green to brown.

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 485 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana

degradation indicators are affected by variable environmental factors (Stocking, 1987). Hence, indicators of land degradation and the influencing environmental factors are in the situation of constant flux. The assessment of land degradation indicator is also time bound, that is, snap shot of data either by field work data collection or even remote sensing of the land surface cover. However, caution needs to be taken to consider historical or archival records as well as fathom future changes and conditions. For instance, biological and physical indicator from the field work may not look the same in different seasons. Therefore, the indicators could be improved by Plate 14. Surrogate of physical and biological comparing plates of the two major seasons in indicators of land degradation – soil compaction Ghana (dry and raining season). Of course, cracks and cracks (physical) and weeds (biological) at in the land surface are not possible in the raining Kokofu 21st February, 2011 season and dry river channels in the dry season are also problematic due to the case of seasonal Discussion rivers that carry running water only in the raining season. Therefore, dry river channel becomes an The vintage point of the paper is that land indicator of land degradation when a river which degradation is indicative, that is, it is not directly used to carry running water throughout the year measurable hence observers use indicators. (perennial river), carries no water at all for some Examples of indicators used to detect and monitor years now. The prospects of the dry river channel forest land degradation in Ghana’s Asunafo forest carrying some running water in the future is also are discussed in line with major points of the important for consideration. theoretical reference. Scale Reflexivity The scale of land degradation analysis is The bi-direction relationship between land important for the uses of the research outcome. degradation and society implies that land Research cannot be carried out for the whole degradation consists of biophysical predictions region. Even though research often uses designs and socio-political constructions. The biophysical that are representative of respondent and study aspects call in experts’ knowledge of land area selection, there is always a limit to resources derived from certain ‘scientific’ extrapolating of the research results to cover other instrumentation. The social component dwells on areas. Collecting data from 21 communities as land managers’ accounts. While the political happened in the present case and using the debates involve many stakeholders such as policy outcome to represent administrate district with a people, interest groups such as fertilizer surface areas of 2.187.5 km2 may be problematic. companies, UN agencies, social commentators However, the study results serve some usefulness and the media. The indicators agreed upon by all in supporting policy decisions which direct human major stakeholders are used to measure and use of the forest on sustainable lines. Another communicate land degradation during research. problem with scale is the use of district or national However, the research is conducted by individuals boundaries as biophysical land resources do not or groups possessing various conceptions and follow district or national boundaries. The ideologies (Stocking, 1987). There is also the problem is further compounded when one society issue of insider or outsider features of the is split by administrative boundaries. researcher(s). The main issue for critical political ecology is how to combined ‘objective reality out Data there’ (realist biophysical predictions (Forsyth, Extensive data is required for land degradation 2013)) and inseparability of researcher and assessment. However, there is scanty data for land research object (social and political constructions degradation assessment (Blaikie and Brookfield, (Forsyth, 2013)). 1987). Many land managers of the non- Time industrialised countries live in oral tradition society where quantitative records are not kept. Variability of the indicators of land degradation Many land user experiments are mainly carried takes place over time. In turn, the land out on try and error basis. Results are orally

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 486 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana shared among land users of that particular society. use of quantitative and qualitative methods. The Often, very successful results travel to other use of quantitative rigour allows for greater societies. In the case of African state institutions, generalization of results. No matter the level of data collection and maintenance for state rigour, extrapolation of fine scale analysis (plot or administration do not conform to research needs farm level) for a large area is problematic and often to international best practices. Also, (Stocking, 1987). Qualitative analysis may offer political instability of the African political history good explanation of land degradation but the has affected data collection of some state relevant result may not be very useful in characteristically institutions of environmental science. Often, different societies. However, the procedure used historical data of the pre-colonial era is non- particularly as captured in the various plates could existence. Where colonial data are available, the be used elsewhere in completely different present maintenance of such data makes it societies to assess land degradation. Also, the use difficult to access. For the purposes of the present of photography in land degradation assessment is study, 30 years (1979-2009) of climate data was very useful. For instance, photography of invasive required. The Ghana Meteorological Agency data species such as Mimosa pudica (sensitive weed), contained some gaps or no data for certain Centrosema pubescens and Mucuna sp may on the periods. The Ministry of Food and surface indicate biological degradation. However, could not provide staple food crop data for the 30 the realist biophysical prediction is that these year period. Instead, data from 1995-2000 (10 plants are nitrogen fixing leguminous shrubby or years) was provided. Ghana Cocoa Board could creeping weeds, whose presence may be attributed only provide data from 2000-2008 while the on their ability to grow in nitrogen-poor soils, farmers cocoa pass books contained data from given their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen for 1994-2012. their use in the absence of soil N. Thus, they out- compete other plants which do not possess this Definition(s) characteristic. For such an interpretation Mimosa The theoretical reference of this paper advises the pudica (sensitive weed), Centrosema pubescens pursuit of the use of multiple realities in defining and Mucuna sp could be measured as chemical land degradation (Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987). indicators. Although, the concept of land degradation is the Measurement of specific indicators is same, its expression or operationalization is somehow problematic, for instance, the influenced by different societies. In Ghana, socioeconomic indicators of poverty and the savanna land degradation is very common. Forest implicit linkages to land degradation. The implicit land degradation appears to be a recent relationship needs to be proven, but how? Also, phenomenon of academic pursuit (land what is the relationship between non-registration degradation not , the two are not of NHIS and environmental science? Several synonyms). Hence differences in the biophysical factors which may not be related to land resource-in-use (land resources) and savanna as degradation may result in poverty. This however well as forest societies influence the definition of does not negate the relationship between land land degradation. Although, land capacity or degradation and poverty. The problem may be a productivity may cut across the two areas, the measurement problem as well as conceding to the resultant productivity is different in terms of crops fact that indicators are error-filled. Error is not a and livestock. For the forest area, the definition of mistake, rather a deviation from the truth. land degradation (conceptual and operational Measuring land degradation with error-filled definition) depends on what is found on the land. indicators implies that we may not know land Some definitions put up by farmers of land degradation as it truly is. degradation include: when crops take unusually Availability long time to mature, land that has lost its fat (fertility), land that progressively produces low Availability of land degradation is location crop yield and land that has been invaded by fire, specific as occurring at various plots where the weeds and pests. Obviously, the farmers’ variable and often error-filled indicators of land definitions are based on dominant indicators of degradation are spotted. The situation where land degradation. fertile lands alternate with degraded lands are possible. In this regard, the fertile lands do not Measurement exhibit same features or indicators as the degraded Measurement of land degradation has been lands. Hence, land degradation is discontinuous discussed variously (Foster, 2006, Stocking and (Gisladottir and Stocking, 2005). Furthermore, the Murnaghan, 2001). The major concern is the available degraded lands do not show uniform biophysical, social and political mix through the degradation. There are several intensities or

Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 487 Land degradation is indicative: proxies of forest land degradation in Ghana degrees of degradation such as low, moderate, Botchie, G., Akabzaa, T., Gyasi, E. and Sarpong, D.B. severe or very severe degradation (GRID, 1991). 2007. , Land Use and Environmental in The two key issues of availability of land Ghana, (Institute of Statistical Social and Economic degradation such as discontinuity and intensity Research, Accra). Chokor, B.A. and Odemerho, F.O. 1994. Land categorisation place limit no generalisation of degradation assessment by small-scale traditional research results. african farmers and implications for sustainable conservation management. GeoJournal 25 (2): 145- 154. Conclusion Dregne, H. E. 1986. Desertification of arid lands. In: Land degradation is a multifaceted set of El-Baz, F. and Hassan, M.H.A. (eds), Physics of processes. It is not measured directly as such Desertification. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martinus, Nijhoff. observers use indicators. Some indicators may be Dumanski, J. 1997. Criteria and indicators for land problematic or even error-filled. The indicators do quality and sustainable land management. ITC not measure land degradation per se but the Journal 3 (4): 216-222. several aspects of land degradation operating at Dumanski, J. and Pieri, C. 2000. Land quality different spatial, temporal, economic and cultural indicators: research plan. Agriculture, Ecosystems scales. The indicators may be biological, physical, & Environment 81: 93-102. chemical and socioeconomic and are shaped by Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. National the political discourse in environmental science. Action Programme to Combat Drought and The use of indicators cut across various Desertification. National Action Plan April 2002, (Environmental Protection Agency, Accra). assessment or measurement pathways of FAO. 2004. Methodological Framework for Land biophysical or social and the critical political Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA)', ecology pathway of making measurement right in (Rome FAO Land and Water Development environmental science by mixing realist Division). biophysical predictions with social and political Forsyth, T. 2013. Critical Political Ecology: The constructions. Irrespective of the research Politics of Environmental Science. Routledge, pathway, land degradation is indicative as it is Oxon. observed by using proxies of land degradation Foster, R.H. 2006. Methods for assessing land referred to as indicators. degradation in Botswana. Earth & Environment 1: 238-76. Gisladottir, G. and Stocking, M. 2005. Land Acknowledgement degradation control and its global environmental benefits. Land Degradation and Development 16: I appreciate the support of Prof. Edwin A. Gyasi, Prof. 99-112. Michael A. Stocking, Prof. Seth K. A. Danso (late) and GRID. 1991. Global Assessment of Human Induced Prof. Raymond B. Bening (PhD supervisors), Asunafo Soil Degradation (GLASOD). A User Guide to the farmers, Commonwealth Scholarship Secretariat and Global Digital Database. (Nairobi: UNEP ISRIC the University for Development Studies, Ghana. http://geodata.grid.unep.ch/results.php.). Gyasi, E.A., Karikari, O., Kranjac-Berisavljevic, G. and Vordzogbe, V.V. 2006. Study of References Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment Relative to Land Management in Ghana, (Accra: University Asiamah, R.D. 2008. Soil resources in Ghana. In: of Ghana, Legon), 1-91 Bationo, A., Tabo, R., Waswa, B., Okeyo, J., http://www.nlcap.net/fileadmin/NCAP/Countries/G Kihara, J., Fosu, M. and Kabore, S. (eds), Synthesis hana. of Soil, Water and Nutrient Management Research Hall, A.D. and Fagen, R.E. 1956. Definition of system. in the Volta Basin. Nairobi: Ecomedia Ltd., pp 25- General Systems Yearbook 1: 18-28. 41. Hoffman, M.T. and Todd, S. 2000. A national review of Baartman, J.E.M., van Lynden, G.W.J., Reed, M.S., land degradation in South Africa: the influence of Ritsema, C.J. and Hessel, R. 2007. Desertification biophysical and socio-economic factors. Journal of and Land Degradation: Origins, Processes and South African Studies 26 (4): 743-758. Solutions. DESIRE Report series: Scientific Report, Kertesz, A. 2009. The global problem of land (Wageningen: DESIRE). degradation and desertification. Hungarian Bai, Z.G., Dent, D.L., Olsson. L. and Schaepman, M.E. Geographical Bulletin 58 (1): 19-31. 2008. Proxy global assessment of land degradation. Kessler, C.A. and Stroosnijder, L. 2006. Land Soil Use and Management 24: 223-234. degradation assessment by farmers in Bolivian Blaikie, P. 1995. Understanding . mountain valleys. Land Degradation & In: Morse,S and Stocking, M. (eds), People and Development 17: 235-248. Environment. London: UCL Press Ltd. LADA. 2011. Manual for Local Level Assessment of Blaikie, P. and Brookfield, H. 1987. Land Degradation Land Degradation and Sustainable Land and Society. Methuen, London. Management. Rome: FAO. 1-165.

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Lindskog, P. and Tengberg, A. 1994. Land degradation, Stringer, L.C. and Reed, M.S. 2007. Land degradation natural resources and local knowledge in Sahel assessment in Southern Africa: integrating local and zone of Burkina Faso. GeoJournal 33 (4): 365-375. scientific knowledge bases. Land Degradation & Mari, L., Lazzarotti, V. and Manzini, R. 2009. Development 18 (1): 99-116. Measurement in soft systems: epistemological Symeonakis, E. and Drake, N. 2004. Monitoring framework and a case study. Measurement 42 : desertification and land degradation over sub- 241-253. saharan Africa. International Journal of Remote Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems Sensing 25 : 573-592. and Human Well-being: Desertification Synthesis. Thiam, A.K. 2003. The causes and spatial pattern of Island Press, Washington, D.C. land degradation risk in Southern mauritania using Peprah, K. 2014a. Applying DPSIR to land degradation multitemporal AVHRR-NDVI imagery and field analysis: the case of Asunafo, Ghana. International data. Land Degradation and Development 14 : 133- Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and 142. Development 2 (4): 712-725. UNCCD. 2012. UNCCD - Important Dates. Bon, Peprah, K. 2014b. Indigenous farmers management of Germany: United Nations Convention to Combat land degradation: the case of Asunafo, Ghana. Desertification, http://www.unccd.int/en/about-the- American Journal of Sustainable Cities and Society convention/history/Important- 3 (1): 219-241. dates/Pages/default.aspx. Peprah, K. 2014c. Mitigating land degradation with UNEP. 2011. Global Partnership on Waste chemical fertilizer application in the Asunafo Management: Integrated Solid Forest, Ghana. International Journal of Science and (ISWM) Work Plan for 2012-2013', (Nairobi: Research 3 (4): 476-482. United Nations Environmental Programme), 1-17. Peprah, K. 2014d. Poverty and land degradation nexus: Vargas, R.R., Omuto, C.T., Alim, M.S., Ismail. A. and the case of Asunafo, Ghana. International Journal Njeru. L. 2009. Land degradation Assessment and of Science and Research 3 (4): 483-489. Recommendation for a Monitoring Framework in Peprah, K., Yiran, G. B. and Owusu, A. B. 2014. Land Somaliland. Nairobi: FAO-SWALIM, use trajectories, forest cover change and http//www.faoswalim.org. consequential land degradation of the Asunafo Viswanathan, M. 2005. Measurement Error and forest, Ghana. International Journal of Innovative Research Design. Sage Publications, Thousand Research & Studies 3 (1): 447-503. Oaks. Peters, N.E. and Meybeck, M. 2000. Wall, G., Baldwin, C.S. and Shelton, I.J. 2003. Soil degradation effects on freshwater availability: Erosion - Causes and Effects Factsheet. Ontario: impacts of human activities. International Water Ministry of Agriculture Food and Rural Affairs Resources Association 25 (2): 185-193. http://www.envirothon.org/pdf/CG/soil_erosion.pdf Rubio, J.L. and Bochet, E. 1998. Desertification , 1-6. indicators as diagnosis criteria for desertification Warren, A. 2002. Land degradation is contextual. Land risk assessment in Europe. Journal of Arid Degradation and Development 13 : 449-59. Environment 39 : 113-120. Warren, A. and Agnew, C. 1988. An Assessment of Safriel, U.N. 2007. The assessment of global trends in Desertification and Land Degradation in Arid and land degradation. In: Sivakumar, M.V. K.and Semi-arid Areas. International Institute for Ndiang'ui, N. (eds), Climate and Land Environment and Development Paper/CIESIN, 2, 1- Degradation. New York: Springer, pp 2-38. 23. SEDAC. 2012. The Causes of Land Degradation and Wasson, R. 1987. Detection and measurement of land Desertification New York: CIESIN Columbia degradation process.In: Chisholm, A. and University. Dumsday, R. (eds), Land Degradation: Problems Stocking, M. 1987. Measuring land degradation.In: and Policies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Blaikie,P. and Brookfield, H. (eds), Land Press., pp 49-69. Degradation and Society. London: Methuen. Stocking, M.A. and Murnaghan, N. 2001. Handbook for the Field Assessment of Land Degradation. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London.

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