Journal of Politics & Governance, Vol. 8 No. 5, May 2020

Journal of Politics & Governance Vol. 8 No. 5, May 2020, Pp. 12-23 ISSN: 2278473X (Print) 2456-8023 (Online)

Assessing the Incidence of Forest Fires in

C R Das* and R K Panda**

ABSTRACT Forest fire is a regular phenomenon in summer season throughout the state of Odisha as major chunk of forests prevailing in the state are dry deciduous type of forests. The forests of interior eastern and Southern parts of Odisha are more vulnerable to forest fires compared to those in the Eastern coastal parts. Long dry spell with scanty rainfall in those areas contribute to higher incidence of forest fires. The frequency and intensity of forest fires has tended to increase in recent years particularly after 1990s1. Present paper attempts at analysing the incidence of forest fire in Odisha on the basis of secondary data from the Department of Forest and Environment, Govt. of Odisha. The trend of forest fire in Odisha based on time series data are analysed. The trend and incidence of forest fire in Odisha is spatially analysed taking into account forest circles, forest divisions and administrative districts. In the final section of the paper monetary loss as a result of forest fire in Odisha is estimated.

KEYWORDS: Forest Fire, Forest Cover, Trend of Forest Fire, Incidence of Forest Fire, Variation in the incidence of forest Fire, Monetary Loss of Forest Fire

INTRODUCTION Forest fires have become an issue of global concern as in many countries, wildfires are burning larger areas, and fire seasons are growing longer due to a warming climate. With growing populations in and around the edges of forests, more lives and property are now at risk from fire. About 670,000 km2 of forest land are burned each year on average (about 2 percent of the world’s forested areas, releasing billions of tons of CO2 into the atmosphere, while hundreds of thousands of people are believed to die due to illnesses caused by exposure to smoke from forest fires and other landscape fires2. Forest fire is one of the devastating elements predicted to increase as a result of climate change. Frequency and severity of forest fires, as well as areas affected by fires are also expected to increase. Climate change and other challenges threaten forests and their protective and productive functions. In this background management of forest fire has become an increasing issue of global concern. Forest fire is a regular phenomenon in summer season throughout the state of Odisha as major chunk of forests prevailing in the state are dry deciduous type of forests. The forests of interior eastern and Southern parts of Odisha are more vulnerable to forest fires compared to those in the Eastern coastal parts. Long dry spell with scanty rainfall in those areas contribute to higher incidence of forest fires. The frequency and intensity of forest fires has tended to increase in

*Senior Research Officer, Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre for Development Studies **Senior Consultant, CTRAN Consulting Ltd., Bhubaneswar E-mail: [email protected]

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Journal of Politics & Governance, Vol. 8 No. 5, May 2020 recent years particularly after 1990s3. Present paper attempts at analysing the incidence of forest fire in Odisha on the basis of secondary data from the Department of Forest and Environment, Govt. of Odisha. The trend of forest fire in Odisha based on time series data are analysed. The trend and incidence of forest fire in Odisha is spatially analysed taking into account forest circles, forest divisions and administrative districts. In the final section of the paper monetary loss as a result of forest fire in Odisha is estimated.

FOREST COVER IN ODISHA COMPARED TO ALL LEVEL Based on interpretation of satellite data pertaining to Oct-Dec 2015, the forest cover in the state is 51,345 sq. km which is 32.98% of the state geographical area (Forest Survey of India, 2017). However, the recorded forest area is significantly higher than this, at 58,136 km2, which constitutes around 37.34 per cent of the geographical area of the state. In terms of forest canopy density classes, the state has 6967 sq. km under very dense forest, 21370 sq. km under moderately dense forest and 23008 sq. km under open forest. The total forest of the state decreased from 56661.1 sq. kms in 1975 to 48669.4 sq. kms in 2010 and correspondingly non- forest area comprising of scrub, grassland, wetland and others increased from 99045.9 sq. kms in 1975 to 107037.6 sq. kms in 2010. However, in subsequent years as it can be observed from the chart -2.1 the forest area has increased. Forest Area land cover in terms forest areas comprising of semi evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous and mangrove forest types as a percentage to total forest area of the state has decreased from 36.4 percent in the year 1975 to 31.3 percent in the year 2010. Correspondingly, land cover in terms of scrubs, grasslands, wetlands and other land use pattern has increased overall from 63.6 percent to 68.7 percent. Forest Cover refers to all tree cover area irrespective of grown in private Chart-1: Forest cover in Odisha compared land or government land. In the year to All India level in the years 1989 and 1989, forest cover of the country was 2017 at 640134 sq kms which was 19.47 percent of the geographical area of 34.14 32.98 35 the country. Forest cover as 30 19.4721.54 25 percentage to geographical area at all 20 7.25 15 8.3 India level increased from 19.47 10 5 percent to 21.54 percent in the year 0 2017. Correspondingly, it decreased in Forest Cover as Forest Cover as Forest Cover in Odisha from 34.14 percent in the year % to % to Odisha as % to 1989 to 32.98 percent in the year geographical geographical all India level area_ All India area_ Odisha Forest Coverage 2017. Forest cover in Odisha as level percentage to all India level Forest coverage is found decreased from 1989 2017 8.30 percent in the year 1989 to 7.25

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Journal of Politics & Governance, Vol. 8 No. 5, May 2020 percent in the year 2017.

Table 1: Forest cover in India in Odisha (in Sq. Km) Assessmen India Odisha t years Geographic Forest Forest Geographic Fores Forest Forest al Area (Sq. Cover Cover as % al Area (Sq. t Cover as % Cover in Km) (Sq. to Km) Cover to Odisha Km) geographic (Sq. geographic as % to al area Km) al area all India level Forest Coverag e 1989 3287263 64013 19.47 155707 5316 34.14 8.30 4 3 1991 3287263 63918 19.44 155707 4713 30.27 7.37 2 7 1993 3287263 64010 19.47 155707 4714 30.28 7.37 7 5 1995 3287263 63960 19.46 155707 4710 30.25 7.37 0 7 1997 3287263 63339 19.27 155707 4694 30.15 7.41 7 1 1999 3287263 63729 19.39 155707 4703 31.10 7.38 3 3 2001 3287263 67833 20.64 155707 4836 31.10 7.13 3 6 2003 3287263 67781 20.64 155707 4835 31.06 7.13 6 3 2005 3287263 69017 20.60 155707 4875 31.07 7.06 1 5 2009 3287263 69239 21.02 155707 4885 31.38 7.06 4 5 2011 3287263 69202 21.05 155707 4890 31.45 7.07 7 3 2013 3287263 69789 21.23 155707 5034 32.23 7.21 8 7 2015 3287263 70167 21.35 155707 5046 32.41 7.19 3 0 2017 3287469 70827 21.54 155707 5134 32.98 7.25 3 5 Source: Statistical Abstract of Odisha, 2012, p-260 and FSI of different Years

INCIDENCE OF FOREST AND FOREST FIRE IN ODISHA COMPARED TO ALL INDIA SITUATION India is one of the few countries rich in bio diversity. As per the Forest Survey of India Report, 2017, India has forest cover of 767419 km2, comprising 16.15 percent of the total geographic area of the country. The forest cover of the country is closely associated with various factors, both natural and man-made. The geology, climate, socio-economic conditions etc. are various such factors which directly or indirectly influence the forest and its bio-diversity4. The state of Odisha is having 51345 km2 of forest coverage accounting 32.98 percent of the total geographical area of the state and 7.25 percent forest cover to the overall forest coverage of the country in the year 2017. 14

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Forest fires are as old as forests themselves and it is said that human discovery and knowledge on fire came out of “forest-fire”. Each year due to forest fire in many parts of the country, forest cover is adversely affected. However, due to more frequent occurrence of fires in vast majority of forest lands in many parts of the world, forest fires are largely being considered as threats for environment, socio-economic activity and also human life5. Forests and forest ecosystems are of key importance for the social, economic and environmental viability and development of a country. It also plays significant roles in rural and urban communities by providing goods and services. They constitute an important economic factor and at the same time supply complex, dynamic, highly valuable natural ecosystems that also facilitate and protect biodiversity6. According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, annual carbon emissions from forest fires are in the range of 2.5 billion to 4.0 billion tons of CO2, and smoke exposure from landscape fires (including forest fires) is estimated to cause 260,000 to 600,000 premature deaths annually. Moreover, forest fires result in the loss of forest goods such as timber, fuel wood, fodder, and non-timber forest products, and consequently, the loss of livelihoods for people directly dependent on forests, loss of natural habitat for wildlife, and soil erosion and damage to water supply7.

TREND OF FOREST FIRE IN ODISHA As it can be seen from the following table that during the period 2006 to 2016, number of forest fires in Odisha has increased at CAGR of 103.6 percent and there is an increasing linear trend over this period. However, the Year on Year (Y-O-Y) Chart-3: % Share of Forest Circles in overall Forest variations are found with fluctuations. Fires during the period 2006-2016 Compared to the past year maximum increase is noticed in the year 2012 followed by the years 40.0 36.1 2016, 2009 and 2008. For other years, there is 35.0 30.0 negative variation in the incidence of forest fires 24.0 25.0 implying that compared to last year, number of 20.0 forest fires decreased in those years. Out of the 12.5 15.0 8.7 total 18481 forest fires reported during the 10.0 6.3 5.0 5.1 2.3 period 2006 to 2016 in all forest circles of Odisha, 5.0 about 13.9 percent occurred in the year 2012 0.0 followed by 13.6 percent in the year 2016, 11.1

Chart-2: Trend of recorded forest fires in Odisha

3000 percent in the year 2010 and 10.4 percent in 2572 2553 2500 the year 2009. During the 2006 to 2016, out of 2055 the overall forest fire incidence comparatively 2000 1921 1864 Maximum proportion of forest fires were 1616 1837 witnessed in circle followed by 1500 Koraput circle, circle and 1245 1000 circle. Further analysis indicates that 993 1053 there are 1680 number of forest fires per year 772 500 in all forest circles in Odisha.

0 20062007200820092010201120122013201420152016

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Table 2: Circle wise Number of forest fires in Odisha Sl. Circles Number of recorded forest fires 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Grand % Number of forest Total Share fires per Annum 1 67 41 43 130 110 21 235 91 165 42 227 1172 6.3 107 2 78 28 28 168 120 23 85 133 41 73 145 922 5.0 84 3 Brhampur 631 401 519 706 715 305 1019 597 597 313 862 6665 36.1 606 4 Bhawanipatna 241 129 144 202 265 123 312 253 215 146 286 2316 12.5 211 5 Bhubaneswar 24 18 14 36 24 5 123 33 67 12 60 416 2.3 38 6 Koraput 453 288 321 449 459 220 461 526 415 283 567 4442 24.0 404 7 Rourkela 85 72 109 148 245 42 192 138 201 128 248 1608 8.7 146 8 37 16 67 82 117 33 145 66 163 56 158 940 5.1 85 Grand Total 1616 993 1245 1921 2055 772 2572 1837 1864 1053 2553 18481 100.0 1680 % 8.7 5.4 6.7 10.4 11.1 4.2 13.9 9.9 10.1 5.7 13.8 100.0 Source: Office of the PCCF, Bhubaneswar

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DISTRICT WISE VARIATION IN THE INCIDENCE OF FOREST FIRES Out of 30 administrative districts in the state, incidence of forest fires during the period 2006-2016 is noticed in 26 districts and the incidence is very negligible in district as there was only one forest fire incidence during the period 2006 to 2016. Similarly, there is also lower incidence of forest fires in the districts , Bolangir, , Nabarangpur and Sonepur as these districts individually account less than 1 percent of the overall incidence of forest fires in Odisha. Kandhamal district is found having the highest incidence of forest fires to the extent of about 21.3 percent of the overall forest fires in the state. Higher incidence of forest fires is also witnessed in the districts Rayagada, Kalahandi, Gajapati, Malkangiri, Koraput and Ganjam districts. These districts come under Berahampur, Koraput and Bhawanipatna circles which is evident from chart-2 and Table- 2.3. The CAGR of the number of forest fires for all the districts is found at 103.6 percent. Compared to the overall CAGR of all districts, in 16 districts there is higher CAGR and in 14 districts, there is lower CAGR.

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Table 3: District wise incidence of forest-fires Sl. Districts Number of forest fires by administrative districts in Odisha CAGR 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Grand Total % 1 Angul 31 21 23 75 67 4 90 47 83 15 132 588 3.2 108.6 2 Balasore 5 9 1 1 14 6 1 3 40 0.2 3 10 4 11 22 21 10 36 18 21 15 12 180 1.0 107.8 4 Bolangir 4 1 8 18 8 3 18 3 22 3 15 103 0.6 110.8 5 29 11 18 49 38 5 60 24 121 14 57 426 2.3 108.6 6 23 11 7 14 15 11 82 17 19 14 40 253 1.4 108.3 7 Deogarh 15 8 14 33 33 2 28 19 43 19 55 269 1.5 111.6 8 10 9 9 29 10 5 38 20 16 10 31 187 1.0 107.9 9 Gajapati 241 86 100 243 176 84 183 165 121 103 157 1659 9.0 98.6 10 Ganjam 42 52 46 127 82 29 125 88 66 33 94 784 4.2 102.7 11 Jharshuguda 3 2 11 13 21 3 19 2 14 4 19 111 0.6 108.4 12 Kalahandi 179 107 118 111 228 113 209 162 139 116 245 1727 9.3 102.8 13 Kandhamal 322 252 359 299 437 188 676 327 336 166 578 3940 21.3 101.5 14 Keonjhar 34 53 82 68 73 26 71 76 90 62 90 725 3.9 105.6 15 Khurda 15 3 5 20 7 2 87 16 38 5 35 233 1.3 114.0 16 Koraput 94 58 47 100 81 39 73 104 105 54 98 853 4.6 102.1 17 Malkangiri 153 108 97 125 126 80 111 156 105 83 172 1316 7.1 100.1 18 Mayurbhanj 65 23 12 136 110 14 62 110 32 56 125 745 4.0 108.3 19 Nabarangpur 18 8 4 14 8 4 21 14 18 16 8 133 0.7 103.9 20 8 15 9 16 17 3 36 17 29 7 25 182 1.0 106.6 21 Nuapada 56 18 13 64 18 5 72 85 48 23 11 413 2.2 98.8 22 Puri 1 1 0.0 23 Rayagada 188 114 173 210 244 97 256 252 187 130 289 2140 11.6 103.1 24 Sambalpur 24 10 45 47 75 20 90 46 128 37 127 649 3.5 116.5 25 Subarnapur 2 3 5 9 11 2 13 3 6 4 15 73 0.4 109.3 26 Sundargarh 44 16 29 70 148 22 102 60 77 63 120 751 4.1 112.3 All Districts 1616 993 1245 1921 2055 772 2572 1837 1864 1053 2553 18481 100.0 103.6 [Source: Office of the PCCF, Bhubaneswar.]

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INCIDENCE OF FOREST FIRES BY FOREST TYPES With the objective of assessing which categories of forest are more prone towards forest fires, forest type wise incidence of forest fires in the year 2018 was analysed. As per the table given below, it is observed that out of the total number of fire incidences in all forest categories, about 68.5 percent of forest-fires occurred in reserved forests and 18.8 percent of fires were in protected reserve forests. Reserved forests and protected reserve forests jointly account around 87.3 percent of the overall forest fires in the year 2018.

Table 4: Occurrence of forest fires in 2018 by forest type Sl. Forest Type No of forest fires % 1 Demarcated Protected Forest (DPF) 1293 6.2 2 Protected Forest (PF) 377 1.8 3 Reserved Forest (RF) 14339 68.5 4 CA 13 0.1 5 Demarcated Protected Forest (Private) 8 0.0 6 NF 11 0.1 7 Protected Reserve Forest (PRF) 3934 18.8 8 Un-demarcated Protected Forest (UDPF) 767 3.7 9 Others 199 1.0 Total 20941 100.0

AVERAGE FOREST AREA AFFECTED DUE TO FOREST FIRE The entire forest area of the state is administered under eight forest circles. Out of the total 81531 number of forest fires erupted in all the forest circles in Odisha during the period 2010-2018, it is found that maximum proportion of forest fires were found in Berhampur circle followed by Koraput,

Chart-4: % share in the total no. of Chart-5: Forest circle wise average Forest Fires in all circles during the affected area/ fire (Ha.) period (2010-18)

Sambalpur 10.1 Sambalpur 1.246

Rourkela 15.2 Rourkela 1.297

Koraput 21.5 Koraput 0.527

Bhubaneswar 2.0 Bhubaneswar 1.729 0.602 Bhawanipatna 14.3 Bhawanipatna 0.678 Berhampur 24.4 Berhampur Baripada 1.136 Baripada 6.6 Angul 0.765 Angul 6.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

Rourkela and Bhawanipatana, Sambalpur, Baripada, Angul and Bhubaneswar. However average affected forest area per forest fire stands the highest for Bhubaneswar circle followed by Rourkela and Sambalpur. Average forest area affected by forest fires during the period 2010-2018 for all the forest divisions is separately shown in the following table. It is found that out of all the forest divisions, the forest area affected per forest fire stands highest for Balasore (W/L) divisionfollowed

Journal of Politics & Governance, Vol. 8, No. 5, May 2020

by City Forest, Bonai, Nayagarh, Bamara (W/L) and Ghumshar (North) divisions. In these six forest divisions, forest area affected per forest fire event is found at more than 2 hectares. For eight forest divisions- Hirakud (W/L), Athamallik, Chandaka (W/L),Sundargarh, Jharshuguda, , Bolangir and Subarnapur, the average forest area affected by forest fire is between the range of 1-2 hectares. For the remaining 34 forest divisions, it is found at less than 1 hectare. Taking into account the area affected per forest fire event, the forest divisions in terms of effects of forest fire, are classified as high intensity, moderate intensity and low intensity forest fires if the average forest area lost due to

High Intensity Forest Fire Moderate Intensity Forest Low Intensity Forest Fire Divisions Fire Divisions Divisions

•Balasore (W/L) •Hirakud (W/L •Rest of the forest divisons City Forest Athamalik in Odisha which are Bonai Chandaka (W/L) excluded from the list of high intensity and Nayagarh Sundargarh moderate intensity forest Bamara (W/L) Jharshuguda fire divisons Ghumshar (North) Jeypore Bolangir Subrnapur forest fire is more than 1.600 2hectares, 1-2 hectares and ) less than 1 hectare 1.400 respectively. 1.200 Number of forest fires, total area affected by forest fire for 1.000 all the forest circles during the 0.800 period 2010 to 2018 is 0.600 separately shown for all the

years for all forest circles. The per area forest Affected 6: 0.400 - trend of average forest area 0.200

affected by forest fires in all Chart the circles is shown in the Hectares (in Odisha in event fire 0.000 chart given alongside. It is 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 observed that overtime for all Year forest circles, the average affected forest area per forest fire event is showing a declining trend. By the end of 2018, affected forest area per forest fire event for all forest circles are found to have been less than 1 hectare This signifies the efficiency improvement in managing forest fire by the forest department people.As it can be observed from the following chart average forest are affected per forest fire event for Angul, Baripada, Berhampur and Bhawanipatna was more than six hectares upto the year 2012 and subsequently it has declined to less than one hectares by the year 2018. Similarly, for all the remaining divisions also it has declined over years. At all Odisha level also a linearly declining trend of affected forest area per fire event is evidenced. During discussion with forest officials, it was informed that particularly after the introduction of CAMPA funds for forest protection, good deal of 20

Journal of Politics & Governance, Vol. 8, No. 5, May 2020

efforts is directed forest fire prevention, mitigation and suppression for which the intensity of forest fire over time is showing a declining trend.

ASSESSING THE MONETARY LOSS DUE TO FOREST FIRE From the previous analysis, it was found that annually on an average there are 1680 forest fires in Odisha and the average forest area affected per forest fire is calculated at 0.393 hectares. So roughly, 660 hectares of forest is affected by forest fires every year. In order to make the economic loss as a result of forest fire, the calculation for compensatory afforestation as adopted by the Central Empowered Committee (2006) is considered at 2018-19 prices. The details of calculation are as per the following table. While converting 2005-06 prices into 2018-19 prices cost of inflation index is taken into account and accordingly, 2018-19 economic cost per hectare of fire incidence is calculated and subsequently adjusted for 660 hectares of forest area affected by forest fire annually. In this process, annually the overall loss as a result of forest fire in Odisha is arrived at Rs.122.82 crores.

Table 5: Annual Economic loss as a result of forest fire Sl. Particulars of Cost Cost (Rs. / Cost (Rs. / Overall, Forest fire cost Hectare in 2005- Hectare in (1680 no. of forest fires with 06 price level) 2018-19 average area of 0.393 price level) hectares affected per fire incidence) 1 Value of timber and fuel 152830 365747 241393026 wood 2 Value of NTFPS 7631 18262 12053067 3 Value of fodder 2958 7079 4672123 4 Value of Eco-tourism 65113 155826 102845149 5 Value of bio-prospecting 25553 61152 40360636 6 Value of Eco-logical 144332 345410 227970544 services of forest 7 Value of flagship species 258400 618393 408139487 8 Carbon sequestration 120780 289046 190770462 value Total Forest Fire Cost 777597 1860916 1228204492

TREND OF MONETARY LOSS DUE TO FOREST FIRE Annual monetary loss as a result of forest fire is calculated at 2005-06 prices, current price level of the year and 2018-19 prices. The cost of inflation index (CII) prepared by the ministry of finance which was notified on 12th September 2019 is used to calculate the monetary loss of forest fire. As per the analysis made in the following table-2.11, the total cost due to forest fire in Odisha has increased from Rs.74.67 crore in the year 2010 to Rs.756.53 crore in the year 2018 at 2005-06 price level. At current price level, it has increased from Rs.106.59 crore in the year 2010 to Rs.1810.51 crore. Owing to more area under forest fire identified in 2016, there is sudden increase in the total cost of forest fire after the year 2016.

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Table 6: Trend of Monetary Loss due to forest fire Year Area Total Cost at 2005- Cost of Current Price level Affected by 06 Prices (Rs. / Inflation Price Relatives Total Cost Forest Fire Hectare = Index (CII for 2005- (Rs. In Crores) in Odisha Rs.777597) [ Numbers 06= 117) [ Col 3 * Col 5] (Hectares) Rs.777597*Col 2] (CII)# Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6 2010 960.315 74.67 167 167/117 106.59 2011 1136.2 88.35 184 184/117 138.94 2012 2252.57 175.16 200 200/117 299.42 2013 164.821 12.82 220 220/117 24.10 2014 881.9 68.58 240 240/117 140.67 2015 849.63 66.07 254 254/117 143.43 2016 1944.84 151.23 264 264/117 341.24 2017 14121.32 1098.07 272 272/117 2552.78 2018 9729.13 756.53 280 280/117 1810.51 # https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/wealth/tax/finance-ministry-notifies-cii-for-the-fy-2019- 20-as-289/articleshow/71107063.cms?from=mdr

CONCLUDING REMARKS Number of forest fires in Odisha has increased at CAGR of 103.6 percent and an increasing linear trend is observed during the period 2006 to 2016. Out of the total number of forest fires erupted during the period 2006-2016, maximum proportion of forest fires were witnessed in Berhampur circle followed by Koraput circle, Bhawanipatna circle and Rourkela circle. Kandhamal district is found having the highest incidence of forest fires to the extent of about 21.3 percent of the overall forest fires in the state. Higher incidence of forest fires is also witnessed in the districts Rayagada, Kalahandi, Gajapati, Malkangiri, Koraput and Ganjam districts. These districts come under Berahampur, Koraput and Bhawanipatna circles. Compared to the overall CAGR of number of forest fires in the state, there is higher CAGR in 16 districts and lower CAGR in 14 districts. Reserved forests and protected reserve forests jointly account around 87.3 percent of the overall forest fires in the year 2018. Overtime for all forest circles, the average affected forest area per forest fire event is showing a declining trend. Annually the overall loss as a result of forest fire in Odisha is arrived at Rs.122.82 crores. The total cost due to forest fire in Odisha has increased from Rs.74.67 crore in the year 2010 to Rs.756.53 crore in the year 2018 at 2005-06 price level. At current price level, it has increased from Rs.106.59 crore in the year 2010 to Rs.1810.51 crore. Considering 2018-19 price level, it has increased from Rs.125.20 crore in the year 2010 to Rs.756.53 crore.

[Note: The paper owes to the study “Management of Forest Fire in Odisha” prepared by NCDS, Bhubaneswar, for which the first author was the project director and the second author was a consultant and the study was undertaken for the PCCF, HoFF, Govt. of Odisha.]

ENDNOTES 1 PCCF (2017), “Combating Forest Fire in Odisha”. 2 Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe Forest Europe Liaison Unit, OSLO 3 PCCF (2017), “Combating Forest Fire in Odisha”. 4 State Forest Departments, ISFR 2017.

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5 Satendra and Kaushik A D (2014): “Forest Fire Disaster Management”, National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi 6 Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe Forest Europe Liaison Unit, OSLO 7 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2018), “Forests and Fire: Strengthening Prevention and Management in Inida”, Assessment done by World Bank

REFERENCES Satendra and Kaushik A. D. (2014). Forest fire disaster management. New Delhi: National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs

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