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Policy Responses to Contestation Over Islam in Norway

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Policy Responses to Contestation Over Islam in Norway Dissertation submitted for the PhD degree Policy responses to contestation over Islam in Norway Ragna Lillevik University of Oslo Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Political Science © Ragna Lillevik, 2020 Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Oslo No. 803 ISSN 1564-3991 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. Cover: Hanne Baadsgaard Utigard. Print production: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo. Contents Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 4 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 6 1. Background .......................................................................................................................................... 7 2. Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 11 3. Islam in Europe and policy responses: a brief literary review ........................................................... 12 3.1 Contestation over Islam in Europe .............................................................................................. 12 3.2 Policy responses: diversity, convergence or path dependency .................................................. 14 3.3 Opportunities for new perspectives ............................................................................................ 15 3.4 Summary...................................................................................................................................... 16 4. Analytical framework ........................................................................................................................ 18 4.1 A multiple streams-inspired approach to the policy process .................................................. 18 4.2 Politicisation as entrepreneurship and condition for policymaking ....................................... 20 4.3 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 23 5. Research design, data and methods ................................................................................................. 24 5.1 Case selection, internal validity and generalisation .................................................................... 24 5.2 Data collection, validity and reliability ........................................................................................ 27 5.3 To triangulate or not to triangulate ............................................................................................ 28 5.4 Categorisation and ethical considerations .................................................................................. 29 6. Relationship to philosophy of science ............................................................................................... 31 7. Research ethics .................................................................................................................................. 33 8. Summary of the articles .................................................................................................................... 35 Article I: The political accommodation of military turbans and the police hijab in Norway: windows of opportunity ................................................................................................................................... 35 Article II: Populism and resistance in Norwegian parliamentary debates on Muslim veils (submitted manuscript) ....................................................................................................................................... 36 Article III: Better together? Multicultural dilemmas and practices in funding of Muslim civil society organisations ..................................................................................................................................... 37 9. Relationship between the articles ..................................................................................................... 40 10. Main findings ................................................................................................................................... 42 10.1 Resistance .................................................................................................................................. 42 10.2 Room for “acting in common”................................................................................................... 43 10.3 Delegating unresolved concerns ............................................................................................... 44 11. Suggestions for Future Research ..................................................................................................... 46 References ............................................................................................................................................. 47 Article I: The political accommodation of military turbans and the police hijab in Norway: windows of opportunity............................................................................................................................................ 54 2 Article II: Populism and Resistance in Norwegian Parliamentary Debates on Muslim Veils ................ 74 Article III: Better together? Multicultural dilemmas and practices in funding of Muslim civil society organisations ....................................................................................................................................... 103 Tables and figures Figure 1: The relationship between streams, policy windows and opportunities for new policy according to the multiple streams approach ........................................................................................ 19 Figure 2: Typology of politics towards a topic, by (van der Brug et al., 2015, p. 7) .............................. 21 Table 1: Overview of cases .................................................................................................................... 25 Table 2: Data sources ............................................................................................................................ 27 3 Summary This thesis explores how contestation over Islam shapes policy responses in Norway. Across Europe, different states develop political responses to Islam and other minority religions, shaped by historical church-state relations and human rights frameworks, but with considerable space for adaptation and discretion. The topic of my research is how political actors make their public policy decisions, within this space for discretion, and under the conditions created by high levels of conflict over Islam. I study this empirically with a qualitative research design aimed at exploring within-case variation in Norwegian policymaking on Islam, searching for mechanisms and patterns in how political actors and public officials make their policy decisions. Analytically, I draw on John Kingdon’s multiple streams approach to the policy process. This approach stipulates that contestation over policy problems, political interests, and policy solutions related to Islam can occur simultaneously and independently, but making new policy is only possible by merging these streams. Empirically, I compare patterns of responses to claims making and contestation of Islam in a selection of case studies, that all address change over time in variables that shape policy responses to Islam. I compare government responses to two most similar minority claims for religious accommodation in state organisations, 20 years apart; I study variation in mainstream party responses to populist agenda setting on Muslim veiling in the Parliament, in debates dating from 2003 to 2018; and I compare 20 cases of local level mediation and implementation of national policy towards Muslim and non-Muslim immigrant organisations. The primary data material for my research consists of qualitative interviews with key informants and official documents such as parliamentary protocols and official letters, in some cases triangulated with media records and secondary sources. The research findings are disseminated through three articles. The thesis describes how political actors and public officials in Norway produce a diverse range of policy responses to agenda setting on Islam. In the research presented, I identify three patterns: resistance towards politicisation and policy change, adoption of similar problem presentations that accommodate policy change, and delegation of conflict to the implementation stage. Resistance occurs when actors with authority draw the line on what constitutes a public problem or what kinds of policy interventions that are legitimate, in a way that blocks policy action. My findings show that resistance strategies can block restrictive as well as accommodating policy proposals. However, I also find that policy entrepreneurs have been able to construct new room for making policy on Islam in Norway on the issue of Muslim veiling. 4 Substantially, Norwegian decision-makers grapple with core questions at stake in European approaches to secularism: How can the authorities accommodate Muslim citizens as rights-holding individuals and as communities, and when does
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