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Life Is Pretty Meaningful See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257935202 Life Is Pretty Meaningful Article in American Psychologist · September 2014 DOI: 10.1037/a0035049 CITATIONS READS 111 3,083 2 authors: Samantha Heintzelman Laura A King Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey University of Missouri 26 PUBLICATIONS 343 CITATIONS 123 PUBLICATIONS 10,235 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Online Interventions to Improve Well-Being (PPI, OPPI, ehealth, mhealth) View project All content following this page was uploaded by Laura A King on 29 May 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Life is Pretty Meaningful 1 Heintzelman, S. J., & King ,L. A. (in press). Life is Pretty Meaningful. American Psychologist. Life is Pretty Meaningful Samantha J. Heintzelman & Laura A. King University of Missouri, Columbia Abstract The human experience of meaning in life is widely viewed as a cornerstone of well-being and a central human motivation. Self-reports of meaning in life relate to a host of important functional outcomes. Psychologists have portrayed meaning in life as simultaneously chronically lacking in human life as well as playing an important role in survival. Examining the growing literature on meaning in life, we address the question, “How meaningful is life, in general?” We review possible answers from various psychological sources, some of which anticipate that meaning in life should be low, and others high. Summaries of epidemiological data and research using two self-report measures of meaning in life suggest that life is pretty meaningful. Diverse samples rate themselves significantly above the midpoint on self-reports of meaning in life. We suggest that if meaning in life plays a role in adaptation, it must be commonplace, as our analysis suggests. Keywords: meaning in life, well-being, Positive Psychology Life is Pretty Meaningful 2 Life is Pretty Meaningful Considering one’s life to be meaningful which is it? Is meaning in life commonplace (as is associated with a multitude of very good any necessity of life must be) or is it, instead, a things. Self-reports of meaning in life are rare experience? Answering this question is our associated with higher quality of life, especially goal in this article. with age (Krause, 2007), superior self-reported First, we briefly define meaning in life health (Steger, Mann, Michels, & Cooper, and then review various psychological 2009), and decreased mortality (Boyle, Barnes, perspectives on the potential answer to our Buchman, & Bennett, 2009; Krause, 2009). central question. Then, drawing on research on Meaning in life predicts slower age-related meaning in life we suggest that the answer to the cognitive decline and decreased risk for question, “How meaningful is life?” as Alzheimer disease (Boyle, Buchman, Barnes, & anticipated in our title, is a potentially Bennett, 2010). Meaning in life is associated surprising, “Pretty meaningful.” We then with lower incidence of psychological disorders address some likely critiques of our analysis. (Mascaro & Rosen, 2005; Owens, Steger, Finally, we suggest important implications of the Whitesell, & Herrerra, 2009; Steger & Kashdan, conclusion that, for all its apparent mystery, 2009) and suicidal ideation, even within the meaning in life is relatively commonplace. context of depression (Heisel & Flett, 2004). Conceptually and Operationally Defining Those who report their lives as meaningful are Meaning in Life more likely to rely on adaptive coping strategies To begin we must, of course, define (Thompson, Coker, Krause, & Henry, 2003). In what we mean by meaning in life.1 A number of the work domain, meaning in life is related to diverse definitions of meaning in life have been heightened occupational adjustment (Littman- suggested. Importantly, though differing in Ovadia & Steger, 2010). In the social domain, various ways, these definitions do share at least those who rate their lives as quite meaningful three common themes. Two of these are are rated by others as more socially appealing motivational or existential in nature: First, a (Stillman, Lambert, Fincham, & Baumeister, meaningful life is one that has a sense of 2011). purpose and, second, a meaningful life is one Yet, as clearly important as the that matters or possesses significance (e.g., experience of meaning in life is to human Baumeister, 1991). A final shared theme is existence, it remains, in some ways, a construct more cognitive: The meaningful life makes and experience shrouded in mystery. At times, sense to the person living it, it is meaning in life would appear to be hotly sought comprehensible, and characterized by regularity, after and, potentially, chronically lacking in predictability, or reliable connections (e.g., people’s lives. Even the briefest skim of the best Antonovsky, 1993; Baumeister, 1991; seller list or a casual walk down the self-help Baumeister & Vohs, 2002). Definitions of aisle of a bookstore suggests that people will meaning in life tend to include these aspects of spend a great deal of money in search of a the experience, though they may vary in terms of meaningful or purposeful life. Psychological which component is emphasized. Consider, as perspectives on meaning in life reveal a paradox: an example, the following definition proffered Meaning in life bears the unlikely distinction of by King and colleagues (King, Hicks, Krull, & being recognized as, at once, a necessity of life Del Gaiso, 2006, p. 180), “Lives may be but also an increasingly rare commodity (e.g., experienced as meaningful when they are felt to Frankl, 1964/1984; Maslow, 1968; Wong & Fry, have a significance beyond the trivial or 1998). Obviously, both of these momentary, to have purpose, or to have a characterizations cannot be accurate. Nothing coherence that transcends chaos.” that human beings require to survive can be next Or another offered by Steger (2012, p. to impossible to obtain. If meaning in life is 65), “Meaning is the web of connections, thought to play a role in survival, then it must be understandings, and interpretations that help us commonplace (Halusic & King, 2013). So, comprehend our experience and formulate plans Life is Pretty Meaningful 3 directing our energies to the achievement of our eudaimonia is conceived of as something greater desired future. Meaning provides us with the than plain old happiness (Kashdan, Biswas- sense that our lives matter, that they make sense, Diener, & King, 2008). As part of eudaimonia, and that they are more than the sum of our then, the meaningful life would seem to be a true seconds, days, and years.” (and potentially rare) human accomplishment. These rather lofty conceptual definitions Certainly, compared to say, the happy life, the notwithstanding, research on meaning in life, meaningful life has been characterized as including the many studies cited in our opening relatively scarce (Seligman, 2002, 2011). paragraph, has used self-report questionnaires Research has shown that most people rate their that ask individuals to rate how purposeful and levels of happiness or satisfaction to be above meaningful their lives are. We will address the the midpoint on self-report rating scales (Diener tension between scholarly definitions of & Diener, 1996). Thus, from the eudaimonic meaning in life and these more humble self- perspective, we might expect meaning in life to ratings that rely on an intuitive understanding of be at least less common than happiness, so we the meaning of the words “purposeful” and might tally a vote for relatively low levels of “meaningful” (Hicks & King, 2009a) later in meaning in life. this article. With these conceptual and Although most research on meaning in operational definitions in place, we now briefly life is correlational, increasingly, researchers review perspectives on meaning in life that have examined the ways that self-reports of suggest different answers to the question, “How meaning in life are influenced by various meaningful is life?” laboratory manipulations. We note three strands Potential Answers of experimental research that provide a reason to Theorists and researchers have weighed expect that meaning in life might not be quite so in on meaning in life in various ways. Although rare after all. rarely (if ever) have they attempted to quantify Social Exclusion the amount of meaning that is likely to be Social relationships are a foundational experienced in human life, on average, there are source of meaning in life (e.g., Hicks & King, indications in these diverse perspectives with 2009b). Individuals who are lonely, socially regard to the how meaningful human life is excluded, ignored, or ostracized are worse off on likely to be. The notion that meaning in life is a number of psychological outcomes, including chronically lacking is well-represented in reporting lower meaning in life, than those who scholarly treatments of the topic. From an are included (see Williams, 2007 for review). existential perspective, the lack of meaning in More surprisingly, even very superficial human existence is the central and enduring laboratory manipulations affect the experience problem of that existence. Frankl (1964/1984) of meaning in life (King & Geise, 2011). pointed to the dangerous “existential vacuum” Participants who received a single instance of increasingly faced by modern humans. Yalom rejecting feedback from a confederate rated
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