TIP-ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY in GRAPHENE

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TIP-ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY in GRAPHENE TIP-ENHANCED RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY in GRAPHENE F Cassiano Rabelo December, 2019 Doctoral thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Electrical Engineering of the Federal University of Minas Gerais in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Electrical Engineering. Advisor: Prof. Dr. Ado Jorio de Vasconcelos Co-advisor: Prof. Dr. Luiz Gustavo O. L. Cançado “What I want to talk about is the problem of manipulating and controlling things on a small scale” — Richard Feynman Abstract This work addresses fundamental aspects regarding the use of mi- cro and nano optical spectroscopy for the characterization of mate- rials, specially graphene, with potential implications to other two- dimensional nanostructures. It can be said that the difference between micro and nano characterization stems from a limitation intrinsic to optical imaging and spectroscopy systems, for which light cannot be focused in a region smaller than approximately half of its wavelength, where diffraction becomes a limiting factor to spatial resolution. In order to adapt optical spectroscopy to nanoscience, we use a characterization technique where through the use of an optical nanoantenna, chemical and structural characterization and material manipulation can be achieved at nanoscale. Known as Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS), this technique combines confocal Ra- man spectroscopy, a diffraction limited technique, with a scanning probe microscope (SPM). In this joint configuration, where an optical nanoantenna is coupled to an inverted microscope, the system is capa- ble of acquiring images and spectral information from nanostructures smaller then the diffraction limit of visible light. Under development at UFMG’s Laboratory of Nanospectroscopy — LabNS — since 2007, this equipment has undergone substantial im- provement during this work in order to increase its precision, repeata- bility, stability and usability, having been successfully used for micro- scopic and nanoscopic characterization of several distinct graphene materials, which include mechanically exfoliated graphene patterned by helium ion microscopy, graphene flakes smaller than 500 nanome- ters, CVD graphene and graphene membranes, all with a level of detail unprecedented in the literature. We begin by showing that TERS can reveal localized distribution of defects, strain and doping in the two-dimensional structure, generated by helium ion microscopy, which cannot be seen with regular confocal Raman microscopy. The Raman based protocols for defect, strain and doping characterizations are well-established in the literature, but here we demonstrate such characterization with 20 nm spatial resolution. ≈ Second, we demonstrate that, for a given defective graphene struc- ture, Raman spectroscopy data acquired in the nanoscale, below the v vi diffraction limit, is different from data acquired by confocal Raman spectroscopy, for the same given sample. We explain such differ- ences based on spatial interference effects, which happens within the phonon coherence length, as introduced in the literature. We show that such interference phenomena impact analysis protocols that are well-established and commonly applied as data characterization tools in the microscopic and macroscopic regimes, when moving into the nanoscopic regime. We therefore propose a parametrization based on the electromagnetic theory and on experimental data that, when applied to data acquired through TERS, provides a correction factor that can be used to adjust the obtained data, being of special interest to material sciences and for industry related endeavors. All the previous results were obtained using atomic force mi- croscopy (AFM) as the nanoantenna positioning tool. In this work we also show TERS based on scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) which, different from AFM, can also visualize electronic disturbances related to defects in the graphene lattice. Finally, we demonstrate that the TERS system can be used not only to enhanced the spectral spatial resolution, but also as a nanoma- nipulation tool. We used the AFM tip to apply strain on a suspended graphene membrane and demonstrate tip-induced strain on graphene, graphene-substrate slip and graphene rupture. Resumo Este trabalho aborda aspectos fundamentais do uso da micro e da nanoespectroscopia óptica para a caracterização de materiais, em especial grafenos, com implicações potenciais em outras estruturas bidimensionais nanométricas. A diferença entre a micro e a nanocar- acterização advém da limitação intrínseca à óptica convencional, consequentemente à espectroscopia óptica, de que a luz não pode ser localizada em uma região menor do que metade do seu comprimento de onda (da ordem do micrômetro), onde a difração torna-se um fator limitante à resolução espacial. Para adaptar a espectroscopia óptica à nanociência, utilizamos um equipamento de caracterização química e estrutural que permite a manipulação da matéria em escala nanométrica, através da utilização de uma nanoantenna óptica. Conhecida como TERS, do inglês Tip- enhanced Raman spectroscopy, esta técnica combina a espectroscopia Raman, uma técnica limitada pela difração, com técnicas de micro- scopia de varredura por sonda (SPM — Scanning probe microscopy). Em desenvolvimento no Laboratório de Nanoespectroscopia — LabNS da UFMG — desde 2007, este equipamento passou por melho- rias substanciais durante este trabalho a fim de aumentar sua precisão, repetibilidade, estabilidade e usabilidade, tendo sido utilizado com sucesso na caracterização microscópica e nanoscópica de diversos tipos de estruturas de grafeno, incluindo grafeno exfoliado mecanica- mente e nanoestruturado por feixe de hélio, flocos de grafeno com dimensões inferiores a 500 nanômetros, membranas de grafeno e grafeno CVD, todos com um nível de detalhe sem precedentes na literatura. Começamos demonstrando que, em dada estrutura de grafeno bidimensional submetida a um processo de desbaste em um microsco- pio de feixe de ions de He, o TERS foi capaz de revelar, com precisão, a distribuição localizada de defeitos, deformações e dopagem, o que não é alcançado através da microscopia Raman confocal convencional. Os protocolos baseados em espectroscopia Raman para caracterização de defeitos, deformações e dopagem são bem estabelecidos na literatura na escala micrométrica, mas aqui demonstramos essa caracterização com resolução espacial de 20 nm. ≈ vii viii Em seguida, demonstramos que, para uma dada estrutura de grafeno contendo abundante quantidade de defeitos, os dados obti- dos através da espectroscopia Raman em escala nanométrica, abaixo do limite de difração, são diferentes, para uma mesma amostra, dos dados adquiridos por espectroscopia Raman confocal convencional. Explicamos essas diferenças com base em fenômenos de interferência que ocorrem dentro dos limites do comprimento de coerência dos fônons, conforme consta na literatura. Mostramos que esses fenô- menos de interferência impactam, ao transitarmos para o regime nanoscópico, protocolos de análise já bem estabelecidos e comu- mente aplicados como ferramentas de caracterização nos regimes microscópico e macroscópico. Portanto, propomos uma parametriza- ção baseada na teoria eletromagnética e em dados experimentais que, quando aplicada aos dados adquiridos através do TERS, fornece um fator de correção que pode ser utilizado para ajustar os dados obtidos, sendo relevante para a nanociência de materiais e, em especial, para a indústria. Todos os resultados anteriores foram obtidos através da utiliza- ção da microscopia de força atômica (AFM) como ferramenta de posicionamento de nanoantenas. Neste trabalho, apresentamos tam- bém resultados de TERS com base em microscopia de varredura por tunelamento (STM), que, diferente da técnica de AFM, é capaz de visualizar distúrbios da estrutura eletrônica relacionados a defeitos na rede cristalina do grafeno. Por fim, demonstramos que o sistema TERS não tem como única função uma melhoria da resolução espacial espectral, mas podendo ser utilizado também como ferramenta de nanomanipulação. Através da utilização da ponta de AFM, aplicamos, de maneira controlada, tensão em uma membrana de grafeno, demonstrando efeitos da ten- são induzida pela ponta, além de efeitos de deslizamento do grafeno sobre o substrato e sua eventual ruptura. Agradecimentos Agradeço a minha família por todo amor e suporte. A minha amada esposa Helena, cuja trajetória, há mais de 20 anos, se mistura com a minha; aos meus filhos, Pedro e Mariana, que com sua deliciosa presença diária deram-me a oportunidade de saber o que é amor incondicional. Agradeço a minha mãe Regina, meu farol sempre presente! Provedora de um carinho imensurável e presença constante na reta final. Agradeço ao meu orientador Ado, por todo ensinamento, pela paciên- cia, pela confiança depositada em meu trabalho e principalmente pela amizade. É uma honra fazer parte de seu time. Agradeço ao Gusta, meu co-orientador e quem me recebeu de portas abertas no Laboratório de Nanoespectroscopia da UFMG, conduzindo- me com maestria pelo universo da nano-óptica. Sempre disposto a ensinar e a ajudar. Obrigado pelo carinho. Agradeço ao Daniel, Xubaka e Mário por todo auxílio em minha jornada, pelas diversas aulas particulares que me deram, pelas boas risadas e pela amizade. Agradeço ao Hudson, fiel companheiro nas mais diversas batalhas, dotado de imensa inteligência e de um senso de humor ímpar! Obri- gado por toda ajuda e constante presença. Agradeço ao Thiago L. Vasconcelos pela imensa receptividade em todas as visitas
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