DOCSLIB.ORG

Increasing Estimation Precision in Localization Microscopy

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Increasing Estimation Precision in Localization Microscopy INCREASING ESTIMATION PRECISION IN LOCALIZATION MICROSCOPY by Carl G. Ebeling A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physics Department of Physics and Astronomy The University of Utah May 2015 Copyright © Carl G. Ebeling 2015 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Carl G. Ebeling has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Jordan M. Gerton Chair 12/05/2014 Date Approved Erik M. Jorgensen Member 12/05/2014 Date Approved Saveez Saffarian Member 12/05/2014 Date Approved Stephan Lebohec Member 12/05/2014 Date Approved Paolo Gondolo Member 12/05/2014 Date Approved and by _________________ Carleton DeTar_________________ , Chair/Dean of the Department/College/School o f _____________ Physics and Astronomy__________ and by David B. Kieda, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT This dissertation studies detection-based methods to increase the estimation pre­ cision of single point-source emitters in the field of localization microscopy. Localiza­ tion microscopy is a novel method allowing for the localization of optical point-source emitters below the Abbe diffraction limit of optical microscopy. This is accomplished by optically controlling the active, or bright, state of individual molecules within a sam­ ple. The use of time-multiplexing of the active state allows for the temporal and spatial isolation of single point-source emitters. Isolating individual sources within a sample allows for statistical analysis on their emission point-spread function profile, and the spatial coordinates of the point-source may be discerned below the optical response of the microscope system. Localization microscopy enables the identification of individual point-source emitter locations approximately an order of magnitude below standard, diffraction-limited optical techniques. The precision of localization microscopy methods is limited by the statistical uncer­ tainty in which the location of these sources may be estimated. By utilizing a detection- based interferometer, an interference pattern may be super-imposed over the emis­ sion signal. Theoretical analysis and Monte-Carlo simulations by means of Fisher infor­ mation theory demonstrate that the incorporation of a modulation structure over the emission signal allow for a more precise estimation when compared to conventional localization methods for the same number of recorded photons. These theoretical calculation and simulations are demonstrated through the use of two proof-of-concept experiments utilizing a modified Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The first methodology improves the localization precision of a single nanoparticle over the theoretical limit for an Airy-disk point-spread function by using self-interference to spatially modulate the recorded point-spread function. Experimental analysis demon­ strates an improvement factor of « 3 to 5 over conventional localization methods. A related method employs the phase induced onto the Fourier domain signal due to path length differences in the Mach-Zehnder interferometer to improve localization preci­ sion. The localization capability of a modified Fourier domain signal generated by self­ interference is utilized to yield a two-fold improvement in the localization precision for a given number of photons compared to a standard Gaussian intensity distribution of the corresponding point-spread function. iv To my wife Megan. To the next journey! CONTENTS ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................... ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTERS 1.....INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL MICROSCOPY....................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation ................................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Types of Microscopy................................................................................................ 3 1.2.1 Optical Microscopy......................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Fluorescence Microscopy............................................................................... 4 1.3 Microscopy, Specificity, and Resolution.............................................................. 8 1.4 Summary and Outline ........................................................................................... 9 1.5 References ................................................................................................................. 13 2. THE THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF OPTICAL MICROSCOPY..................... 14 2.1 The Principle of Fluorescence............................................................................... 14 2.1.1 Fluorophore Interactions with Light........................................................... 16 2.1.2 Franck-Condon Principle............................................................................... 19 2.2 Resolution, the Point-Spread Function, and the Diffraction Limit ....................................................................................... 21 2.2.1 The Diffraction Limit ..................................................................................... 22 2.2.2 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle....................................................... 24 2.3 The Angular Spectrum Representation ................................................................ 26 2.3.1 Propagating and Evanescent W aves........................................................... 27 2.4 The Airy Profile and Rayleigh Criterion................................................................ 29 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................... 33 2.6 References ................................................................................................................. 33 3. CIRCUMVENTING THE DIFFRACTION BARRIER VIA OPTICAL METHODOLOGIES ..................................................................................... 35 3.1 Super Resolution Microscopy in its Many Forms............................................... 36 3.1.1 Optical Super-Resolution - Moving Beyond Abbe’s Lim it....................... 38 3.1.2 Structured Illumination ................................................................................. 38 3.1.3 STED Microscopy........................................................................................... 39 3.2 Localization Microscopy ....................................................................................... 43 3.2.1 Information Extraction from the Point-Spread Function....................... 44 3.2.2 Isolating Single Fluorophores ...................................................................... 49 3.2.3 The Methodology of Localization Microscopy.......................................... 52 3.2.4 Biological Examples of Localization Microscopy...................................... ..55 3.3 Localization versus Resolution............................................................................ ..58 3.4 Concluding Remarks..................................................................................................62 3.5 References...................................................................................................................63 4. MODIFICATION OF THE POINT-SPREAD FUNCTION THROUGH SELF-INTERFERENCE............................................................................ 67 4.1 Theoretical Concept................................................................................................ 68 4.2 Localization Ability and the Fisher Information M atrix.................................. 69 4.2.1 Derivation of the Fisher Information M atrix............................................. 70 4.3 Monte-Carlo Simulations....................................................................................... 71 4.3.1 One-Dimensional Monte-Carlo Simulations ...............................................72 4.3.2 Effect of Rotating the Interference Fringes by 4 5 ° .................................... ..75 4.3.3 Monte-Carlo Simulations of Target Rings.....................................................76 4.4 Experimental Setup ..................................................................................................77 4.5 Experimental Results ............................................................................................. ..80 4.5.1 Particle Tracking and Wide-field Imaging................................................... 85 4.6 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 86 4.7 References ................................................................................................................. 88 5. INCREASED LOCALIZATION PRECISION BY INTERFERENCE FRINGE ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................... 90 5.1 Motivation ................................................................................................................. 90 5.2 Theory
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Optimization of the Input Fundamental Beam by Using a Spatial Filter Consisting of Two Apertures
    Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 56, No. 1, January 2010, pp. 325∼328 Optimization of the Input Fundamental Beam by Using a Spatial Filter Consisting of Two Apertures Bonghoon Kang∗ Department of Visual Optics, Far East University, Chungbuk Eumseong-gun 369-700 Gi-Tae Joo Materials Science and Technology Division, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 136-791 Bum Ku Rhee Department of Physics, Sogang University, Seoul 121-742 (Received 17 August 2009) The primary importance of the power efficiency of second-harmonic generation (SHG) is deter- mined by using the spatial shape of the fundamental input beam, its confocal parameter. The improvement of the fundamental input beam by using a spatial filter consisting of two apertures. The beam quality factor M2 of the improved fundamental beam was about 2.3. PACS numbers: 42.62.-b, 42.79.Nv, 42.25.Bs Keywords: Second-harmonic generation (SHG), Spatial filter, Beam quality factor, Confocal parameter DOI: 10.3938/jkps.56.325 I. INTRODUCTION Beam shaping requires a specific input beam. In order for the shaping to create an undistorted flat top beam or Gaussian-like beam, the input beam must be Gaus- Second harmonic generation (SHG) is widely used in sian. If the input beam does not have the proper profile, nonlinear optical spectroscopy. The optimization of the then measurements will tell the user that adjustments power efficiency of SHG is of primary importance in a to the source beam must be made before attempting to number of applications, especially when continuous wave perform the laser beam shaping.
    [Show full text]
  • Fourier Optics
    Fourier Optics 1 Background Ray optics is a convenient tool to determine imaging characteristics such as the location of the image and the image magni¯cation. A complete description of the imaging system, however, requires the wave properties of light and associated processes like di®raction to be included. It is these processes that determine the resolution of optical devices, the image contrast, and the e®ect of spatial ¯lters. One possible wave-optical treatment considers the Fourier spectrum (space of spatial frequencies) of the object and the transmission of the spectral components through the optical system. This is referred to as Fourier Optics. A perfect imaging system transmits all spectral frequencies equally. Due to the ¯nite size of apertures (for example the ¯nite diameter of the lens aperture) certain spectral components are attenuated resulting in a distortion of the image. Specially designed ¯lters on the other hand can be inserted to modify the spectrum in a prede¯ned manner to change certain image features. In this lab you will learn the principles of spatial ¯ltering to (i) improve the quality of laser beams, and to (ii) remove undesired structures from images. To prepare for the lab, you should review the wave-optical treatment of the imaging process (see [1], Chapters 6.3, 6.4, and 7.3). 2 Theory 2.1 Spatial Fourier Transform Consider a two-dimensional object{ a slide, for instance that has a ¯eld transmission function f(x; y). This transmission function carries the information of the object. A (mathematically) equivalent description of this object in the Fourier space is based on the object's amplitude spectrum ZZ 1 F (u; v) = f(x; y)ei2¼ux+i2¼vydxdy; (1) (2¼)2 where the Fourier coordinates (u; v) have units of inverse length and are called spatial frequencies.
    [Show full text]
  • Diffraction and Spatial Filtering P
    Diffraction and Spatial Filtering P. Bennett PHY452 "Optics" Concepts Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction; Spatial Filtering; Geometric optics (lenses, conjugate object- image points, focal plane, magnification); Fast-Fourier Transform; Analytic functions for N-slit apertures. Background Reading “Diffraction and Fourier Optics” (RiceUnivOpticsLab.pdf). This is an excellent write-up, particularly for theory. We follow it closely. Diffraction Physics, J. M. Cowley - definitive reference for general principles and elegant presentation. Optics, text by E. Hecht - detailed reference document with much practical information. “Geometric optics” (image formation with lenses) and “diffraction” - any UG text. Edmund Optics catalog - excellent technical info, with online tutorials and prices! SpatialFilter.xlt and *.doc Fresnel diffraction calculations (XL template and help) Special Equipment and Skills Alignment of optical components; CCD camera; Laser (Edmund P54-025, 5mW, = 635nm). Precautions Never allow the laser beam into your eye, either directly (“looking” at it) or indirectly (by spurious reflection from metal, glass, etc). Even with viewing screens, the focused spot is extremely bright, so be sure to attenuate the beam to a comfortable viewing level at all times. This will save your eyes and also the detector! Do note exceed 5V for the laser diode ($600). Handle the optical components (lenses, pinhole, apertures, slits) carefully: always store them in the vertical mounts or the wooden rack. Never lay them flat on the table, since they scratch, clog or deform easily. Lens-cleaning tissues and an air brush are available for gentle cleaning. Vinyl gloves are available for handling (mounting, etc), if necessary. Check for scratches by reflections of a bright light.
    [Show full text]
  • Laser Beam “Clean-Up” with Spatial Filter Abstract
    Laser Beam “Clean-Up” with Spatial Filter Abstract To obtain good beam quality is important for many laser applications, and a typical experimental method to obtain good beam quality is the spatial filtering. Within a spatial filtering system, a pinhole is placed on the intermediate focal plane (i.e. the Fourier plane) to get rid of the unwanted spatial frequency components. To model such systems, one must consider the diffraction from the pinhole and the diffraction property of the laser beams, and we demonstrate the spatial filtering effect in this example. 2 Modeling Task How does the size of the pinhole, located at the intermediate focal plane, influence the output beam? ? input field - wavelength lens #1 lens #2 632.8 nm feff = 25 mm feff = 25 mm - multimode laser D = 12.5 mm D = 12.5 mm with “noise” pinhole circular opening Fourier plane 3 Spatial Filter with 7.5µm-Diameter Opening A relatively large pinhole does not filter out much noise on the Fourier plane. 7.5 µm behind pinhole in front of pinhole input field pinhole 7.5 µm diameter lens #1 lens #2 4 Spatial Filter with 7.5µm-Diameter Opening 7.5 µm behind pinhole in front of pinhole input field output field pinhole 7.5 µm diameter lens #1 lens #2 5 Spatial Filter with 5.0µm-Diameter Opening 5.0 µm behind pinhole in front of pinhole input field output field pinhole 5.0 µm diameter lens #1 lens #2 6 Spatial Filter with 2.5µm-Diameter Opening 2.5 µm behind pinhole in front of pinhole input field output field pinhole 2.5 µm diameter lens #1 lens #2 7 Output Beam Profile and Power Comparison lens #1 lens #2 pinhole varying diameter Spatial filter in the Fourier plane helps reduce the higher-frequency noise, therefore leads to better output beam profiles.
    [Show full text]
  • Efficient Method for Controlling the Spatial Coherence of a Laser
    Efficient method for controlling the spatial coherence of a laser M. Nixon1, B. Redding2, A. A. Friesem1, H. Cao2 and N. Davidson1,* 1Dept. of Phys. of Complex Systems, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel 2Dept. of Appl. Phys., Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA *Corresponding author: [email protected] An efficient method to tune the spatial coherence of a degenerate laser over a broad range with minimum variation in the total output power is presented. It is based on varying the diameter of a spatial filter inside the laser cavity. The number of lasing modes supported by the degenerate laser can be controlled from 1 to 320,000, with less than a 50% change in the total output power. We show that a degenerate laser designed for low spatial coherence can be used as an illumination source for speckle-free microscopy that is 9 orders of magnitude brighter than conventional thermal light. One of the important characteristics of lasers is have relatively high lasing thresholds and poor collection their spatial coherence. With high spatial coherence the efficiencies. light that emerges from the lasers can be focused to a Here, we propose and demonstrate a novel and efficient diffraction limited spot or propagate over long distances approach for tuning the spatial coherence of a laser with minimal divergence. Unfortunately, high spatial source. This tuning is achieved with a degenerate laser coherence also results in deleterious effects such as where the number of transverse modes supported by the speckles, so the lasers cannot be exploited in many full- laser can be controlled from one to as many as 320,000.
    [Show full text]
  • Photonic Crystal Spatial Filtering in Broad Aperture Diode Laser
    Photonic crystal spatial filtering in broad aperture diode laser S.Gawali 1,a), D. Gailevičius2,3, G. Garre-Werner1,4, V. Purlys2,3, C. Cojocaru1, J. Trull1 J. Montiel-Ponsoda4, and K. Staliunas1,5 1Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Physics Department, Rambla Sant Nebridi 22, 08222, Terrassa Barcelona, Spain 2Vilnius University, Faculty of Physics, Laser Research Center, Saulėtekio al. 10, LT-10223, Vilnius, Lithuania 3Femtika LTD, Saulėtekio al. 15, LT-10224, Vilnius, Lithuania 4Monocrom S.L, Vilanoveta, 6, 08800, Vilanova i la Geltrú, Spain 5Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Passeig Lluís Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Spain a) Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: [email protected] ABSTRACT Broad aperture semiconductor lasers usually suffer from low spatial quality of the emitted beams. Due to the highly compact character of such lasers the use of a conventional intra-cavity spatial filters is problematic. We demonstrate that extremely compact Photonic Crystal spatial filters, incorporated into the laser resonator, can improve the beam spatial quality, and correspondingly, increase the brightness of the emitted radiation. We report the decrease of the M2 from 47 down to 28 due to Photonic Crystal spatial intra-cavity filtering, and the increase of the brightness by a factor of 1.5, giving a proof of principle of intra-cavity Photonic Crystal spatial filtering in broad area semiconductor lasers. Broad Aperture Semiconductor (BAS) lasers usually design is very inconvenient or even impossible for intra- suffer from the low spatial quality of the emitted beams, cavity use in micro-lasers, such as microchip or especially in high power emission regimes.
    [Show full text]
  • Analysis of STED Doughnuts Generated by a Spatial Light Modulator
    MSc thesis Analysis of STED Doughnuts generated by a Spatial Light Modulator Daily Supervisor: Author: Dr. G.A. Blab A.A.J. (Anton) de Boer 2nd examiner: Prof. Dr. P. van der Straten August 25, 2015 Abstract This paper summarizes the research done for a master thesis at the Molecular Biophysics group, part the of the Physics Department of Utrecht University. Using a custom microscope set- up, we have researched the effects of polarization on the shape of Stimulated Emission-Depletion doughnuts in a high NA objective, simulating an actual STED environment. Additionally, rather than a vortex phase plate, we have used a Spatial Light Modulator to generate the doughnuts. The results are compared to theoretical predictions resulting from simulations. 1 Contents 1 Introduction 4 2 Theory 5 2.1 Light Microscopy . .5 2.1.1 Fluorescent Microscopy . .8 2.1.2 STED: increasing the resolution with doughnuts . .8 2.2 Fourier Optics . 10 2.2.1 The Fresnel Integral . 10 2.2.2 Fourier Lens . 11 2.3 Doughnut beam generation . 13 2.4 Polarization: doughnuts and high NA . 16 2.5 Gerchberg-Saxton Algorithm . 18 3 Instrumentation 20 3.1 SLM set-up . 20 3.1.1 The Spatial Light Modulator . 21 3.1.2 The 4f correlator . 22 3.1.3 Beam modulation by the SLM . 22 3.2 STED set-up . 27 3.2.1 SLM orientation . 28 3.2.2 Sample . 29 3.2.3 Experimental details . 29 3.2.4 Doughnut model . 30 4 Results 32 4.1 Beam modulation . 32 4.1.1 Gerchberg-Saxton Algorithm .
    [Show full text]
  • Application Note Spatial Filter Illuminating Ideas
    Application Note Spatial Filter Illuminating Ideas Introduction Laser systems often use a pinhole aperture called a spatial filter. Spatial filtering is a technique used to improve laser quality by removing higher-order modes and noise in the beam. To accurately model laser propagation through a spatial filter in FRED, it is important to re-synthesize the light field just after the filter. Doing so will accurately model clipping at the aperture. In this note, a light synthesis technique called Gabor decomposition will be described. Gaussian Beamlet Model of Coherent Light Modeling coherent light in FRED is accomplished using a technique called Gaussian Beam Decomposition (GBD). The light field is divided into individual Gaussian beamlets that propagate coherently with respect to each other. Each beamlet is represented as a set of rays (Figure 1). The base ray is traced along the axis of the beamlet. Eight secondary rays are included: four orthogonal secondary waist rays representing the beam waist, and four orthogonal secondary divergence rays representing beam divergence. During a raytrace, the base ray determines the fate of all secondary rays: if the base ray passes through an aperture, for example, all secondary rays must also pass through the aperture. This technique of representing Gaussian beamlets using rays is called complex ray tracing. Figure 1. Complex ray representation of a Gaussian beamlet. If laser light is brought to a focus at a spatial filter, most base rays in the coherent ray trace will pass through the aperture. This neglects the effect of clipping. To properly model clipping, the light field at the spatial filter plane should be re-sampled within the aperture.
    [Show full text]
  • Shaping Symmetric Airy Beam Through Binary Amplitude Modulation For
    Shaping symmetric Airy beam through binary amplitude modulation for ultralong needle focus Zhao-Xiang Fang,1 Yu-Xuan Ren,2,a) Lei Gong,1 Pablo Vaveliuk,3 Yue Chen,4 and Rong-De Lu4,b) 1 Department of Optics and Optical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China 2National Center for Protein Sciences Shanghai, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China 3 Centro de Investigaciones Opticas (CONICET La Plata-CIC), Cno. Centenario y 506, P.O. Box 3, 1897 Gonnet, La Plata, Pcia. de Buenos Aires, Argentina 4 Physics Experiment Teaching Center, School of Physical Sciences , University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China Needle-like electromagnetic field has various advantages for the applications in high-resolution imaging, Raman spectroscopy, as well as long-distance optical transportation. The realization of such field often requires high numerical aperture (NA) objective lens and the transmission masks. We demonstrate an ultralong needle-like focus in the optical range produced with an ordinary lens. This is achieved by focusing a symmetric Airy beam (SAB) generated via binary spectral modulation with a digital micromirror device (DMD). Such amplitude modulation technique is able to shape traditional Airy beams, SABs, as well as the dynamic transition modes between the one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) symmetric Airy modes. The created 2D SAB was characterized through measurement of the propagating fields with one of the four main lobes blocked by an opaque mask. The 2D SAB was verified to exhibit self-healing property against propagation with the obstructed major lobe reconstructed after a certain distance.
    [Show full text]
  • Beam-Propagation Studies on Cyclops
    I ~ Ellerll APR 13 1~76 ~ illid ~~WJF Destroy Telllllllllill Route - Hold mos. Prepared for U.S . Energy Research & Development lell Administration under Contract No. W-7405-Eng-48 LA.WRENCE LIVERMORE LA.BORATORY LLL LASER PROGRAM BEAM-PROPAGATION STUDIES ON CYCLOPS -------------------- Cyclops, a single-chain Nd :glass laser, produces a Cyclops Laser Chain I-TW sub nanosecond pulse whose brightness exceeds The Cyclops laser chain is shown schematically in 1018 W/cm 2 ·sr. This is state-of-the-art performance Fig . 14. The dye-mode-locked Nd: Y AG oscillator with for solid-state laser technology. Three key factors have its optically triggered sp ark-gap switchout produces a contributed to this achievement: disk amplifiers in the Single 1.5 -m 1, 100-ps pulse of 1.06-J1m light. This pulse final power stage with 20-cm clear apertures, spatial is amplified by two stages of rod preamplifiers and filters for controlling small-scale self-focusing, and three stages of disk amplifiers. The basic staging after quadratic apertures for mmlmlzmg whole-beam initial preamplification includes an iteration of distortion. Cyclops serves both as a prototype for multilayer dielectric-coated polarizers, pulsed Faraday future multiarmed laser systems and as a full-scale rotators, and amplifiers. The rotator-polarizer experimental amplifier facility for investigating combinations provide about 25 dB of backward beam-propagation phenomena and testing system attenuation for each 10 dB of gain in the forward components. direction. This ensures that laser components will not A number of laboratories throughout the world are be damaged as a result of target reflections.
    [Show full text]
  • Improved Spatial Filter and Serrated Aperture for High-Energy Pulsed
    Transactions of the Korean Nuclear Society Spring Meeting Chuncheon, Korea, May 25-26 2006 Improved Spatial Filter and Serrated Aperture for High-Energy Pulsed Lasers S. K. Hong,a K. H. Go,a K. T .Lee,a D. H. Yun,a J. J. Goo,a D. W. Lee,b L. Li,c C. H. Lim a a Laboratory for Quantum Optics, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute., [email protected] b Department ofPhysics, KAIST. c Department ofApplied Physics, The Paichai University. 1. Introduction Spatial filters are essential components of high- energy pulsed laser systems where they are used to Rejected ray remove high spatial-frequency components from a high- energy pulsed laser-beam to control instabilities in the laser-beam amplification process [1]. The spatial filter Transmitted ray is a focusing lens-collimating lens pair with a pinhole placed at their common focus. Figure 1 shows a Expanding plasma conventional washer-type pinhole structure and conical- type pinhole structure. It was demonstrated that a conical-type pinhole structure in a spatial filter was suitable for high-energy laser system because of the (a) better reduction of plasma generation as shown in Expanding plasma Fig .1) [2]. Diffraction ripples of relay planes in high- energy pulsed laser system are amplified by self- Transmitted focusing in optical components such as amplifier ray materials [3]. This result can cause damages of optical components. A serrated aperture with a spatial filter Rejected ray provides a solution to the damage problem by perform its apodization functions [4]. Therefore, we have (b) investigated the spatial beam profile in combination with a serrated aperture and conical-type pinhole structure for high-energy pulsed laser system.
    [Show full text]
  • Programmable Beam Spatial Shaping System for the National Ignition Facility
    LLNL-PROC-469093 Programmable Beam Spatial Shaping System for the National Ignition Facility J. Heebner, M. Borden, P. Miller, S. Hunter, K. Christensen, M. Scanlan, C. Haynam, P. Wegner, M. Hermann, G. Brunton, E. Tse, A. Awwal, N. Wong, L. Seppala, M. Franks, E. Marley, N. Wong, L. Seppala, M. Franks, E. Marley, K. Williams, T. Budge, M. Henesian, C. Stolz, T. Suratwala, M. Monticelli, D. Walmer, S. Dixit, C. Widmayer, J. Wolfe, J. Bude, K. McCarty, J. M. DiNicola February 4, 2011 SPIE Photonics West San Francisco, CA, United States January 22, 2011 through January 27, 2011 Disclaimer This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States government. Neither the United States government nor Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, nor any of their employees makes any warranty, expressed or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States government or Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government or Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC, and shall not be used
    [Show full text]