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A Brief History of the Soil Health Concept Eric C

A Brief History of the Soil Health Concept Eric C

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A Brief History of the Health Concept Eric C. Brevik Department of Natural Sciences, Dickinson State University, Dickinson, ND, 58601; [email protected]

Abstract has been a very popular topic over the last two to three decades, but the earliest references to soil health actually date to over 100 years ago. A wide range of fields including , agronomy, foresters, and the medical profession contributed to the development of the soil health concept. The first definitive mention of soil health found in this study was in 1910, but soil health was not a frequent topic in the literature prior to the 1990s and discussion of soil health increased considerably in the 2000s. The original 1910 mention of soil health referred to a concept that was based largely in soil fertility, but by the 1930s aspects of had been added and links between soil health and health had been recognized. Pioneers of the organic movement such as Howard, Balfour, and Rodale were interested in soil health issues in the 1940s. Economic aspects of soil health were being discussed by the 1970s and the need for benchmark data to track soil health changes over time was discussed in the 1980s. The 1990s saw considerable effort put into developing a definition of soil health and debate over whether or not soil health and were synonymous terms. Indicators of soil health were investigated in the 2000s, and the Soil Health Division of the USDA Natural Conservation Service was formed in 2014. Between 1910 and 2018 soil health has evolved into a concept that is widely utilized by both scientists and farmers and has an integral place in the quest for sustainable soil and management.

Introduction Soil health has become a popular topic over the last 20-30 years, and some people may assume it is a modern idea. However, while it has evolved over the years, the soil health concept is much older than just 30 or so years. The earliest mention of “soil health” as a specific term that I have found dates back over 100 years, to a thesis written in 1910 by Henry A. Wallace, a student at Iowa State University who would go on to be appointed Secretary of Agriculture by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1933. However, while the idea of soil health was being discussed 100 years ago it was a rarely discussed topic, as opposed to the frequent discussion that takes place today, and the concept was focused on soil chemical and physical properties, with no mention of soil biology. The goal of this historical review is to provide a brief history of the soil health concept, including how it has evolved over time and how frequently soil health has been mentioned in the scientific literature from one decade to the next.

Materials and Methods Google Scholar was used to search each decade from the 1850s to the opening years of the 2000s for papers that included the exact phrase “soil health”, with the search being completed on 18 February 2018. This approach over-estimated the number of references to “soil health” that literally refer to the soil health concept. For example, there were instances when the search for “soil health” returned “soil, health”. In these latter cases the publications were discussing soil and then health as two separate concepts, rather than as a single concept. Harrison (1906) returned a “soil, health” reference that referred to qualities of the USA State of Virginia providing for good and good human health. Another early example was a paper on dwarf apples where the “soil, health” entry was part of a discussion about how both the soil a tree was planted in and the health of the tree were important factors to consider during pruning (Hedrick, 1915). These types of returns were common in the early decades of the search. It was impossible to separate out all of the false “soil health” returns because it was not possible to obtain some of the older references and over the last 20 years there were too many returns (>20,000) to sort through. Brought to you by the SSSA Profile

Therefore, to evaluate trends that were more certain to be related to the concept of soil health, another Google Scholar search was done for “soil health” by decade for articles published in the Soil Science Society of America Journal (SSSAJ). With a history that goes back to 1921 as the Proceedings of the American Association of Workers, SSSAJ is one of the oldest continuously published American journals devoted to soil science; the journal Soil Science, which has been published since 1916, is the oldest (Moon and Landa, 2017). After trends were established, selected papers were reviewed from each decade to establish how the soil health concept was viewed and utilized at various times over the last ~100 years.

Results and Discussion Frequency with Time More than 93% of the results returned by Google Scholar were from 2000 or later (Table 1). No returns were found from 1850 through 1900 that could conclusively be shown to refer to a concept of soil health. From 1900 to 1939 all four decades returned single digit counts in the general “soil health” Google Scholar search, with the first publication that definitely referenced a concept of soil health being the Wallace thesis in 1910. The next four decades, from 1940-1979, all had double digit counts. The 1980s stepped up to the hundreds and the 1990s to the thousands of returns. Both decades in the 2000s returned over 10,000 hits each in the search, even though the decade from 2010-2019 is not yet complete. From the 1960s on the Google Scholar search returned “about” results, i.e., “about 270 results”, rather than an exact count.

Table 1. Results by decade for the Google Scholar “soil health” search. Search was done on 18 February 2018. Decade Publications SSSAJ Publications Returned* ReturnedϮ 1900-1909 3 NP 1910-1919 6 NP 1920-1929 1 0 1930-1939 5 0 1940-1949 19 0 1950-1959 15 2 1960-1969 25 1 1970-1979 74 2 1980-1989 235 10 1990-1999 1740 16 2000-2009 13000 108 2010-February 2018 17800 141 * - From 1960 through 2018 Google Scholar provided returns that were worded as “about x results”. Ϯ – From 1990 through 2018 Google Scholar provided returns that were worded as “about x results”. NP – Not published during this decade.

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The predecessors to SSSAJ, which are indexed with SSSAJ, were not published until 1921, so there were no returns for the first two decades of the 1900s. From the 1920s through 1940s there were no returns, and from the 1950s to the 1970s the total number of soil health publications in SSSAJ were low, in the single digits per decade. Publications hit double digits per decade in the 1980s and 1990s and there was a large increase in papers published in SSSAJ in the 2000s and 2010s, being an order of magnitude higher than in any previous decade (Table 1). These trends were similar to the trends found in the full Google Scholar search.

Evolving Concept of Soil Health The core concepts of soil health date back over 100 years. The earliest clear reference to soil health found in this review was made by Wallace (1910), who wrote about the importance of , particularly as obtained from , in maintaining soil health. However, Wallace’s concept of soil health was based largely on concepts of soil physical and chemical properties as they related to soil fertility, with nothing in his writing to indicate an awareness of the importance of soil organisms.

In the 1930s contributions from soil biology were added to the soil health concept in a paper by Stafford (1931). In particular, Stafford reported that vegetative diversity, natural additions of organic matter from vegetation, and nitrification by soil bacteria were important contributors to soil productivity. The USDA’s Agricultural Adjustment Administration published “Soil Health and National Wealth” in 1936. The concept of soil health promoted in this piece was based largely on soil fertility and the supply of essential nutrients to crops, but the publication also states that “ and animals, bacteria, molds, lichens, moss, algae, worms, insects, all have played and continue to play their part in mixing and investing the soil with nutrients which make it the matrix for growth.” It is interesting to note that Henry A. Wallace, potentially the first user of the term “soil health” as mentioned earlier, was Secretary of Agriculture when ”Soil Health and National Wealth” was released by the USDA. Another interesting soil health reference from the 1930s is Wrench (1939), an article published by a medical doctor in The British Medical Journal. In his article, Wrench refers to the concept of soil health and how it relates to human health. He also refers to the works of many early leaders in soil-human health connections and organic agriculture, including Sir Albert Howard and Sir Robert McCarrison (Brevik and Sauer, 2015). This is many decades in advance of modern discussions of the links between soil health and human health (e.g., Brevik and Burgess, 2013; Kemper and Lal, 2017).

There was an increase in soil health publications in the 1940s through 1970s. Links between soil health and human health continued to receive attention from both soil scientists (Bennett, 1943) and medical doctors (Picton, 1946). Pioneers of the organic agriculture movement such as Howard, Balfour, and Rodale were also interested in soil health issues (Scofield, 1986). The 1950s saw further recognition of the importance of organisms to soil health (Tarrant, 1956), and in the 1960s Keet (1967) linked proper thinning of timber plantations to improved soil health.

By the 1970s George (1977) defined soil health as “the inherent replenishment of nutrients in the soil through the process of weathering and soil formation.” Dhua (1975) argued that the creation of organo- was essential to maintain soil health while supplying adequate plant nutrients and Swaminathant (1977) stated that research into soil health issues was one of the most pressing needs in Indian agriculture. The importance of soil health to range production in Africa was also being discussed (Heady, 1975), and there was increasing recognition that soil health is more than just soil fertility (Hutchinson, 1971). The ability of a diverse ecosystem in a healthy soil to buffer against soil-borne diseases was recognized (Cox, 1975) as were economic aspects of soil health, namely, the idea that long-term soil health was being sacrificed for short-term economic gains, even though the problems created by these Brought to you by the SSSA Profile

short-term gains would be very costly in the future (Banathy et al., 1977). The 1980s saw interest in the part that could play in maintaining and improving soil health (Swaminathan, 1987), the role of soil health in the overall health of society was recognized (Jain, 1988), and soil health was acknowledged as part of the of an agricultural operation (Vail, 1987). There was discussion of the need for benchmark data to allow the tracking of changes in soil health over time (Qureshi and Njihia, 1984).

As we moved into the 1990s important groups such as farmers were widely adopting the soil health concept (Romig et al., 1995) and there was considerable interest in defining soil health. Acton and Gregorich (1995) stated that the soil health definition needed to move beyond the agricultural concept of soil productivity and suggested “the soil's fitness to support crop growth without resulting in soil degradation or otherwise harming the environment” as a definition. Mausbach and Tugel (1995) defined soil health as “the ability of soil to perform or function according to its potential, and changes over time due to human use and management or to unusual natural events.” Doube and Schmidt (1997) took a plant-centric perspective when they proposed “Healthy soils are those in which the capacity of plants to convert and CO2 to structural carbohydrate (i.e., the capacity to grow) remains near the upper limits of potential productivity (set by environmental constraints) over an extended period (years).” Doran et al. (1996) provided a definition for soil health that is still widely in use: “the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain the quality of air and environments, and promote plant, animal, and human health”. Note that the Doran et al. definition goes well beyond agriculture, and includes aspects such as environmental quality and organism health. Along with securing a definition of soil health, there was also considerable interest in creating a soil health index (Haberern, 1992; Harris and Bezdicek, 1994; Romig et al., 1995; Halvorson et al., 1996) and discussion of whether soil health and soil quality were separate ideas or different terms to express the same fundamental idea (Harris and Bezdicek, 1994; Romig et al., 1995; Doran et al., 1996; Karlen et al., 1997). There was continued interest in the links between soil health and human health (Doran et al., 1996).

In the 2000s and 2010s the Google Scholar general and SSSAJ specific searches both returned results that were an order of magnitude higher than for any of the preceding decades (Table 1), indicating considerable growth in the interest in soil health. How to take scientific research and convert it into practical applications to improve soil health was discussed (Doran, 2002). There was great interest in the search for indicators of soil health (e.g., van Bruggen and Semenov, 2000; Neher, 2001; Kibblewhite, et al., 2008; Franzluebbers, 2010) (Table 2) (Figure 1) and ways to manage soils in such a way that soil health would be maintained or enhanced (e.g., Doran and Zeiss, 2000; Pankhurst et al., 2003). Gregorich et al. (2006) linked soil health to land stewardship, and the ability to pass the family farm on to future generations. Scientists in fields such as microbiology and chemistry were encouraged to engage in soil health studies (Enriqueta Arias et al., 2005) and there was a push to move the concept of soil health beyond agriculture to include natural and urban environments as well (Brevik, 2009) (Figure 2).

As we moved into the second decade of the 2000s various organizations became interested in promoting soil health. The Soil Health Institute was formed in 2013 by the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation and the Farm Foundation with a mission to “Safeguard and enhance the vitality and productivity of soil through scientific research and advancement.” (Soil Health Institute, 2016). The USDA-NRCS became very involved in soil health, forming the Soil Health Division (SHD) in 2014 (Stott and Moebius-Clune, 2017). The SHD also developed their own definition of soil health: “The continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and .” (Stott and Moebius-Clune, 2017). At about the same time the concept of soil security was being developed (McBratney et al., 2014). Soil health is analogous to the condition dimension in the soil security concept (Field, 2017), and just as links between Brought to you by the SSSA Profile

soil health and human health were being noted as early as the 1930s (Wrench, 1939) through the present (Kemper and Lal, 2017), such links have also been noted between soil security and human health (Brevik et al., 2017).

Table 2. Indicators of soil health that were commonly used in the first decade of the 2000s. Table from Brevik (2009). Chemical Indicators Physical Indicators Biological Indicators pH Texture Microbial Organic matter Bulk density populations Total carbon Penetration resistance Nematode populations Total nitrogen Aggregate stability Arthropod populations Cation exchange capacity Water holding capacity Mycorrhizal fungi Major and minor nutrients Infiltration rate Respiration rate Electrical conductivity Depth to hardpan Soil enzyme activities Heavy metals and other plant toxins Depth to water table Pollutant detoxification Porosity Decomposition rate Erosive potential Aeration

a b c

Figure 1. a. Collecting a bulk density sample of known volume. b. Using the tea-bag method (Keuskamp et al., 2013) to investigate soil decomposition rates. c. Data loggers set up to collect information on soil temperature, water content, and as well as information on atmospheric conditions. Photos by E. Brevik

Concluding Statements There were a number of interesting insights from this historical review of the soil health literature: 1) The fundamental concept of soil health is not new; it has been around for over 100 years. However, details of the soil health concept have evolved over time, transforming from a primarily soil fertility perspective to a holistic perspective that includes soil fertility, ecosystem functioning, and the support of organismal health. 2) As the concept of soil health has evolved, so too have the specialties of the people who contributed to and are interested in soil health. The concept began with agricultural scientists, but now includes biologists, chemists, foresters, medical doctors, microbiologists, and others. 3) Interest in soil health has moved beyond strictly academic circles and now includes farmers, government agencies, and private institutions. Brought to you by the SSSA Profile

4) Interest in soil health shows no signs of subsiding, as indicated by the ever increasing numbers returned by the Google Scholar search and the formation of groups dedicated to promoting and studying soil health issues.

Figure 2. Sampling for soil microarthropods in native in Montana. Photo by E. Brevik

Acknowledgements The author thanks Steven Shafer of the Soil Health Institute for his useful comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper.

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