The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration Or Subtle Exclusion?

Journal of International Politics Volume 1, Issue 4, 2019, PP 21-39 ISSN 2642-8245

The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion?

Walle Engedayehu, Ph.D1*., Marco Robinson, Ph.D.2 1Associate Professor of Political Science, Prairie View A&M University 2Assistant Professor of History, Prairie View A&M University *Corresponding Author: Walle Engedayehu, Ph.D, Associate Professor of Political Science, Prairie View A&M University. Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT Studies on the Ethiopian Jews, also known as Beta Israel, have increasingly focused on the underlying correlation between their unique identity of Jewishness, rooted in an African state, and their being accepted as Jews in Israel. Also, a significant portion of the research brings to light the social and economic forces that compelled them to emigrate from the Horn of Africa country to the Middle Eastern state. However, what seems to be lacking in the scholarship is a serious inquiry into how a black Jewish community can be fully integrated in the long-term into an Israeli society that is predominantly non-black, as well as the extent to which their assimilation can be either impeded or facilitated due to the racial dynamics peculiar to a black minority. A fundamental question, therefore, is whether integration would be seamless, irrespective of race, for the Beta Israel, as has been for other Diaspora Jewish immigrants. The paper tries to answer this question using existing assimilation theories. At the same time, this author argues that, while being subjected to racial discrimination in the short term, the future of the Ethiopian Jews would be one of having a positively-impacting presence in the Jewish state; this is to say that their potential of becoming a political force could be far-reaching, owing to their growing population count in Israel, a country that has a very small population (6.5 million) compared to many other states around the globe. This potential is further buttressed by mounting Ethiopian cultural manifestations already in the daily lifestyle of the Israeli society. Even more importantly, their potential influence in the foreign policy arena, particularly as this pertains to the strategic interest of Israel in Ethiopia, and the Horn of Africa generally, could be enormous and lasting. The latter influence could come from the Beta Israel community‟s strong attachment to Ethiopia, not only because it is the country of their origin but also it is where they are viewed with much envy as future investors and tourists in a state that has one of the fastest growing economies in Africa. So, the Ethiopian Israelis in effect could serve as a bond between Israel and Africa.

INTRODUCTION that have faced the Beta Israel, the official name used in Israel to identify the Ethiopian Jews, Studies on the Ethiopian Jews in Israel have since their arrival in the Jewish state starting in increasingly focused on the underlying 1977 but mostly in 1984 and later on in correlation between their unique identity of 1991.Fascinated by the exceptionality of a black Jewishness, rooted in an African state, and their Jewish community in Israel---approximately being accepted as Jews in Israel. To a large 150,000 strong residing there currently--- both extent, a significant portion of the research social science researchers and students of brings to light the social and economic forces Ethiopian Jewry have studied and analyzed the that compelled them to emigrate from the Horn multitude of issues facing them as they strive to of Africa country to the Middle Eastern state assimilate fully into the Israeli society (Zelalem, (Feldman, 2012).In spite of the raison d‟être for 2016). their mass exodus from Ethiopia, the settlement of the Ethiopian Jews in Israel is still viewed as However, what seems to be lacking in the consistent with the state of Israel's Law of scholarship is a serious inquiry into how a black Return, which gives Jews and their children Jewish community can be fully integrated in the automatic rights regarding residency and Israeli long-term into an Israeli society that is citizenship. predominantly non-black, as well as the extent to which their assimilation can be either At the same time, more recent scholarly efforts impeded or facilitated due to the racial dynamic have revealed the pitfalls of racial discrimination

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 21 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? speculiar to a black minority. In this regard, a link to Ethiopia from the ancient times to fundamental question would be whether their present. The second section discusses the racial distinctiveness as well as being a minority prominent theories advanced to explain in the larger Israeli social undercurrents could assimilation as a social paradigm. In this cause a lingering divide between them and the connection, existing theories will be put to the rest of their Jewish brethren. Stated differently, test to demonstrate any relevance to the study of would integration be seamless, irrespective of the Ethiopian Jews---the subject area of this race, for the Beta Israel, as has been for other investigation. This is followed by a case study Diaspora Jewi shimmi grants? Historically, for of the Beta Israel, reviewing the empirical many people of Jewish ancestry outside Israel, a evidence on the Ethiopian Jewish community‘s coveted return to the Land of Israel through the mass exodus from the Horn of African country “Aliyah” --- immigration of Jews to Israel--- to Israel and the integrative stages either as individuals or groups, has remained a characterizing their absorption into their adopted lifetime dream. Yet, for the Beta Israel, country. Some of the issues that confront the particularly, the road to full integration into the Ethiopian Jews currently in their social and Israeli society has been bumpy so far despite political existence as immigrants of a black that dream. minority will be assessed. The final section attempts to suggest scenarios in which the Beta So, the overriding purpose of this paper is to Israel can overcome their disadvantaged socio- review research on the status of the Ethiopian political and economic status as they move Jews in Israel. First and foremost, the study bids forward to full integration into the life of Israel. to answer the questions raised above, while The conclusion suggests the directions of future illuminating new insights into a topic that has research on the subject under investigation. been given only scant attention in the literature. In addition to discussing briefly the historical ETHIOPIAN JEWISH COMMUNITY IN THE narrative of the Beta Israel, their “Aliyah” to the HISTORICAL CONTEXT land of Israel starting in mid-1980s, and the extent to which their assimilation has been The narrative about the origin of the Beta Israel hampered by racial and other forms of is one that was argued exhaustively for many discrimination, the study explores ways in years in the works of prominent scholars which the Beta Israel can have a positively- (Kaplan, 1995; Shelemy, 1989; Waldron, 1993); impacting presence in the Jewish state; this is to however, the debate has nearly fallen silent say that their potential of becoming a political since the arrival of the Ethiopian Jews in Israel force could be far-reaching, owing to their following especially the two Israeli covert growing population count in Israel, a country military operations, code-named Operation that has a very small population (6.5 Moses (1984-198) and Operation Solomon million)compared to many other states around (1991), which were carried out secretly to the globe. This potential is further buttressed by relocate the Beta Israel community from mounting Ethiopian cultural manifestations Ethiopia to Israel. Over a span of 7 years (1984- already in the daily lifestyle of the Israeli 191), the secret military missions airlifted society. Even more importantly, their potential thousands of them from the Horn of Africa influence in the foreign policy arena, country for settlement in the Middle Eastern particularly as this pertains to the strategic state. Preceding the secret airlifts was the interest of Israel in Ethiopia, and the Horn of 1977declaration, put into effect by the Israeli Africa generally, could been or mouse and government, allowing the expatriation of the lasting. The latter influence could come from Beta Israel from Ethiopia in accord with the the Beta Israel community‘s strong attachment Law of Return. That decision was consistent to Ethiopia, not only because it is the country of with the ruling of Rabbi Ovadia Yousef in 1973, their origin but also it is where they are viewed validating the Beta Israel‘s historical right as with much envy as future investors and tourists Jews to immigrate to the Land of Israel. Rabbi in a country that has one of the fastest growing Yousef, who died in 2013, was a passionate economies in Africa. So, the Ethiopian Israelis figure in Israeli politics as the spiritual leader of in effect could serve as a bond between Israel the ultra-Orthodox Shas Party, known for and Africa. championing the cause of Jews of Middle Eastern and North African origin (Yosef, 1973). The paper is organized into four sections. The first part provides a brief overview of the For years, the story of the Ethiopian Jewish historical background tracing the Beta Israel‘s community and their mass exodus from Ethiopia

22 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? to the Holy Land has captured the curiosity and had co-existed for many generations. As much imagination of scholars and the media in ways as the extant literature concerning the Beta that no other immigrant groups have. Several Israel has been written by non-Ethiopian historical explanations have been advanced to experts, it is just as important to seek insights establish the true narrative of their origin. One from those scholars that are indigenous to the version of the theory maintains that they were country of their origin---Ethiopia. In fact, ―…descendants of the tribe of Dan or other foreign scholars could have less advantage in tribes exiled by the Babylonians…‖ (Isseroff, collecting the true and reliable historical facts in 2020). In other words, they were Jews who left Ethiopia than scholars of Ethiopian background the Kingdom of Judah, the Biblical Kingdom could. Moreover, the insights of foreign scholars where Judeans were believed to have composed might even be colored by such factors as the contents of the Hebrew Bible, for Egypt in language barriers, lack of cultural sensitivities, the wake of the destruction of the First Temple and other logistical constraints associated with by the Babylonian army in 586 B.C. Still being alien to the land---all possibly leading to a another version of the narrative postulates that misrepresentation of some important elements the Beta Israel were rather descendants of Jews of history. who accompanied Menelik I, the son of the As an Ethiopian academic myself who spent mythical King of Israel---Solomon--- and of the most of my adolescent years with members of Ethiopian legendary Queen of Sheba (Smith, the Beta Israel community in towns and villages 2016). Yet, the most unconventional of the the of northern Ethiopia, I grew up in a society, ories conjectures that the Ethiopian Jews were where oral narrations told by village elders and indigenous Christians who converted to Judaism wise men living in distant rural communities, and so their claim to have Jewish ancestry is was simply taken as valid historical facts, and it ―just a matter of myth and legend‖ (Genetic was rather customary then to accept a Literacy Project, 2012 – 2019). The following storytelling that was passed from one generation probably best describes the divergence of the to another as part of one‘s history. The main theories abound concerning the Beta Israel‘s advantage of an oral history is that many Jewish originality or lack thereof: centuries down the line, the story remains The ancestry of this group is unclear; theories exactly as first told, even if scholars tend not to range that they descend from the lost tribe of believe it. It is therefore plausible to draw Dan, which settled in Egypt during the period of attention to this line of argument at this point to the Divided Kingdom; from the son of King give more credence to the account that the Beta Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, though no Israel were in fact Jewish descendants, contrary mention of a marriage or sexual relations to those scholars‘ assertion that they were not. between them appears in the biblical text; from With my background, I was privileged to know a community who settled in Egypt following the that my own father was a storyteller adept at destruction of the First Temple; or from dissecting genealogy, tracing families from Ethiopian non-Jews who converted. Despite this generations to generations with amazing details, uncertain lineage, the Beta Israel have been while providing insights not only into the living in Ethiopia for centuries, unheard of in bloodline of his own family but those of others the outside world, and not knowing themselves in the communities nearby, including those from that other Jewish communities existed (Zelalem, far-off localities. Based on this experience and 2016, 1). personal observations, I have come to realize While these conflicting theories have failed to rather quickly that many Christian families in lead to an emerging scholarly consensus on the the northern part of Ethiopia, where the Beta true genesis of the Ethiopian Jews, however, the Israel communities had existed for generations, debate may have become irrelevant at this point proudly declare their affinities, justifiably or considering their recognition as Jews by the not, to Israel and particularly to the Holy sites in Israeli government. Still, as a footnote to this Jerusalem. This theme may be rationalized on discussion, this writer argues that the validity of several interrelated historical contexts regarding whether the Beta Israel were Jewish Ethiopia. descendants, who had lived in Ethiopia for Throughout history, Ethiopians, particularly of centuries isolated from the rest of their keens in the northern parts of the country, speak the Holy Land, must be further examined languages that are a derivative of a Semitic through the lens of their fellow Ethiopians back language family, also known as Afro-Asiatic, in the old country, with whom their ancestors

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 23 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? the most prominent of which are Arabic, authenticity of the Ark‘s presence in Ethiopia Aramaic, Hebrew, and Ethiopian languages of (Aleteia, 2016). the Semitic category. Although this in itself may Given the a fore mentioned historical facts that not prove any direct hereditary ties between define Ethiopia in relative terms, one is Ethiopians and Jews, however, it still adds to the therefore inclined to reason that these particulars unique history of Ethiopia among other African could be, along with other cultural countries south of Sahara, both in its proximity manifestations, the basis for understanding to the Middle East as well as its historical ties holistically why the Ethiopian Jews came to be over generations to the people of both Africa who they say they are---the descendants of and the Middle East. Israelites. The truth to their claim of being the At the same time, Ethiopia‘s exceptionalism, a ―original Jews‖ may be found in the intricate notion explaining the condition of being details of Ethiopian exceptionalism so described different from the norm especially of a nation or in the preceding paragraphs. And yet the region, may also shed some light on this subject scientific proof that scholars, who doubt the and provide a better understanding of history not authenticity of this narrative, are looking for only literally and contextually but also inclusive may never be realized. Nonetheless, for the Beta of cultural heritages. Thus, scholars must start Israel particularly and their fellow Ethiopians in examining the facts about the Beta Israel general, the proof is not only the oral history through the prism of these historical anomalies they inherited from their ancestors about this about Ethiopia: the country has the only written narrative, but the series of historical events language in Africa excluding Arabic; a solar surrounding Ethiopia‘s exceptionalism that give calendar that has 12 months of 30 days, plus credence to the Beta Israel‘s Jewish originality. five (six if it is a leap year) other days that make The following quotation might probably best a 13th month. The first day of a new year in describe this same view in its totality: Ethiopia is September 11 in the Gregorian The People of Ethiopia, Jewish and Christian, calendar, except when it is a leap year, then it is share the belief that they are descendants of September 12; the daily time pattern is also King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, through unique in that there are 12 hours between their son Menelik, who returned to Ethiopia sunrise and sunset all through the year; Ethiopia with his attendants after studying in Jerusalem. is the only country that escaped European Supposedly, they brought with them the original colonialism in Africa; the country had emperors tablets of the Law of Moses, purloined from the who had built churches and monasteries in temple of Solomon, which are hidden in the city Jerusalem and other parts of Israel centuries of Axum (Yosef, 2013, 2). ago, which is extraordinary in itself; for instance, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewhae do Given the backdrop of the foregoing brief Church has maintained a rare presence in one of historical highlights, we are now to the point of Christianity‘s holiest sites—the Church of the focusing on the theoretical perspectives that are Holy Sepulcher of Jesus Christ in Jerusalem. necessary to shed light on the nature and process Such presence at a site where many others have of the Beta Israel‘s integration into an Israeli not had the privilege of possession of a society, which is radically different from what monastery adds to that country‘s exceptionality they left behind in their native land---Ethiopia. while making Ethiopia as the only black people As such, the discussion that follows is intended owning properties at the Holy sites in Jerusalem; to lay the ground for the theoretical and, more importantly, Ethiopia is the only understanding of the Ethiopian immigrants‘ country in the world that claims to have custody absorption into Israel, using as simulation as a of the original Ark of the Covenant in the church frame of reference in this investigation. of Saint Mary of Zion, a religious sanctuary in THE THEORETICAL CONTEXT OF THE the town of Axum, Tigre, northern Ethiopia. According archeology and legend, the Ark of the BETA ISRAEL’S ABSORPTION INTO ISRAEL Covenant, known in Ethiopia as the Tables of The Ethiopian Jews, albeit their absorption as the Law, contains the Ten Commandments God citizens through a legally sanctioned gave Moses high atop Mount Sinai. While some resettlement program (Law of Return) into the scholars still doubt the validity of this legend, land of Israel, are no more or less than any other Ethiopians and particularly believers of the immigrants that go through a similar process of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewhedo Church, more assimilation into a new country, with all its than 45 million strong, never doubt about the promises and uncertainties. In this connection,

24 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? studies on the causes of immigration and any value in its days, however, it has lost its related issues affecting immigrants‘ integration explanatory power for a country such as the into the mainstream of the destination country U.S., which has increasingly become over the have been studied for years by sociologists and decades a multi cultural, multiethnic, and multi- other social scientists almost to the extent of religious society. More importantly, this model what one may regard as ―overkill.‖ Even so, the would be even more irrelevant to any society, richness of the literature on the subject still including that of Israel, which is diverse offers an opportunity to tap into existing culturally, ethnically, racially and religiously. theories that have been developed by such With no doubt, acceptance of diversity and scholars, and so this study pivots now toward multiculturalism, which has increasingly examining them and their relevance to the become the driving force behind all forms of subject of this inquiry. group relations in American society these days, including the workplace at all levels, makes this Three theories of assimilation have come to model practically obsolete, if not unworthy of dominate the literature on immigration over the scholarly merit. Critics even argue that an decades. At this juncture, however, defining ―Angelo-conformist‖ model, which the classic assimilation contextually may be a sound assimilation theory is regarded as by its critics, starting point. Assimilation in its elemental depicting immigrant groups ―…as conforming import is the process through which an to unchanging, middle-class, white values,‖ immigrant group gets to internalize, through the would definitely be out of touch with current various stages of adaptation, a host country‘s realities not only in the U.S. but also in many societal values, political orientations, and multicultural societies across the globe (Brown economic manifestations over time while giving and Bean, 2). up those of its own, although not in absolute terms. The ultimate purpose of assimilation In contrast, the racial/ethnic disadvantage therefore is for the immigrants to become model posits that certain racial/ethnic groups undistinguishable, theoretically that is, over a find barriers erected against them in the host generation or generations in their action and country as they attempt to gain mobility or behaviors to members of the mainstream advancement in the political and social- society, of which they are attempting to be a economic arenas, thereby thwarting their efforts part. Likewise, as described by Brown and to integrate successfully over time. Barboza Bean, as simulation can be perceived as ―… the makes this same argument, citing studies by process by which the characteristics of members other scholars as evidence, that ―…the mere of immigrant groups and host societies come to awareness of discrimination will tend to resemble one another. The process, which has discourage participation in the American both economic and socio-cultural dimensions, polity‖(2006,4), (Barboza, 2006). In agreement, begins with the immigrant generation and Brown and Bean point out that full integration continues through the second generations and into a host society by racial/ethnic immigrant beyond‖ (2006, 1). groups can be stymied due to the special effects of identity, adding that even ―…language and The theories derived from research to explain cultural familiarity may often not lead to the process of assimilation can be classified into increased assimilation‖ (2006, 3). By inference, three types: the classic as simulation model, the this would simply mean that so long as there is a racial/ethnic disadvantage model, and the long-drawn-out history of discrimination within segmented as simulation model. Classic a host country, coupled with institutionalized assimilation, the earliest of the three models that racial hurdles blocking racial/ethnic groups‘ scholars used to analyze European immigrants‘ upward mobility in all aspects of political and absorption into the U.S. in the early 20th century, economic competition, complete assimilation postulates that the U.S. could become a ―melting will remain a rather impracticable social pot,‖ with immigrants becoming fully integrated engineering than a sound blueprint committed to progressively and predictably, leading to ―…a a comprehensive social integration. homogenous Anglo-Protestant American culture and society‖ (Bermudez, 2014, 1). This theory, So, the challenges faced by racial/ethnic also known as “straight-line ”model in much of immigrants in the process of integration into the the immigrant assimilation literature, assumed mainstream of a host society can be real and that each immigrant, regardless of race and discouraging; however, it would be also background, can be transformed into an misleading not to acknowledge that American. While the theory may have had its socioeconomic mobility by newcomers may also

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 25 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? be affected positively by individual acknowledgement of those of the immigrants is achievements some make, which eventually a fait accompli. By contrast, the segmented could change societal attitudes toward them and assimilation model is somewhat prospective so lead to acceptance in the long term by the much that it paints the realities of the time in majority community. Even with this scenario, societies that are increasingly becoming diverse the identity factor is so overwhelming that only and multicultural. In describing this model‘s a selected few can be fully assimilated within a basic premise, Bermudez puts it succinctly as span of their own generation, leaving the rest of follows: their fellow immigrants behind. All things According to the segmented assimilation considered, the racial/ethnic dynamic appears to framework the outcomes of the incorporation have a controlling effect on the level of process are not always positive, but mixed, and assimilation that immigrant groups could they depend on both structural and individual achieve, owing to manifestations of factors and the interaction between characteristics and behaviors that are divergent them…..Structural characteristics of the social from those of the host society. contexts immigrants enter such as color (racial- The third and last framework of analysis, the ethnic stratification), location (spatial segmented assimilation model, came to the segregation), and access to mobility layers forefront of scholarly discourse in the1990s (economic opportunities) interact with through the works of sociologist Alejandro individual-level factors such a parental Portes and others (Portes, 1990; Gans, 1992), resources (human, financial, cultural capitals), setting in motion aparadigm shift in explaining education, and values, shaping diverse the process of assimilation. A model that has pathways to downward or upward assimilation been used primarily to examine the post-1965 (2014, 3). immigrants and their children to the U.S., the In its basic formulation, therefore, the segmented assimilation theory is based on the segmented assimilation theory incorporates premise that the process of integration leads some elements of both the classic and immigrants to taking divergent pathways and racial/ethnic disadvantage models into a integrating at different levels of upward or framework that explains assimilation in the downward mobility in the their socio-economic context of multiple factors---cultural, structural, standings, while submerging themselves spatial, economic, human, financial, and eventually into a variety of segments of the educational---that determine the immigrants‘ society of their host country. This, of course, is divergent pathways to mobility as well as the in contrast with the positive straight-line path ability to join the ranks of different socio- way that the classic assimilation construct economic groups in society. Still, critics assail advances, which means that immigrants are this model arguing that by linking economic likely to lose both their ethnic identity and outcomes to issues of race and ethnicity, the values gradually and become absorbed into the theory neglects the fact that ―…there are other majority culture while somewhat gaining socio- constraints like family financial obligations or economic advancement parallel to a white, factors such as lackluster job growth that slow middle-class social status (Bermudez, 2014, 3). the rate of mobility (Brown and Ben, 2006, 4). In a nutshell, the theory of segmented as simulation does not foretell an absolutist THE BETA ISRAEL AS A CASE STUDY scenario in which immigrants are to experience The Ethiopian Jews lived in the northwestern a pre-determined outcome in their efforts at all Ethiopia for a millennium before their relocation levels of integration, as the other two models to Israel. Most of them were clustered in the seem to suggest. For example, the classic model northern Gondar Zone, practicing a religion with professes to place immigrants into a ―melting some of its rituals resembling those of the pot‖ of social integration that places the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, but still receiving society as the model of emulation at recognized as an Israelite religion that differs the expense of the immigrants‘ identity and of from Rabbinic Judaism. Much of their life in loss of their originality. In the same vein, the Ethiopia is shrouded in mystery, although they racial/ethnic disadvantage model predicts that were commonly reported by outsiders as having racial/ethnic particularities are too formidable to suffered religious persecution, and a significant allow an orderly, lasting assimilation in a portion of the community was forced into society, where mimicry of the majority culture conversion into Christianity during the 19th and and way life without any reciprocal 20th centuries. While many still maintained

26 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? their Jewish religious practices, others became Ethiopian Israeli families live under the poverty converts and thereby became known as Falasha line in comparison with 18.6 percent of Israeli Mura (Jews converted to Christianity). As the families in general. Only 5 percent of Ethiopian Jews made contacts with other Jewish Ethiopians hold “quality” jobs compared to 33 brethren in the later 20th century, a serious percent of Jewish Israelis in general. That is debate about their Jewishness ensued. After changing, however, as more Ethiopians halakhic (Jewish law) and constitutional complete higher education: 55 percent of discussions, Israeli officials decided, in 1977, Ethiopian university graduates are employed in that the Israeli Law of Return was applicable to high-quality positions, like the figure for the them, as well. What followed next were the general Jewish population. Salaries of mass airlifts, codenamed Operations Moses and Ethiopian graduates lag, primarily because a Solomon in the 1984 and 1991, respectively. large proportion take lower paying jobs in fields such as nursing and teaching. Some activists Given the experience of the Beta Israel so far in also complain that young people have to change their newly adopted country, this section of the their names to sound less Ethiopian to get jobs. paper therefore applies both the racial/ethnic In 2015, the average spending for Ethiopian disadvantage and segmented assimilation Israeli households was 33% less than that of assumptions to the Ethiopian Jews to better Israeli households in general, in understand and answer the questions raised correspondence with the gross income of about their current status in Israel. The two Ethiopian Israeli households which is assimilation perspectives seem to readily offer approximately 35% lower than Israeli theoretical insight into both the failings and households in general. In the 2013/14 academic promises of the Beta Israel‘s integration process year, there were a total of 312,528 in Israel. Race, and by extension color and university/college students in Israel; 2,785 were national origin, may offer a compelling Israelis of Ethiopian origin, i.e. Ethiopian explanation for the causes of the dissatisfaction Israelis make up 0.9 percent of that seems to alienate Ethiopian Jews in Israel university/college students while they are 1.5 today, although promises of progress give them percent of the population. Higher rates of some hope for the future, as well. Ethiopian Israeli women attend university than The Beta Israel through the Prism of the in the general population – 67.7 percent and Racial/Ethnic Disadvantage Model 56.8 percent, respectively (BA) (2019, 1) As discussed earlier, the underlying premise of https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the- situation-of-ethiopian-jews-in-israel the racial/ethnic disadvantage model is that immigrants that have racial characteristics that Although there are some signs of success with are fundamentally different from those of the their integration, however, the record has shown rest of the population in a receiving (host) a disturbing picture overall. Describing the fate country are likely to have a difficult time of the Beta Israel in Israel, Mekelberg notes experiencing a smooth and unfettered that, ―The story of the immigration and integration process more so than other absorption of Ethiopian Jews in Israel immigrants that have similar characteristics to epitomizes the best and the worst of Israeli those of the host country. Therefore, it is based society,‖ adding, ―…when they arrived in Israel, on this assumption that the plight of the these distinctive people faced appalling Ethiopian Jews in Israel must be explored. discrimination, racism and a lack of empathy for Since the arrival of the Beta Israel from their their hardships in Ethiopia and during their native Ethiopia, the news about their absorption journey to Israel‖ (2015, 1-2). No doubt that has been more negative than positive. By and Mekelberg‘s reference to ―distinctive people‖ here is nothing more than pointing to the race, large, reports of discrimination, prejudice and in some cases outright racism against them have color and national origin of the Beta Israel. inundated the news about them, especially At the same time, Weiln paints about their status lately. The facts below tell the whole story about in Israel in a somewhat blended picture, life of the Ethiopian Jewish community in identifying both the intractable social problems Israel: that they are still facing and evidence of success In 2015, the income of an Ethiopian household in some areas that will give them hope for the was 35 percent lower than that of an average future. He states that, ―The Ethiopian Jewish household in Israel. More than 35 percent of community in Israel is beset with troubles, from high unemployment rates to low matriculation

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 27 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? achievements and alcoholism…yet, examples of Muslim countries in Asia and North Africa, or success abound. The community boasts doctors, from countries within the Middle East itself, the lawyers, teachers and businessmen, as well as Ethiopians had to go through a litany of increasing numbers of university graduates‖ ―identity‖ verifications as to the genuineness of (2016, 1). Echoing a similar sentiment, Zelalem their claim to be Jewish. Without a doubt, race, notes that, ―As a group they faced institutional color and national origin, among others, may discrimination in the form of restrictions in all have played a major part in questioning the aspects of social life as well as common forms authenticity of their Jewishness. A chronicle of of overt racism by citizens,‖ adding, ―This was events from the time their claim to be Jewish not simply a matter of basic discrimination it was doubted to their eventual acceptance by was racism based on skin color‖ (2016, 3). Israel as Jews provides a cursory of the saga of Zelalem, perhaps more pessimistic about their the Beta Israel as a group, who had yearned for assimilation into the mainstream Israeli society making the Aliya to the Land of Israel. It is also than other observers, holds a view that, ―Recent appropriate to note here that the Israeli society is trends may point towards a bleak future for the composed of Jews from different backgrounds, absorption of this small group of Africans in a including Ashkenazi Jews from a predominantly predominantly white state‖ (2016, 1) East European background and Sephardi Jews originating primarily in North Africa and the The first sign of trouble for the Beta Israel after Middle East. Although different groups have relocation came when they were placed in different skin colors, the Ethiopian Jews still communities far from the center of cities in stand out for incomparability with others mobile homes that were inadequately heated in relative to their black skin. the winter or cooled in the summer; they lived practically in segregated neighborhoods until Yet the most unsavory of the experiences that they were able to adapt to life in a modern, the Ethiopian Jews encountered upon arrival in industrialized society, as Israel is, as opposed to Israel may have been in the sphere of religion. the village life they had left behind in Ethiopia. That happened when the Israeli Rabbinate Their initial reception in Israel was somewhat required the Ethiopians to undergo what seemed unsettling to describe it mildly, as Israelis were to be an ―identity cleansing ritual‖ of immersion not ready to embrace them as equal because of in a bath intended to convert the community, their unsophisticated, ―backward lifestyle,‖ and which apparently stemmed from having doubts even more so because of their racial about the genuineness of their Jewish status and characteristics that made them relatively practice (Winchester, 2). As humiliating as this distinctive from the rest of the Israeli people of action may have been, the Ethiopians tasted the European and Asiatic ancestry. A statement by brunt of religious discrimination in Israel during the then-Director General of the Jewish the very initial phase of the assimilation process. Agency‘s Department of Immigration and An equally shaming experience for the Absorption, Yehuda Dominitz, expressing his Ethiopian Jews occurred in 1996 when it was opposition to the Beta Israel, might best reported by the international media that the illustrate this very point. Dominitz commented blood the Beta Israel donated was being in 1980 that, ―[Taking] a Falasha out of his discarded by the Israeli authorities fearing that it village, it is like taking a fish out of water…I am may have been contaminated with the HIV not in favor of bringing them [to Israel]‖ virus. Serge Schmemann of The New York (Winchester, 2009, 2). ―Falasha‖ is a reference Times at the time reported, ―Thousands of to the Beta Israel, and it was a name given to Ethiopian Jews clashed with riot policemen them while in Ethiopia. Translated in Amharic, outside the Prime Minister's office today in a the Ethiopian official language, it means protest over the news that blood they donated strangers or people without land; the term is was secretly dumped because of fear that it was regarded as offensive today and therefore no contaminated with the virus that causes AIDS‖ longer in use when referring to the Ethiopian (Schmemann, 1996). Jews. This experience, as expected, caused a great From the very start, the Beta Israel‘s identity of deal of indignation among the Ethiopian Jewish being Jewish had been the subject of debate and immigrants leading to a protest outside the scrutiny, as many questions were raised about Prime Minister Shimon Peres‘s office and a whether they would qualify as such. Unlike clash with the police. ―Our blood is as red as many other Diaspora Jewish immigrants, such yours and we are just as Jewish as you are," as Russian or European Jews or even those from displayed one of the many banners the protesters

28 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? hoisted while another one declared "Apartheid Haifa in June 2019 by a police officer, who in Israel". Schmemann further reported that, suspected him of throwing stones at him, this ―While some of the protesters spoke of specific way:―The Ethiopian Jews were promised that incidents of racial discrimination, most talked of they would enter a land of prosperity and a broader sense of not feeling accepted. Young happiness when they migrated, but for them it soldiers told of being assigned to guard duty on has become a land of persecution, death and nights when there were parties‖ (1996, 1). This funerals. Israeli society doesn‘t afford them any tragedy comes on the heels of another incident legitimacy as Jews; it actually perceives them as that garnered international attention and criminals and violent individuals‖ (Amer, 2019). generated the most damaging publicity for the These and other types of incidents are Israeli government---the 2015 assault of an happening more too often for the Ethiopian Ethiopian-born Israeli soldier on the street of community in Israel so much that they are Holon, south of Tel Aviv. Under a heading, getting more organized to fight back thorough ―Cops beat Ethiopian IDF Soldier in Alleged protests and demonstrations against Racist Attack,‖ The Times of Israel reported that discrimination and racism while putting more the soldier, Damas Pakada, became the target of pressure on the government using their political unprovoked attack by two policemen despite capital, such as voting during elections in mass, wearing an army uniform. While riding his a subject we will examine later in its proper bicycle, he passed by the two policemen and context. greeted them with a routine gesture of friendship, but they reacted angrily to him, the From the foregoing discussion, the theoretical soldier claimed, and physically attacked him just relevance of the race/ethnic disadvantage model because of his race. ―I feel terrible, and of assimilation to the practical racial and social humiliated. This is a disgrace to the State of issues facing the Ethiopian Jews in Israel is very Israel,‖ Pakadaretorted. ―It‘s because of [my] much evident. The racial dilemma confronting skin color,‖ he griped (Lotan, 2015). The the Ethiopian Jews there has been as real as international outcry over this incident was so what the model predicts would happen, when sharp that the Israeli government was forced to race is factored in the assimilation process. At engage in ―damage control,‖ announcing the same time, this is not to conclude that it is immediately the suspension of the two racist the only model that can explain the realities of cops from their job and conducted a full Ethiopian existence in the Middle Eastern investigation afterwards, the result of which was country today. Stated differently, this model never publicized. does not necessarily have an absolute monopoly on the explanatory power of the theory and the Since then, there have been several incidents concepts associated with the assimilation issues that have electrified the Beta Israel community characterizing the state of the Ethiopian Jews in to engage in organized political activism. As Israel. As such, the segmented assimilation they experience intermittently some startling model must also be tested against all the facts forms of racial discrimination, which have pertinent to the Beta Israel to offer a more exposed further the Israeli society‘s racial/ethnic balanced interpretation of the assimilation thesis divide in its worst if not in its abominable central to the current investigation. manifestations, the community is using the tactics that African Americans once used to The Beta Israel through the Prism of the fight racism and discrimination in the United Segmented Assimilation Model States---protests and demonstrations. In one of As pointed out in the earlier section of this the most recent shooting incidents, the paper, the segmented assimilation model community rioted complaining that, ―…the theorizes that the process of assimilation leads police shoot its members too readily for racist immigrants to taking divergent pathways and reasons; this was not the first incident of its integrating at different levels of upward or kind. Similar events indicate racist motives, downward mobility in the their socio-economic leading to protests, some of them violent,‖ as rankings, while submerging themselves reported by Adnan Abu Amer, a Palestinian eventually into a variety of segments of the academic in an opinion section of Middle East society of their host country. In sum, this Monitor(July 8, 2019, 1). Underscoring this very framework of analysis explains assimilation in statement, he describes the protest of the the context of multiple factors---racial, cultural, Ethiopian Jews throughout Israel following the structural, spatial, economic, human, financial, shooting death of a young Ethiopian Jew in and educational---that determine the

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 29 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? immigrants‘ divergent pathways to mobility as miniscule compared to the data Vis a Visthe well as the ability to join the ranks of different general Israeli population. For example, the socio-economic groups in society. Given this percentage of employed Ethiopians increased premise, the question that follows is that, have from 50 to 72 percent between 2003 and 2015. the Ethiopian Jews progressed in Israel during The percentage of women in the workforce grew the last three decades validating the relevance of from 35 percent to 65 percent in a decade. this model to their ongoing assimilation ―Today, 90 percent of Ethiopian Jews have a struggles? We now turn to answering this high-school education, similar to the 93 percent question. of the overall Jewish population,‖ according the demographics compiled by the Jewish Virtual While much of the news about the Beta Israel in Library, a project of AICE (the American Israeli their adopted country has been downbeat for the Cooperative Enterprise). most part, however, there has been some shining spots that might serve the community as a Among the few milestones that the AICE cites spring board from which to reach higher as having a positive impact on the life of the grounds for their advancement in the future in Ethiopian community in Israel are as follows: all aspects of life in Israel. In an article titled, In 1999, Ethiopian youth joined the Israeli ―Ethiopian Jews in Israel still await the Scouts and the first Ethiopian Jew became a Promised Land,‖ Michael Blum of The Daily doctor. In 2012, Israel appointed its first Telegraph, a national British daily newspaper, Ethiopian Jewish ambassador. In 2013, an writes, ―But there are some success stories,‖ Ethiopian-Israeli won the Miss Israel Pageant. citing them as follows: In 2016, Lt. Col. Avi Yitzhak became the first In 2008, the Israeli parliament passed Ethiopian Israeli to graduate from the IDF's legislation making it mandatory for schools to Brigade Commander Course. He was also the teach the traditions of Ethiopian Jews. And for first Ethiopian Israeli to ever serve as a combat the first time, the state this year financed the doctor and is a graduate of Ben-Gurion Jerusalem celebrations of Sigd. „We are at the University's medical program. Yitzhak beginning of a path that will lead us towards full immigrated to Israel at age 19 in 1991, and integration into Israeli society,‟ said Shlomo prior to entering the Brigade Commander Mola, a member of parliament of Ethiopian course he led the Combat Medical Branch of the origin. The Sigd celebration brought together a IDF Medical Corps. In another first, Yitzhak large sample of the Beta Israel community - became the first Ethiopian Israeli to attain the youths sporting scarves in the Ethiopian colors, rank of Colonel in the IDF in November 2016.In women clad in traditional white outfits and 2016, the Israeli Bar Association announced Israeli soldiers chatting in Amharic, Ethiopia's that for the first time in history the Israeli main official language.„ We want to present a Judicial Committee had selected two Ethiopian different image of our community, which has women, Adenko Sabhat Haimovich and Esther produced doctors, scientists and deputies,‟ said Tapeta Gradi, to serve as judges. Haimowitz Mola, one of only three Israelis of Ethiopian will serve on the Central District Magistrate‟s origin to have won election to parliament. Nigist Court and Gardi was appointed to serve on the Mengesha, who heads the Ethiopian National Haifa District Traffic Court. In 2017, an Project community group, admits it is not easy Ethiopian-Israeli IDF officer, Major Yaros to merge into Israeli society while keeping Shigot, lit the torch at Israel's national Ethiopian traditions. „But after 25 years, it's Independence Day ceremony. Seventeen-year- time we should be [an] integral part of the state old Ethiopian-Israeli Eden Alene won the 2018 of Israel‟ (Blum, 2019) Edition of Israel's "X Factor" singing contest television show in January 2018.In November While the above listed social reforms are a good 2018, Israel‟s first male Ethiopian judge, Bialin beginning, more is needed to overcome the Elazar, was appointed to Jerusalem issues that affect the Beta Israel as a black Magistrate‟s Court. In December 2018, the minority in a racialized Jewish state. Israeli Air Force‟s first Ethiopian pilot Nonetheless, the future might be brighter than completed his training. The International Center many of us may believe. Some demographic for the Study of Ethiopian Jewry at Ono data seems to suggest that a few positive signs Academic College launched a Chair for of progress have been realized already within Research of Ethiopian Jewry, the first such the Ethiopian Jewish community, especially in academic position in the country and likely the education and the workforce, although world (2019, 1)

30 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion?

In each area of progress cited in the foregoing seems to provide the empirical basis of the Beta excerpted data, it is apparent that the cause of Israel‘s upward mobility in some sectors of the Ethiopian community isnot totally lost in Israel Israeli socio-economic configuration. Evidence after all. Although too little and very limited in of this is exhibited in the divergent pathways scope, the progress being made speaks to the that some members of the Ethiopian Jewish fact that better days are ahead for the Ethiopians community are taking to join the ranks of the there. As they become more integrated into the various socio-economic groups in Israel today, workforce through better education and move while proving the fact that social mobility is on up in the socio-economic pecking order, their within their reach and thus attainable. presence will be felt in the course of time, and From a practical standpoint, though, the case of their assimilation will change the character of the Beta Israel in assimilation studies must be the Israeli society eventually. Unfortunately, this treated on its own merit, setting it apart from will take time, and the journey may have its ups those of other immigrants elsewhere, especially and downs until the desired outcome is realized. where race is the overriding focus of analysis. The few milestones, gained by the Ethiopian Simply put, the uniqueness of the Beta Israel‘s Jews in some socio-economic and political history, including the nature and process of their spheres, as shown by the AICE report, are resettlement, makes their case incomparable surely evidence of the multiple factors---racial, with that of other immigrants. Some factors can cultural, structural, spatial, economic, human, be cited to account for this exceptionality. First, financial, and educational---that the segmented unlike other immigrants, whose relocation may assimilation theory premises as a way to gauge be a function of economic, political and social immigrants‘ divergent pathways to social forces exerting pressure on their existence in mobility in the country of their destination. their own country of origin, or whose Although the Ethiopian Jewish community still resettlement in other countries may be the result faces formidable challenges in its quest for of a legally approved family reunion, or whose unfettered assimilation into the mainstream group or individual emigration to other Israeli society, the few successes of countries may be the consequences of a forced advancement reported by the AICE comes a relocation due to man-made or natural disasters, long way. While the time to achieve full the mass relocation of the Ethiopian Jews to integration may be decades away, the rate of Israel, on the other hand, was driven by a unique success that the Beta Israel will achieve depends set of circumstances that has its own genesis and on the amount support they receive from the justifications. While social and economic factors government to overcome institutional and may have played a significant role, the societal barriers that they face as a black Ethiopian Jews were airlifted to Israel primarily minority. Indeed, success will come as more because the Law of Return gave them the right opportunities in education and other social to return to the land of Israel that their ancestors services become available to them. supposedly had left behind centuries ago. In this regard, the government of the country of their For the most part, the Beta Israel‘s current destination (Israel) managed and sponsored their assimilation issues have been primarily assessed mass exodus from the country of their origin critically through the parameters of race and (Ethiopia) unlike other immigrants of any kind. cultural idiosyncrasies, and this has been done Second, the Beta Israel, unlike other group rightly so. In this regard, much of what has been migrations to host countries, are the only black learned in this investigation about the Beta immigrant community in peacetime who have Israeli has coincided with the theoretical insight relocated enmasse based on historical ties. provided by the race/ethnic disadvantage model These two reasons alone make them unique in of assimilation. However, as this model alone the overall scheme of things. could not have explained the many facets of the Beta Israel experience of the last three decades POSSIBLE IMPACT OF THE ETHIOPIAN there and, particularly, the very small progress JEWS ON THE FUTURE OF ISRAEL that the community has made during the most recent years, the segmented assimilation model What the future holds for the Ethiopian Jewish has proven to be just as useful to this study as community in Israel might be difficult for many the race/ethnic disadvantage model. Predicting to gauge with great certainty at this time; the likelihood of different immigrant groups however, there are already indications that the assimilating into different segments of a host prospect is much brighter for them than what society, the segmented assimilation theory many of us might think otherwise. Yet, more

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 31 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? than anything else, the time ahead will lie on the Furthermore, the Ethiopian Jews are already extent to which they have access to educational exerting considerable influence in the political opportunities, the only proven vehicle for arena, as they are organized as a voting bloc and advancement in any society today. A stronger participate actively in the election process either community, coupled with social programs by fielding candidates of their own for political geared toward addressing the needs of the office, or supporting those who champion the youth, will also be needed to rise above the cause of their community; for example, two of familiar stigma that a black minority community the current 120 members of the Israeli Knesset often draws from the general public, owing to (Israeli parliament)are Ethiopian Jews. A case in the prevalence of poverty, crime, and abuse of point also is that in the Israeli parliamentarian drugs and alcohol in their midst. While these elections of 2019, it was discovered that the problems still plague the Ethiopian community Likud Party of Prime Minister Benjamin in Israel, particularly those among the youth and Netanyahu lost a substantial number of the votes the unemployed, a stronger community cast by the Ethiopian Israelis, who traditionally organization, with leaders committed to had supported the party in large numbers in addressing the various social issues affecting the previous elections. The Ethiopian support of the younger generation, could help overcome such Likud Party prior to 2019, according to Lahav problems gradually. This becomes even more Horkov of The Jerusalem Post, stemmed ―…in compelling when considering that almost 75 part because it is relatively conservative, and percent of Ethiopian Jewish families in Israel because Likud prime ministers launched the live below the poverty line, which is an operations to bring Ethiopian Jewry to Israel astronomical figure. (September 19, 2019). Subsequent to losing the Ethiopian vote, Prime Minister Netanyahu was Albeit the formidable challenges facing the deprived of winning the majority in the Knesset, Ethiopian Jews there, this writer argues that the thereby forcing him to ask the rival Blue and Beta Israel, as a racial minority, still have White party to form a coalition government enormous potential of becoming a force to be because his party was unable to do so on its reckoned with in their adopted country. Their own. Ethiopian Israelis apparently vented their cohesive community, strong traditions of frustration on the Likud Party over the shooting kinship, and ingenuity for educational of one of their own by police. ―…in the five excellence all are great resources that are well months between the April election and this etched in the Ethiopian Israeli mindset. In fact, week, major protests broke out among the community is making itself felt in some Ethiopian-Israelis after Solomon Tekah, a young socio-cultural trajectories that have enriched man from the community, was shot and killed already the multicultural composition of the by an off-duty police officer who felt threatened Israeli society. For example, the Beta Israel have by him,‖ reported Horkov. (2019,1). The brought with them their distinctive Ethiopian community believed police brutality based on traditions and cultural endowments to a county race was unchecked in that country and that the inhabited overwhelmingly by people of government was to blame for allowing it to European heritage. In large part, this is visibly happen not only once but many times against displayed in the vibrant Ethiopian sub-culture their community. found today in some major cities of Israel, It is against this backdrop that the Ethiopians where the Ethiopian Jewish community is have found the best way to fight for their civil heavily concentrated. Cases in point: Amharic, rights: running for parliament seats in the the official Ethiopian language is widely spoken Knesset and impacting positively their in Israel; restaurants and shops catering to the community through legislative reforms, along Ethiopian community are plentiful; and with protests and demonstrations. The quote Ethiopian music and cultural festivities have from part of the excerpt below from a member become the mainstay of the Israeli multicultural of the Knesset, who is of Ethiopian ancestry, society, just to name a few. Whether this reinforces both the triumphs and ordeals that the exceptionality would translate into an asset or community has experienced: liability for Ethiopian Jews in their assimilation On the day that 38-year-old Gadi Yevarkan took efforts remains to be seen; however, there is a the oath of office in the Israeli Knesset, he profound optimism among observers---this welcomed his mother to the ceremony in the writer included---that the former rather than parliament building by kneeling down in front latter would be the most likely culmination. of her and kissing her feet. It was a rare public

32 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? display of a traditional Ethiopian gesture of of this writer, one of their greatest potential respect. Yevarkan says the first issue that comes impacts may become even more manifest in the up with Ethiopian voters these days is a difficult area of Israeli foreign relations, as this pertains one: racial profiling by Israel‘s police. This is a to the Horn of Africa and Ethiopia particularly well-known problem in Israel, he says, and he and continent-wide in general. What possible sees his job in the Knesset as passing legislation influence would they be able to exert on to stop it (Bell, October 14, 2019). Israeli‘s relations with African countries? This will be explored next. Another Ethiopian Jew, Tamano-Shata, who is also an elected member of the Knesset, had this Ethiopian Jews as Israel’s “Human Bridge” to say: to Africa There is profiling against Ethiopians. We are the The role that Ethiopian Israelis will play in the only black[s] in this country, and it has put us in future in the Jewish state‘s relations with a very bad situation, that our children feel that Ethiopia, and by extension with the rest of they suffer violence behavior from police. Africa, is probably best illuminated in the following quotation, which is excerpted from Like most Ethiopians in Israel, Tamano-Shata The Jerusalem Post. Reporting on the Israeli says she grew up in a family that always voted Prime Minister Netanyahu‘s welcome speech for Likud, the right-wing party of Prime for the visiting Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Minister Netanyahu. But both she and Yevarkan Ahmed Ali in October 2019, the Post quotes joined the centrist Blue and White party (Bell, Netanyahu as saying that, ―…the 150,000 Jews 2019). of Ethiopian descent in Israel are a ‗living Likewise, Shlomo Mula, an Ethiopian-Israeli, bridge‘ between the two countries {while} who served in the Knesset as a Kadima party pledging to do what he can to encourage Israeli member between 2008 and 2013, was quoted as investment in Ethiopia‖ (Phillips, 2019). saying, The warm relationship that exists between Israel I want to help people who are earning minimum and Ethiopia today has been in the making since wage and address the fact that there are simply the relocation of thousands of Ethiopians to the not enough social workers to help the Jewish state. So, the visit by the Ethiopian community. We also need to address the Prime Minister was only the precursor to similar looming food shortages. I have already led a visits expected by officials of both countries to discussion on this issue in the Knesset. We each other‘s capital, as they congeal their cannot let the price of basic food staples such as bilateral relations with a focus on many fronts, bread, rice and milk rise so high (Kifle, 2008) including the common challenges that extend Mula, who made the Aliyahin 1984, had a much beyond their national borders; political, cultural, larger goal than just tackling the social issues religious and economic interests that lead to mutual benefits; and interstate engagement in affecting his community. He wished to advance regional and/or global hotspots. the grandeur of his Ethiopian heritage, affirming that, ―I want to create a museum to showcase Ethiopian Israelis are expected to benefit from Ethiopian Jewry‘s rich history and culture.‖ He and play a significant part in some of the further stated that, ―We need to have such a cooperative efforts envisioned for Ethiopia and center to instill pride in our people and teach Israel. These will include agriculture, water, Israelis about our past‖ (Kifle, 2008). irrigation, health, science and technology, and the economy, as well as cyber security, The cases of Ethiopian activism in the Israeli society, including the fight for justice in the telecommunication, space science and Knesset through their representatives, are likely technology, reported The Jewish News to intensify even more as the new generation of Syndicate. In his speech, Prime Minister Netanyahu further stressed that, the Beta Israel becomes armed with better education, as well as higher aspirations in life. Our ancient peoples have historic ties, but it‟s a With increasing integration into the workforce special bond because it is also strengthened by and assimilating into the different segments of a human bridge of 150,000 Israelis of Ethiopian the Israeli society, the Ethiopian Jews potential descent who bring the culture of Ethiopia, the for positively impacting their adopted country in pride of Ethiopia, to Israel, just as they maintain many facets of the Israeli society may rise the culture of the Jewish people and the pride of precipitously in the years to come. In the view the Jewish people in Ethiopia….We know that

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 33 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? the first prerequisite of any government, of any Ethiopia but also with several sub-Saharan society, is security. We are both being African countries, particularly between 1955- challenged. We‟re being challenged by radical 1967, when such countries, fresh from Islamic terrorists. They not only challenge us, independence, pursued Israel‘s military and they challenge the world. We believe that we economic aid, as well as technological can offer some experience, some shared knowhow; Israel, in return, sought African experience that we have garnered because of diplomatic support to shore up its strategic our unfortunate need to defend ourselves, interest in its ongoing conflict at that time with (Phillips, 2019, 1). Egypt and other hostile Arab neighbors. All this changed of course following the 1973 Arab- Given the burgeoning relationship between Israeli War, when all African countries that had Israel and Ethiopia, therefore, the prospect of diplomatic representation in Israel severed ties, the Beta Israel helping shape Israel‘s foreign including Ethiopia (Bishku, 1994). relations toward the Horn of Africa and throughout the continent in the future could be However, prior to 1974 during the time of the significant. Already, Ethiopian Israelis have imperial era in Ethiopia, Israeli advisors trained made their mark on Israeli-Ethiopian relations in Ethiopian military units on behest of Emperor one particular case in point: Israel sent a team of Haile Selassie, the last Ethiopian monarch who fire fighters to Ethiopia in April 2019 to help was overthrown in 1974 from his throne. In the extinguish the large fires raging in the Simien early 1960s, for example, Israel started helping Mountains, the country‘s main tourist attractions the Ethiopian government in its campaigns that were facing blazes on and off for several against the Eritrean Liberation Front, which was weeks. In response to Ethiopia‘s request for viewed as a creation of Arab countries to help, Israel sent a delegation that consisted of destabilize Ethiopia‘s sovereignty. So, in that ―…11 firefighters and rescue officials, led by respect, Ethiopia‘s and Israel‘s strategic Zion Shenkar, who was born in Ethiopia and interests in the Red Sea, or even more so in the was the Israel Defense Force‘s first-ever Horn of Africa from the geopolitical standpoint, battalion commander from the Ethiopian were almost in sync, although that would community‖ (Toi Staff, ―Israel Sebds team to change after the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. Help battle Ethiopian Mountain Blaze (Lotan, Even after Ethiopia broke diplomatic relations 2019). This case alone is an indication of what with Israel in 1973, which came about due to is likely to happen in the future, as the Beta pressure exerted by north African Arab states Israel become more integrated into most of the that were members of the Organization of Israeli society. In the long term, Ethiopia is African Union (OAU), the predecessor of expected to benefit from Israel in many crucial today‘s African Union (AU), Israeli military aid areas of interstate relations, including tourism continued after the Derg military junta, led by and investment. The Beta Israel are viewed by Colonel Mengistu Hailemariam who came to their fellow Ethiopians in their country of origin power in 1974, and included spare parts and as future investors and frequent visitors, which ammunition for U.S.-made weapons and jet would be a bonanza for the tourism industry in fighters. Israel still maintained a small group of the Horn of Africa country. military advisers in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia‘s In review, the Israeli-Ethiopian bilateral capital, and has always continued to have an friendship has had a long history, according to unpublicized, clandestine military cooperation Kassim She him, adding that Israeli-Ethiopian throughout the decades, even at the height of relations have endured for decades despite Arab-African solidarity against Israel with regime changes in Ethiopia. She him also respect to the Palestinian issue. The two observes that, countries restored their formal diplomatic relations in 1989. It was in that same year that a Israeli-Ethiopian relations are in some ways secret agreement between Mengistu and Israel unique in Africa. One notable aspect is the was reportedly made to allow the remaining Ethiopian Jewish community, commonly known Beta Israel community in Ethiopia to immigrate as the Falasha, who believe their roots can be to Israel in exchange for increased military traced to Jews at the court of King Solomon to assistance (Bishku, 1994, 39-56). his son by Queen of Sheba, Menelik ((Shehim, 1988, 25). While Ethiopia‘s strategic importance to Israel has been a well-known fact, however, helping Since its establishment as a state in 1948, Israel Israel build better relations with other African had enjoyed a good relationship not only with

34 Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? counties is one that will remain to be seen; cause as it will lose the most important and however, there are already signs that many heaviest voting bloc shielding it, which has African countries are following the footsteps of always been represented by African countries. Ethiopia‘s long-established relations with Israel With the „early spring‟ arrival of Israel into to cement their own relationship with the Jewish Africa, will the Arab League states meet the state. Writing an opinion piece, titled, ―Ethiopia challenge or enter an „autumn‟ there? The and Israel‘s Pivot to Africa‖ in the International Arabs must thwart these ambitions of Tel Aviv. Policy Digest, Yacqub Ismael observes It is time to call for an Arab or even Islamic tangible confrontation against Israeli Israel‟s deepening ties with Ethiopia is part of penetration in Africa before it is too late its strategy throughout Africa. In 2016, Prime (Rahman, 2019) Minister Netanyahu announced a new Africa policy called “Return to Africa” to expand its Exploring the Israel-Arab rivalry for sphere of ties with states like Ethiopia and to explore new influence in Africa would be a great research ones. As a result, Netanyahu paid several state project; however, it would be beyond the scope visits to countries in East Africa, while of this investigation. Even so, the Horn of exploring new ones in West Africa (Ismael, Africa is particularly of immense strategic 2019) interest for Israel so much that it has increased its efforts to include other East African countries Although Israel has gradually won diplomatic in her sphere of influence with the aim of recognition by establishing friendly relations countering the influence that Arab countries with 37 of 54 African countries, 10 of which have had in Africa for decades; this was clearly having established full-fledged diplomatic ties, confirmed in Prime Minister Netanyahu‘s 2026 the historical bonds it has had for centuries with visits to Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda. Ethiopia more than any other state in the During the past several decades, the Horn of continent makes Israeli-Ethiopian relationship Africa has drawn numerous external powers due not only special but also all too important. to the strategic importance of the region. At the Besides, Ethiopia anchors the continent by the same time, Israel‘s influence in the region was virtue of being the headquarters of the AU. too limited if not non-existent due to the Israeli‘s proximity to the Red Sea and Ethiopia‘s Palestine issue; however, this has changed location near the vital water way also provide dramatically in more recent years. As both both counties with mutual strategic interest superpower rivalry and Middle Eastern aspiring particularly in the security arena. After all, the powers are making significant inroads into the Horn of Africa is a geopolitical battleground for Horn of Africa, Israel‘s interest in the region has many global powers, including the U.S., China, considerably heightened, as well. Israel has even Russia, Egypt, Turkey, and Iran, and Arab states become a mediator of sorts in the Ethno- of the Persian Gulf; Israel‘s security interest is Egyptian crisis over the new Ethiopian therefore directly tied to the geo-politics of the hydroelectric dam being built on the Blue Nile, Horn of Africa, where Ethiopia is regarded as a the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD), hegemon power. at a cost of $4.8 billion, to meet Ethiopia‘s However, Israel‘s growing diplomatic relations growing electricity demands. Although Egypt with African countries are already infuriating its has denied the report that it sought Israeli Middle Eastern foes. In an opinion piece, titled assistance in resolving the crisis, observers think ―Arabs Should Thwart Israel‘s Ambitions in otherwise. Egypt is gravely concerned because it Africa,‖ As ‗ad Abdul Rahman forewarns relies almost exclusively on the Nile for farming vehemently that, and drinking water and fears the dam would The change in Israel‟s international standing in significantly diminish its share of the river's water. Over the last several years, Ethiopia, recent years, away from any progress in the „peace process‟ (with the Palestinians and other Sudan and Egypt had been engaged in seesaw Arabs), has been absorbed in African capitals. negotiating sessions over the amount of water to be stored and released, as well as the timing of One must admit that since Netanyahu took office in 2009, Israel has managed to penetrate Africa the dam‘s full operation; all negotiations have and restore diplomatic relations with several failed so far. Israel‘s interference in the region, countries. This carefully planned drive will most coupled with her presumed favor of Ethiopia as a security partner, came in full view when media probably transfer Israeli relations in Africa to a comprehensive framework, and then the reports revealed, though denied by the Israelis, possible main loser will only be the Palestinian ―…that Israeli defensive systems are in place to

Journal of International politics V1 ● I4 ● 2019 35 The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion? protect the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam system of governance is in place, as is the case (GERD)…….amid escalating crisis between with Israel, a minority immigrant community Egypt and Ethiopia over the Nile waters‖ (Egypt capable of mobilizing its members for a political Independent, 2019). Accessed 11/13/2019 action to advance the community‘s cause https:// www.egypt independent. com/ israel- through the electoral process can be effective in reacts-to-reports-that-its-defense-systems-will- bringing desired social changes. However, this protect-the-gerd/ is more likely to happen in a multi-party, parliamentarian system in which each party So, taken as a whole, the future of Ethiopian gains representation in a legislative body in Jews in Israel will be one of activism on the proportion to the results received by each party. home front for justice and civil rights through Yet, in comparison, this would be less likely to protests and demonstrations, while using the occur in a single-member district system of electoral process to push for legislation representation in which only the candidate favorable to their cause through their elected receiving the most votes (plurality vote) representatives in the Knesset. Simultaneously, represents that district; this system of their activism on the external front might entail representation is in effect a ―winner-take-all‖ championing the cause of Ethiopia, particularly, electoral procedure. In this regard, the Beta and the Horn of Africa and beyond in the Israeli Israel could use the proportional system to their foreign policy-making process. This would be in advantage through their political activism, addition to advancing the strategic interest of although they don‘t necessarily have an their adopted country and reinforcing the exclusive party of their own currently; however, existing warm relations between Ethiopia and with their growing population count, although Israel while helping coalesce their strategic still miniscule at present, it is possible they may priorities in the Horn of Arica, likewise. have such a party in the future, or become a CONCLUSION party in coalition with other similar parties based on an ideological compatibility. This paper set out to investigate the state of Currently, they switch parties based on the Ethiopian Jews in Israel since their relocation party‘s support of their cause for justice and from Ethiopia more than three decades ago. The equality, as they have done already from Likud study, while not exhaustive, uncovered several Party to the Blue and White Party. findings. First it revealed that racial, religious and cultural factors were barriers to a seamless In terms of policy, the study validates that the assimilation of the Beta Israel into the Israeli government‘s treatment of the Ethiopian mainstream Israeli society. At the same time, the Jewish community has progressively study discovered areas where Ethiopian Israelis convalesced, but a lot is still needed to assist would positively impact and become a force in them in making the transition from an agrarian- the Jewish state by helping shape Israeli‘s based living in Ethiopia to an industrialized foreign relations with Ethiopia, a hegemonic society in Israel, especially for those who state in the Horn of Africa and one that plays a migrated during their advanced age, who make dominant role in interstate relations throughout up 59% of the Beta Israel population currently. the continent. Evidence also suggested that the Secondly, the first generation of Ethiopian future of the Beta Israel, while facing epic racial Israelis, comprising 14% of the youth, should issues at home, would be one of activism to have access to more educational opportunities bring justice to their cause domestically while and skills training so that the current high also serving as a ―human bridge‖ between unemployment rate of Israeli-borne Ethiopian Ethiopia and Israel, and between Israel and youth will be significantly reduced. This in turn other African counties. In terms of theory, few will deter protests and demonstrations that sophisticated explanations have been developed normally emanate from frustrations, fed by thus far to better understand the overall theme of feelings of powerlessness and of gloomy future. immigrants‘ assimilation process into receiving Moreover, the Israeli government must countries. In this connection, the theories of immediately address this protracted crisis: assimilation, with a focus on the Beta Israel, police brutality against Ethiopian Israelis based were tested and their utility validated. So, all on their race and national origin should these findings are significant for practice, policy unconditionally cease while exposing the police and further research. and other law enforcement personnel to cultural sensitivity trainings. This will help the police In practice, the study has shown that in a see how unconscious biases can distort decision- multiethnic society where a parliamentarian

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Citation: Walle Engedayehu, Ph.D., Marco Robinson, Ph.D, “The State of Ethiopian Jews in Israel: Seamless Integration or Subtle Exclusion?”, Journal of International politics, 2019, 1(4), pp. 21-39 Copyright: © 2019 Walle Engedayehu, Ph.D. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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