.'

EGGS fROM EARLY SNEEK

SYTZE BOTTEMA, FIONNA BOTTEMA, RENE CAPPERS Groningen Institute of Archaeology, Groningen, Netherlands

CUNO KOOPSTRA Archaeological Research Centre, Groningen, Netherlands

ABSTRACT: Refuse layers in the town of Sneek, dating fr om the 12th to the 17th century AD, contained pieces of eggshells. In some rare instances the tiny fragments of lapwing eggs were found in the 15-16/17th century deposits. Rubbish from a cesspit contained the fragments of a complete egg, which may have been eaten. eggs may have been brought in fr om farms outside the old town centre. The same is true for eggs but these may have originated also from the 'town ' which were kept on the canais. Identification of the egg-producing was achieved by measuring the thickness of the shell and com­ paring the outer shell structure under 81 times magnification. In addition, the colour of the shell was used as an identification trait. On several occasions it was found that half eggshells had been pushed into each other before discarding. These series of some 5-6 eggs could be a mixture of chicken and duck eggs.

KEYWORDS: Sneek, Medieval, eggshell, chicken, duck, swan, lapwing.

1. INTRODUCTION ing. They represent models of eggs of Lapwing and Black-tailed Godwit. The Frisian name for such eggs In this paper eggshells fr om an excavation in medi­ is 'koai' and they are used to fo ol the parent and eval Sneek will be treated. Finds of eggshells in replace genuine eggs, which are taken away. The clay prehistoric or early historic excavations in the Neth­ egg is accepted by the bird, which continues laying. erlands are rare and have been published only occa­ When the clutch is complete, all bird eggs and imi­ sionally. It is understandable that fragile objects such tation eggs are taken from the nest. Even in the 20th as eggs do not have much chance of surviving burial century the eggs of these meadow-dwelling in accumulating deposits. Conditions of preservation were gathered and Lapwing eggs are still collected must guarantee that the delicate object does not on a large scale. disappear in time. In aerated sandy deposits of the The questions arising from the discovery of egg­ , which have generally low pH values, shelIs at Sneek fo cus on the identification of the bird conditions are unfavourable for the preservation of species that laid the eggs and upon the possibilities calcareous shell. of investigating how and why they ended in the re­ It seems reasonable that the coastal mounds of­ fuse layers at the site. fer better conditions for the preservation of calcare­ The 'life expectancy' of eggshells in the open ous objects such as eggshells than the Pleistocene provides information about the length of time that sandy soils. The pH in the clay deposits is often high exposed shell may survive. This concems for instance and the presence of mussel and cockle shells clearly eggshells that are the re sult of hatching. Such egg­ demonstrates conditions favourable for the survival shells tum brittle during the incubation process. The of calcareous objects. Accumulation, which plays a egg is opened by the chick resulting in two parts, a role in preservation, is common in the coastal dis­ bigger (pointed) part and a smaller (blunt) part. Be­ trict but is seldom present in the Pleistocene sandy tween the two parts, a narrow strip that is shattered area. The find of complete eggs demonstrates that the by the hatching chick is missing. The parent may weight of the accumulation affects the eggs less than remove the parts fr om the nest and even eat them. one would expect (Elzinga, 1977; Keepax, 1981). The latter action is explained as a way to hide the Information on early egg finds in Frysliin (north­ birth of the young birds, but also helps to replenish em Netherlands) is given by Elzinga (1977: pp. 585- calcium especiaIly in the female parent. For this 594). Complete goose and chicken eggs have been reason, few eggshell fragments survive long above reported from the coastal dwelling mounds (terpen). ground in the fieid. They are eaten by all kinds of Several types of decoy-eggs of clay have been found . The shelIs of some hundred complete eggs on these Frisian sites. These consist of models of wild that the firs t author annually throws away for vari­ bird species and are evidence for earlier egg hunt- ous reasons (too old for consumption, selected as 484 S. BOTTEMA, F. BOTTEMA, R. CAPPERS & C. KOOPSTRA infertile), attract wild birds, generally wood pigeons, Tyler (1964) gives detailed information about the which come to eat calcareous matter. Some eggshells, inner surface, the mammillary layers and the mem­ mainly of eggs fr om various goose species, which branes. The mammillary layer may be characteristic were broken by the rough handling, survive exposure for groups of eggs but is not sufficient for the iden­ in the fieldfo r more than one year although the soil tification of species. The morphological description on which they lay is rather acid. After some time in of the inner part of eggshells as is given by various the open shells tend to become more brittie and those authors cannot eas ily be checked by incident light that are coloured tend to bleach due to exposure. microscopic observation, as this does not reveal the Green in duck eggs, discarded in this way becomes fine inner structure. lighter, and brown chicken eggs tend towards yellow. In describing the cuticle, Senhouse Pitman (1964) White eggshells, for instance of geese, may become states: "The cuticle is a very variable structure, for stained with patches of green caused by algae grow­ in some birds (such as the dornestic hen) it is a rela­ ing on the shell. Nevertheless, it is clear that eggs tively simple layer, consisting mostly of organic exposed in the open never survive more than one year matter, but in the it has at least two layers, at the most. the outer one being calcified and powdery and the Eggs or eggshells that are covere d by sand also second one being chiefly organic in nature". This disappear. Survival is longer in dung or other wet explains why duck eggs are so smooth compared to organic refuse. Empty shells most probably have a chicken eggs and this is what in practice the observer greater chance than eggs with their natural contents. realises in distinguishing duck eggs from chicken The latter category tends to rot and when unearthed eggs without knowing their morphological back­ in dung heaps explode like grenades on touch, be­ grounds. cause of pressure from the rotting contents. Senhouse Pitman (1964) supplies information on The identificationof eggshells depends very much the colour of the shell and the origin of such colour. upon the state in which they are found, the way they The original colour and its distribution over the shell are preserved and the technical possibilities fo r in­ can be obtained easily fr om pictures in modem stan­ vestigation. There are various micro-morphological dard works as Makatsch (1976) or Cramp (1977- properties of eggshell fragments that can be studied, 1994). some with relatively simple tools, but for others the Usually literary sources deal only with the outer study is complicated and requires a scanning micro­ surface of chicken eggs (Tyl er, 1964). Of importance scope and the necessary preparation of the object. are the striae found on the eggshells of domestic The diagnostic value of the various morphological . They can be more pronounced on part of properties of the egg is not of the same level (for the egg and less so in other areas but it is not easy instance shape, size, colour, surface microstructure) to predict in which part they will be most dominant. and to several taxonomic levels of identifica­ Modem (chicken) eggs demonstrate a variety of pat­ tion. tems present on one egg. It is difficult to describe these surface structures and for this reason pictures of modem and archaeological eggshells are intro­ 2. MORPHOLOGY AS A MEANS OF duced in this paper. This method has clear limitations IDENTlFYING EGGSHELLS and it is not easy to identify eggs by means of the surface pattem when one has no idea which species The identification of bird eggs offe rs no serious may occur in the given circumstances. In the case of problem where the egg is complete and displays its amedieval excavation the number of species respon­ original colour. Identification is even easier when the sibie for the eggs is rather limited. However, one still egg is still in the original nest, preferably with its has to prove this assumption. natural owners. It is obvious that archaeological re­ The study of avian eggshell in connection with mains of eggs lack many of these characteristics and archaeology is discussed indetail by Caroline Keepax in any case are rarely discovered by excavation. Pa­ (1981). Keepax's work includes the study ofprepared rents and nest are absent, the egg is very seldom eggshell by means of a scanning electron microscope, complete, the original colour may have disappeared allowing her to make very detailed pictures of the and the shell fr agments may have faded. Surround­ inner layer. Pictures of outer surfaces are shown at ing soil or dung may have stained the egg brown or 44x magnification. The untreated outer surface of black. modem eggs differs fr om the archaeological egg­ Some characteristics may however be preserved. shells in that the pores are mainly blocked (Keepax, The surface texture on the outside and inside may 1981: figs Id, e). Pores are the depressions that re­ still be present. The inner and outer layers of the shell sult fr om the end of the respiratory channe Is, which can be examined and details can be revealed under traverse through the calcite shell. In archaeological magnification. finds both surfaces have eroded so much that the pores become visible. Eggs fr om early Sneek 485

Some of the avian eggshells that Keepax studied sumption whereas the presence of seeds ofhalophytic were complete (Castle Acre Priory). Certain eggs are plants points to the presence of saline meadows in­ easy to identify from figure 4 in Keepax's paper. fluenced by seawater (information R.T.J. Cappers). They are preserved so well that it can be concluded The eggs from the excavation of medieval Sneek that the order in the picture disagrees with the order include 14 samples of broken shells, smaller and in the caption. larger pieces. Keepax notes that modem eggs have fairly char­ acteristic shapes and dimensions. Such properties, 3.2. Colour however, become less diagnostic when the size ofthe egg of chicken, duck, black-headed or coot are Some of the fragments are whitish but most of the taken into consideration as they are of similar size. eggs from Sneek show traces of colour. Various This is in fact true for all size classes that represent shades of light bluish-green and in one case light more than one species. Keepax stresses the tentative grass-green were found. Some samples show a rusty­ nature of the identification of archaeological mate­ brown colour and there are also tiny fragments that rial treated in her study. are mottled olive-brown with darker patches. One of the methods used by Keepax is to mea­ Original colouring needs to be distinguished from sure the thickness of eggshell (Keepax, 1981: fig. 5). staining caused by other agents. Organic matter, Although it is a great advantage that the thickness when preserved amongst refuse, may eventually be­ of fr agments can eas ily be measured it must be stres­ come stained with another colour. For instance, peat sed that thickness in eggshells varies within the same bodies clearly demonstrate this proces s with the ar­ egg. When an egg is broken, its fragments include a tificial colouring of their skin and hair. range of thicknesses. It appeared that the eggshells from Sneek had retained much of their original colour. Bluish-green 3. TRE EGGSHELLS FROM SNEEK eggs may have faded somewhat but the colour that was still visible was considered to be the original 3.1. Find conditions colour. In samples 10 and 11 (l78a and b) shells with light-brown patches of colour are present. Fragments of eggshells were found during an exca­ Light blue-green or light yellow colours are com­ vation in the Martiniplein (1998) of Sneek (province mon on duck eggs with a preference for bluish-green of FrysHin) under the direction of Mrs A. Ufkes. The in wild duck eggs and yellowish for instance in Caki­ excavated layers are ascribed to the mediaeval town Campbells (a domestic breed). This colour, never­ and represent buildings and the backyard of a tannery. theless, is found not only on duck eggs but also in The period represented in the excavation stretches Araucana chickens, a breed developed in South­ from the 12th to the 17th century AD. The eggshells America. were found in tanning pits, cess and refuse pits and wells in which kitchen refuse was also dumped as is demonstrated by the botanical macro-remains ofvari­ 3.3. Thickness ous fruits and mussel shells. Intemal membranes are often preserved, possibly One characteristic not affected by fragmentation is because of the moist and alkaline conditions. The the thickness of the shell. Modem eggshell shows leathery membranes often kept pieces of shell to­ variation in thickness within the same shell. As a gether. Some samples contain parts of several eggs reference the thickness of eggshells of call ducks and it was observed that originally half eggshells (decoy ducks) of the size of a were mea­ were discarded which have been pushed into other sured. The thickness varied from0. 18-0.26 mm. The empty halves. This is a common way to deal with breed of Assendelfter chickens have eggs averaging eggshells that have been left after the consumption 0.26 mm thickness. of eggs. The finds in samples 5 (13th century) and Size classes based on variations in the shell thick­ 10 (15th-17th century) in particular point to this habit ness of the eggs from Sneek were identified. In fig­ and in the latter sample up to five halves were pushed ure 1 three main classes can be detected: a clas s with into each other. After cleaning and drying these fell a thickness from 0.10-0.18 mm, a class fr om 0.21- apart into hundreds of fr agments. 0.37 mm and a class from 0.63-0.78 mm (fig. 1). Most of the eggshells were collected by hand and Finally, thickness, texture and colour were com­ a few samples by sieving. The finds were cleaned in bined to identify the species of bird that produced the laboratory after re-wetting and notes were made the egg. By this means the second author found that about shapes. the thinnest fr agments had a distinctive colour be­ The eggshells were mostly found in refuse that longing to another group of eggs than that, of fo r contained other organic matter, for instance seeds. instance, chicken, duck or swan. Microscopic analy­ These seeds are from fr uits that were used for con- sis of the small fr agments revealed that they were 486 S. BOTTEMA, F. BOTTEMA, R. CAPPERS & C. KOOPSTRA

1 3 th Cen ury t t 14-17 h 15 15 -17th 16 16/17th = � � � = = = � = = � � � � � � = = '"b.. � � � = -j;§ = = = = � -j;§ = = = s;:: s;:: s;:: � � � � s;:: s;:: � s;:: s;:: s;::

0. 10 mm

0.1 5

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.65

0.70

0.75

Fig. 1. Thickness of eggshells found in the Sneek excavation of the Martiniplein in Sneek, measured in mm and shown in relation to the 13th-17th century.

coloured buff with black spotS. It is obvious that Fryske hinne (Frisian chicken) were used. The Fryske these fragments are fr om eggs of certain plover spe­ hinne is a breed in the group known as the Ham­ cies nesting in the meadows, man made or natural burger chickens which lay white eggs. On the basis saline grasslands (kwelder) forming the enviromnent of osteological research in the coastal dwellings (ter­ of early Sneek. These tiny fr agments have the thick­ pen) it is assumed that the original farmyard chick­ ness and the colour pattem of Lapwing eggshells and ens were similar in size to the Fryske hinne. The it is reasonable to assume that they are fr om the eggs average weight of six of these eggshells is 5.16 gr of this species, which were collected, eaten and the (4.90-5.39 gr; N = 6). shells successively thrown in the offal pits. However, The weight of the eggshell of the Mallard, the it is possible that eggs of the Redshank (Tringa to­ comrnon wild duck (Anas platyrhynchos) averages tanus) could also have been collected. The Redshank 4.47 gr, based on 97 specimens measured by Helle­ (Frisian: Tjirk) is a comrnonmeadow bird, especially brekers (1950). Because ducks in Sneek may have in saline meadows which occurred in the vicinity of been kept either as a feral fo rm in the town (see also Sneek. The microstructure of the surface of modem Section 5) or on the farms in the neighbourhood, it eggs of both species was studied for distinguishing cannot be exc1uded that the size of their eggs was characteristics. somewhat larger than those of wild . Egg­ shells of the (Cygnus olor) weigh 38.81 gr on average (N=25). Lapwing eggshells weigh 1.55 3.4. Dimensions and weights of modem egg shells gr on average (N=100). The dimensions and weights of modem eggs of Dutch wild birds are given by Hellebrekers (1950) and are 4. THE INVESTIGATION used here for comparison. Colour pictures of egg­ shells are from Makatsch (1976). Keepax's study of the inner microstructure (1981) For the comparison of surface texture and in parti­ gave no definitive key for the identification as the cular the weight of chicken eggs, the eggs of the eggshells fr om Sneek were not prepared fo r scanning Eggs fr om early Sneek 487 and no reference material treated in this way was the small fragments. It must be emphasized that the available. degree of fr acture plays a role in the shape of the The initial analysis of the medieval eggs was a curve of the thickness presentation in figure 1. For visual examination of the texture and colour. Both this reason pieces of about 0.5 cm in diameter were the reference eggshells and the medieval fr agments taken at random from each sample. The minimum were studie d under an incident-light, dark-field mi­ and maximum thickness of the shell is the most in­ croscope at magnifications of 40, 80, 160 or 400 formative aspect of the figure. For reference, figure times. 5 in Keepax (1981) is very useful. The outside of the shell was examined. On the The preliminary visual examination of the egg­ inner surface of the shell, the membranes, or part of shell samples to four groups. Two groups were them, were in some cases still connected with the attributed respectively to duck and chicken eggs on shell. the basis of smooth surface texture and colour. The The surface texture of the various kinds of egg­ third group was attributed to Mute Swan on the basis shell at 100-400 times magnification under incident of the shell thickness and size of the fr agments. The dark field illumination, also enabled us to check the fourth group was assigned to a wader, probably Lap­ result of identifying chicken from duck eggshells wing (Vanellus vanellus), on the basis of thickness with the naked eye. An attempt was made to group and colour pattem. the pattems and judge whether their characteristics could be used for the purposes of identification. The results were rather confusing. 4.1. Description of the samples Much better results were obtained by the anal­ The eggshell samples are presented in chronological ysing of pictures of eggshell surfaces with a Zeiss order in table 1 with the fo llowing information: sam­ Axiocam digital photocamera through a STEMI SV ple number, sample context, archaeological code, 11 stereo-binocular microscope. Colour and black­ level number, date, and weight of the eggshell frag­ and-white prints were made. With incident skimming ments (including the remnants of the membranes) light the magnified surface structure of the eggshell attributed to that species. The code after the sample fragments became very clear. number, for instance 255, relates to the archaeologi­ The thickness of a representative number of cal fe ature. Where more than one sample has the Sneek eggshell fragments was measured and is shown same number, the samples are derived from differ­ in figure 1. The thickness of eggshell fragments was ent level s in the same fe ature. measured under 80x magnification with size clas ses of 10.8 Il. Membranes have mostly disappeared from

Table l.

Sample Origin Arch. Level Date No. code

Refuse pit 255 7 l3th cent. 11.1 gr chicken 2 Tanning pit 323 9 l3th cent. 3.2 gr duck, more membrane than shell 3 Tanning pit 3l5a 9 13th cent. 1.3 gr chicken 4 Tanning pit 3l5b 9 l3th cent. 4.5 gr chicken 5 Refuse pit 325 9 l3th cent. 4.8 gr duck, 3.8 gr chicken 6 Refuse pit 325 11 l3th cent. 3.8 gr chicken 7 Cesspit 312 10 l4-l7th cent. 5.1 gr chicken 8 Cesspit 312 9 l4-l7th cent. 6.0 gr chicken 9 Cesspit 393 10 15th cent. 10.5 gr duck, 0.5 gr Lapwing* IO Well 178a 7 15-l7th cent. 36. O gr duck, 11.5 gr chicken 11 Well 178b 7 15-17th cent. 10.0 gr duck, 11.1 gr chicken** 12 Well 178c 8 15th cent. and later, 16.5 gr duck, 4.0 gr chicken especially 17th cent. 13 Refuse pit 206 6 16th cent. 36.9 gr swan 14 Refuse pit 198 7 16/1 7th cent. 7.3 gr chicken 15 Refuse pit 198a 8 16/17th cent. 4.0 gr chicken, 2.4 gr duck, 1.0 gr Lapwing 16 Refuse pit 198b 8 16/17th cent. 7.8 gr duck

* Sample sieved.

** Remaining 43.8 gr, white and brown, pushed in two clusters: series 1 = 4 eggs, series 2 = 5 eggs. . 488 S. BOTTEMA, F. BOTTEMA, R. CAPPERS & C. KOOPSTRA

4.2. Analysis of the samples (fig. 7) is typical for swan eggs showing interrupted coating. In order to check whether the identifications made Sample 13 contains eggshell fragments with a with the naked eye were correct, detailed pictures of light green colour and calcareous blotches visible to modem reference material were made and compared the naked eye. The egg has been broken into pieces with pictures of the subfossil eggs. In figure 2 the of which the largest measure about 5 cm2• The shell

outer surface of the egg of a call duck is shown at has a thickness varying from 0.63 mm to 0.78 mm 81x magnification, using skimming light. The sur­ (fig. l) and, therefore, clearly indicates a swan egg. face is smooth in duck eggs, giving a gleaming ap­ The weight of 36.94 gr compares well with the av­ pearance. Tiny impurities are present in the shell. erage of 38.81 gr (N=25) given by Makatsch (1976). Figure 3 represents a piece of shell from Sneek sam­ The inner membranes were to a large extent pre­ ple number 10 (178a), identified as duck. Under mag­ served apart fr om the shell that fe ll of in pieces. nification it resembles the reference shown in figure The presence of the egg of a Mute Swan is not 2, a piece of duck egg including impurities. It should altogether unexpected because were kept in be pointed out that several duck species lay this type many parts of northwestem Europe and were kept of green egg. In Sneek, fe ral or wild duck is consid­ also in Frysliin. It is not likely that wild mute swans ered the most likely kind but a species such as shov­ occurred in Frysliin, even in the 16th century (Van eler (Anas clypeata) cannot be ruled out. der Ploeg et al., 1976). In 1529 rights for the keep­ The largest group, that of chickens (fig. 4), is ing of swans by inhabitants of several towns were represented by modem reference material fr om the described in the 'swanbook', which also registered local breed, the Fryske hinne. The photograph is the official owner's marks on web and bill. The swan taken exactly the same way as in figures 2 and 3. The necks, which traditionally decorate both outer ends small depressions that show up as black holes are of the barn of the farm, were originally the sign of characteristic. Figure 5 shows the matching subfos­ a free man. sil shell from sample number 10 that can be identi­ The fourth category consisted of tiny fr agments fied as chicken. The history of the chicken dates back (c. 3 mm in diameter) of a thin shell (fig. l) with an to early times. In a small homestead at the edge of olive colour and black and dark brown blotches. Sneek and dating back to the early Roman period Cultural information from Frysliin suggests the pres­ Ufkes found an egg of baked clay, clearly the size ence of Lapwing eggs but another wader, the Red­ and shape of a chicken egg and a model of a rooster shank (Tringa totanus), is also possible. A picture (Ufkes, in prep.). of a modem Lapwing egg shows the typical round The bright brown colour of some chicken egg­ knobs in the enlarged structure ofthe outer shell (fig. shells that often covered part of the shell posed 8). The picture of the subfossil shell (fig. 9) matches a problem. Magnification of 81x showed that the that of the Lapwing. A modem Redshank egg can be brown colour precipitated as rusty coating on the distinguished from a Lapwing egg by its colour, shell (fig. 6), very different from the brown colour which always has a hint of red in the light-ochre/ of a modem egg. Brown eggs are unlikely before the . olive. The botches are also more reddish in the black 18th century as is explained elsewhere in this paper. and brown than the blotches of the Lapwing. Red­ Eggshells in Sneek from the l3-17th century are shank blotches are generally smaller than those on Lapwing eggs. In the tiny subfossil pieces neither the predominantly (75%) chicken, whereas those of colour nor the size of blotches were sufficiently dis­ ducks came second and are present in 50% of the tinctive and the microstructure had to be studied. samples. Figure 10 demonstrates the characteristics of the shell The third category is represented by a specimen surface of the Redshank egg. The Lapwing eggshell attributed to the mute swan and identifiedby its shell has typical small conicai knobs on the surface where thickness (Keepax, 1981). The colour confirms this the Redshank displays bigger elements that are not identification and the total weight of the fragments as prominent and are flatter. These characteristics of 36.9 gr is about the same as the average weight enable us to identifythe Wader eggshells from Sneek given by Hellebrekers (1950) as 38.8 gr. This find to the Lapwing. Their date is 15th-17th century, a is unexpected because it is not easily explained as date that is in accordance with documentary sources normal daily consumption. It appears that the swan (Brouwer, 1954). egg was opened with a knife. This is not shown by Even today the eggs of the Lapwing (VanelIus the shell pieces, which are not big enough to have a vanellus) are collected and information on the laws cut edge but is shown by the top part of the inner and regulations dealing with the gathering of eggs membrane, which has been detached along a rather of waders in Frysliin goes back at least to January straight edge. The form of this part could also sug­ 1542 (Merula, 1605). gest that the egg had hatched. No signs of veins were found, however, on the inside. The surface structure .'

Eggs fr om early Sneek 489

5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS c1uded that the influence of East Asia had not yet reached this part of Fryslan. Nevertheless, the early Table l shows that eggshell weight varies fr om 1.34 chicken eggs from Sneek do not seem to have been gr (sample No. 315a) to 70 gr (in sample 178b). white but very light buff, a colour often found in When present, the leathery membranes cause a slight farmyard chickens of nondescript ancestry. overweight because dirt partic1e s often stick to them. What kind of duck eggs were eaten in Sneek? The When the average weight of modem eggshells of origin of duck keeping in Fryslan has its roots in chicken or duck is used as a reference, many samples the past. In Frisian villages and small towns where contain the remains of several eggs. The samples 5, plenty of water occurred, fr ee range 'village ducks' 9, 10, 11, 12, 14 and 15 must represent a minimum were kept by special societies (Van der Meulen, of c. 5-12 eggshells. 1976). Members paid a subscription and the cost of The medieval chicken breed from Sneek wasprob­ the nest boxes placed on the water. With this money ably related to or identical with the Fryske hinne. the ducks are fed during the winter. In 1937, the town This chicken belongs to the group ofthe breeds from of Akkrum had 2000 'village ducks', nondescript the Netherlands, which inc1udes the Drents hoen, the birds, often somewhat bigger than a Mallard. They Groninger meeuw, the Assendelft er, the Hollands were sometimes piebald, an advantage because gun­ hoen and the Belgian Braekel. These chicken breeds men hunting could see that they belonged to the were part of a large group that occurred in the area village. These ducks supplied the villagers with eggs from northem France to the northwest-German low­ which were also used by the bakers, inc1uding 'be­ land up to the 20th century. They are elegant, slen­ schuit' bakers. The duck eggs that were excavated der, medium-sized breeds, a moderate laying type may have been laid by 'village' ducks, with a peak egg production in spring and summer, which are plentiful even today in the town of Sneek. and are not inc1ined to become broody. The modem Duck eggs could also have been gathered in the wild. Frisian chicken is ofthe same size and shape as those This last option may be les s likely because taking found in the terpen, the dwelling mounds dating from such eggs was officially forbidden because of the between about 400 BC and AD 900 (Oosterhaven, shooting rights known to have existed fr om the 15th 1992). At the end of the 19th century and at the century and later (Merula, 1605). However, such beginning of the 20th century, the Frisian breed, rights may have been less rigid in Fryslan than in rarely found on farmyards, displayed the fo llowing other parts of the Netherlands because very liberal colour pattems: wytweiten, gielweiten, gielwytweiten, ideas on the legal ownership of natural products and reaweiten, and reabunt. In these Frisian breed names, trespassing in the province of Fryslan still exist to the first part stands for the colour, white, yellow, the present day. Eggs that were taken illegally would yellow-white, and red respectively. The second word have been consumed on the farms or in the smaller explains the pattem, with weiten best translated as villages. The duck eggs of that time would have been barred and bant as spotted. It is noticeable that the of the green variety and the light creamy eggs of the basic wild-type colour pattem 'partridge', so com­ more recent, productive breeds such as Caki mon in many old-fashioned breeds, is not present in Campbell developed much later. the late 19th and early 20th century Frisian chicken. The eggs of the old rural breeds were small and 5.1. Archaeological implications white. At the beginning of the 20th century these breeds were replaced by more prolific layers, for The amount of eggshell found in the backyard seems instance the Leghom or more fleshy breeds such as to depend upon the conditions under which it the Wyandotte. Brown eggs appear at the end of the was discarded. Why not more eggshell remains were 19th century, apparently produced by crosses of 10- found in the excavated area remains to be answered, cal breeds with imported East-Asian breeds such as because the people must have eaten far more eggs the Cochin, Brahma, Langshan and Maran (Banning­ in the course of five centuries. Vogelpoel, 1972). These crosses led to breeds such Based on the results of the excavation, four cat­ as the Bamevelder and the Welsummer at the begin­ egories of deposition were made: tanning pit, large ning of the 20th century. In the samples from Sneek rectangular refuse pit, cesspit and well. Both the brown eggshells appear before the 18th century sug­ tanning pits and the refuse pits may have been open. gesting a much older date: It is therefore of impor­ The quantity of eggshell fr om these fe atures is small tance to establish whether the brown eggs found in and suggests that the shelIs were stolen fr om the the excavation at Sneek were really brown eggs or refuse by animais and disappeared in this way. The whether the eggshells have been stained by the refuse cesspit samples also contain low to medium numbers in which they were buried. In Section 4.2 it is stated of eggshell, which may indicate that they were not that some of the eggs fr om Sneek show a bright normally used for dumping kitchen refuse. While brown colour which is artificial and it can be con- eggshells in urban areas usually end up in the dis- 490 S. BOTTEMA, F. BOTTEMA, R. CAPPERS & C. KOOPSTRA posal bin, in rural areas empty eggshells are pushed 7. REFERENCES into each other and then dried. The drying is essen­ tial because the shells cannot be crushed while the BANNING-VOGELPOEL, A.C., 1972. Hoenders en dwerghoen­ inner membranes are still soft and holding the shell ders. Rassen, fo kken, verzorging. L.J. Veen, Wageningen. together. Eating half shells would not be much of a BROUWER, G.A., 1954. Historische gegevens over onze vroegste problem for chickens but is to be avoided because ornithologen en over de avifauna van Nederland. Brill, Lei­ the birds may leam to eat their own new-Iaid fresh den. CRAMP, S. (ed.), 1977-1994. Ha ndbook of the birds of Europe, eggs. Where chickens were kept freely in the yard the Middle East and North Af ri ca. The birds of the western they would have eaten eggshells that were thrown Palearctic, vols. I-IX. Oxford Univers it y Press, Oxford. out. As chickens or scavengers had no access to the ELZINGA, G., 1977. Aeijen en koaijen ut earder tiden. In: P.T.E. dangerous cesspits, eggshells in such contexts were van der Ploeg, W. de Jong, M.J. Swart, J.A. de Vries, J.H.P. relative ly safe. Westhof, A.G. Witteveen & B. van der Veen (eds), Vogels The remains of the complete eggshell of a swan van Fryslan II. De Tille, Leeuwarden, pp. 585-594. were found in a 16th century cesspit. The swan egg HE LLEBREKERS, W.Ph.J., 1950. Measurements and weights of seems to have been opened in the way a cooked egg eggs of birds on the Dutch list. Brill, Leiden. is opened for consumption. This was not conc1uded KEEPAX, C., 1981. Avian eggshell from archaeological sites. from the shell fr agments, which measured at most 5 Journal of Archaeological Sciences 8, pp. 315-335. MAKATSCH, W., 1976. Die Eier der Vagel Europas, l & 2. cm in diameter, but from the shape of the piece of Neumann Verlag, Leipzig-Radebeul. leathery inner membrane. This piece is cap-shaped ME RULA, P.G.F.P.N., 1605. Placaten ende ordonnanGien op with a somewhat straight edge, suggesting that it was 't stuck vande Wi ldernissen. Liber I t/m III, resp. betrekking cut off with a knife. hebbend op de "Houtvestrie ", het "Jaght-bedryf " en het The fourth category is the well. In princip le a well "Vlught-bedryf". Beukel Comelisz. Nieuwland, Den Haag. is not used to dump refuse but when the well is no MEULEN, H.T. van der, 1976. Knobbelzwaan. In: P.T.E. van der longer used for c1ean water, the hole is subsequently Pio eg, W. de Jong, M.J. Swart, J.A. de Vries, J.H.P. Westhof, filled in with all kinds of debris. As with the cesspit, A.G. Witteveen & B. van der Veen (eds), Vogels van Fryslan eggshells dumped in the well are safe from animais. I. De Tille, Leeuwarden, pp. 307-312. This explains why the eggshells are found in large OOSTERHA VEN, B., 1992. Fryske hinnen. Hanlieding by it halden, fo kken en tentoanstellen. Fryske Akademy, Ljouwert. c1usters. SENHOUSE PITMAN, C.R., 1964. Natural history of eggs. In: A. Landsborough Thompson (ed.), A new dictionary of birds. Nelson, London, pp. 238-242. 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TYLER, C., 1964. Eggshell. In: A. Landsborough Thompson (ed.), A new dictionary of birds. Nelson, London, pp. 237- The authors are gratefully acknowledging the prac­ 238. tical help of Gerrit Elzinga and Sake Roodbergen. UFKES, A., in prep. Keramische aspeeten. In: M.J.L.Th. Niekus Gertie Entjes helped preparing the manuscript. The (ed.), Sneek Pas veer: Archaeologisch onderzoek va n een English text was corrected by Anna Brindley. nederzetting uit de Romeinse tijd in het trace van de rondweg om Sneek. ARC publicatie. � , �, � � Cl � � ..., � � ti:) ti:) ;>;-

.j::,. Fig. 2. Outer surface of the modem eggshell of a call-duck magnified 81 times. The piece of shell is 2.2 mm wide. \O .j::>. 'Cl N

• � 90 � :1 � to o >-l >-l �tyj :-n to o , . " >-l , " , . :1 >-l �tyj (O

• Cl , - � '"d '"d tyj ::o r:.J) Ro (1 � � '>:; ,",,' I O .. ,� " O '"d r:.J) >-l � .... . iJ " I ..

Fig, 3, Outer surfaee of subfossil eggshell ascribed to duck from sample Sneek 178a (15th-17th century), Magnification 81 times, � , �, � � <:> ;:;: (\) \:l ...., � � (\) (\) ?;-

.j:>. Fig. 4. Outer surfaee of modem eggshell of the old Frisian chicken breed (Fryske hinne). Magnification 81 times. 1.0 w .j::,. \O .j::,.

C/) to o >-l ;l � � to o >-l >-l �tIi (':' Cl � '"ti tIi ::o C/) Ro (1 � O '"ti C/)�

Fig. 5. Outer surfaee of subfossil eggshell ascribed to chicken from sample Sneek 178a (15th-17th century). Magnification 81 times. � oa � Cl ;,] (\) $:l "'t � � (\) (\) ;>;-

.j::>. '-O Fig. 6. Outer surfaee of subfossil rust-stained eggshell ascribed to chicken from sample Sneek 178b (15th- 17th century). Magnification 81 times. Ul .I>­ '-Cl 0\

\/J t::ti o >-3 >-3 �tI1 7J t::ti o >-3 >-3 �tI1 (d n � '"d tI1 :::o \/J Ro o 1j o '"d �\/J

Fig. 7. Outer surfaee of subfossil eggshell ascribed to Mute Swan from sample Sneek 206 (16th century). Magnification 81 times. Eggs fr om early Sneek 497 .j::o. \Cl 00

(/l t:O O >-3 J '"Ij t:O O >-3 >-3 �tI:! (ti � � (/l Ro (1 8 O ""Cl (/l >-3 �

Fig. 9. Outer surfaee of subfossil eggshell ascribed to Lapwing from sample Sneek 393 (1Sth century). Magnification 81 times. Eggs fr om early Sneek 499