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An Ecosystem Approach to Management of Seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean Volume 2 – Anthropogenic Threats to Seamount Ecosystems and Biodiversity

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An Ecosystem Approach to Management of Seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean Volume 2 – Anthropogenic Threats to Seamount Ecosystems and Biodiversity An Ecosystem Approach to Management of Seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean Volume 2 – Anthropogenic Threats to Seamount Ecosystems and Biodiversity Edited by François Simard and Aurélie Spadone IUCN GLOBAL MARINE AND POLAR PROGRAMME The designation of geographical entities in this publication, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN. Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland Copyright: © 2012 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder. Citation: Simard F., Spadone A. (eds) (2012). An Ecosystem Approach to Management of Seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean. Volume 2 – Anthropogenic Theats to Seamount Ecosystems and Biodiversity. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. iv+64 pp. This paper is to be read in conjunction with two others: one giving an overview of seamount ecosystems and biodiversity (Volume 1) and one on a legal and instituional gap analysis (Volume 3). ISBN: 978-2-8317-1563-6 Cover photos: Front: Trawler in the South West Indian Ocean, © Leigthon Rolley Back: Sunset in the South West Indian Ocean, © IUCN/Aurélie Spadone Layout by: Tim Davis, DJEnvironmental, UK Available from: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Publications Services Rue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland Switzerland Tel +41 22 999 0000 Fax +41 22 999 0020 [email protected] www.iucn.org/publications An Ecosystem Approach to Management of Seamounts in the Southern Indian Ocean Volume 2 – Anthropogenic Threats to Seamount Ecosystems and Biodiversity Edited by François Simard and Aurélie Spadone IUCN SIO Seamount Governance i TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword .........................................................................................................................................vi Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1–NON-FISHERIES THREATS – by Philomène Verlaan .............................................3 I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................3 A. Background ..........................................................................................................................3 B. Purpose of the paper ............................................................................................................3 C. Scope of the paper ...............................................................................................................3 D. Ecosystems and biodiversity – context ..................................................................................4 E. Approach ..............................................................................................................................4 F. Acknowledgement of sources and references .......................................................................5 II. Threats and Effects ...................................................................................................................6 A. Threats from activities common to all ships ...........................................................................6 1. Accidental and/or deliberate (operational) discharges from vessels of: ............................6 a. Anti-foulants ..............................................................................................................6 b. Bilge water, ballast water and associated sediments .................................................6 c. Cargo ........................................................................................................................7 d. Chemicals and other harmful commercial products and substances .........................8 e. Exhaust and other gaseous emissions ......................................................................8 f. Garbage ....................................................................................................................9 g. Heavy metals ............................................................................................................9 h. Oil ...........................................................................................................................10 i. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) ........................................................................12 j. Sewage ...................................................................................................................12 2. Anchoring .....................................................................................................................13 3. Collisions (ship strikes) with, e.g., marine mammals, sharks, turtles ...............................13 4. Grounding and shipwreck .............................................................................................13 5. Invasive alien species (IAS) ............................................................................................14 6. Noise ............................................................................................................................15 7. Shading and lighting .....................................................................................................17 8. Washes and wakes .......................................................................................................17 B. Activities for which the ship serves primarily as a platform ...................................................18 1. Archaeology .................................................................................................................18 2. Artificial islands and fixed/floating installations ...............................................................19 3. Bioprospecting .............................................................................................................19 4. Dumping .......................................................................................................................19 5. Marine mining ...............................................................................................................20 a. Minerals – fuel .........................................................................................................20 i. Oil and gas ........................................................................................................20 ii. Methane hydrates ..............................................................................................21 b. Minerals – non-fuel ..................................................................................................21 i. Ferro-manganese nodules and crusts ................................................................21 ii. Polymetallic sulphides ........................................................................................22 iii. Phosphorites, limestone, sand and gravel ..........................................................23 6. Marine scientific research ..............................................................................................23 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7. Military activities ............................................................................................................24 8. Ocean-based climate-change mitigation .......................................................................24 9. Piracy/criminal activities ................................................................................................26 10. Recreation ....................................................................................................................26 11. Salvage ........................................................................................................................26 12. Undersea cable- and pipeline-laying .............................................................................27 a. Cables ....................................................................................................................27 b. Pipelines .................................................................................................................28 C. Threats from activities not involving ships ............................................................................28 1. Anthropogenic climate change ......................................................................................28 2. Land-based activities ....................................................................................................29 3. Marine debris or litter ....................................................................................................29 4. Overflight ......................................................................................................................31 5. Radionucleides .............................................................................................................31 III. Knowledge Gaps ...................................................................................................................32
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